Computer-assisted language learning: Difference between revisions

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'''Computer-assisted language learning''' ('''CALL'''), British,known oras '''Computercomputer-Aidedassisted Instructionlearning''' ('''CAI'''CAL)/ in British English and '''Computercomputer-Aidedaided Languagelanguage Instructioninstruction''' (CALI) and '''CALIcomputer-aided instruction''' (CAI), in American English,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higgins|first=John|date=1983|title=Computer assisted language learning|journal=Language Teaching|volume=16|issue=2|pages=102–114|doi=10.1017/S0261444800009988|s2cid=145169394 }}</ref> is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p.&nbsp; 1) briefly defines it as "the search forexploration and study of computer applications of the computer in language teaching and learning"."<ref name="levy1997">Levy, M. (1997). ''CALL: contextContext and conceptualisation'',Conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> CALL embraces a wide range of [[information and communications technology]] "applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, ranging from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterisedcharacterized CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g.such as usedthose in autilized [[virtual learning environment]] and Web-based [[distance learning]]. It also extends to the use of [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards,<ref name="schmidcutrim2009">Schmid, Euline Cutrim. (2009). ''Interactive whiteboardWhiteboard technologyTechnology in the languageLanguage classroomClassroom: exploringExploring newNew pedagogicalPedagogical opportunities'',Opportunities. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.</ref> computer-mediated communication (CMC),<ref name="lamyhampel">Lamy M.-N. & Hampel R. (2007) ''Online communication in language learning and teaching'', Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]], and [[Mobile-assisted language learning|mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)]].<ref name="shieldkukulska">Shield, L., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (edsEds.). (2008). Special edition of ''ReCALL'' (20, 3) on ''Mobile Assisted Language Learning''.</ref>

The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in useused before CALL, reflecting its originsoriginating as a subset of the generalbroader term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favourfavor among language teachers, however, asbecause it appearedseemed to implyemphasize a teacher-centredcentered approach (instructional), whereasapproach. languageLanguage teachers areincreasingly more inclined to preferfavored a student-centredcentered approach, focusingfocused on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins, 1982: p.&nbsp; 3).<ref>Davies G. & Higgins J. (1982) ''Computers, language and language learning'', London: CILT.</ref> and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of [[#Professional associations|professional associations]] worldwide.

An alternative term, technology-enhanced language learning (TELL),<ref>Bush M. & Terry R. (1997) (eds.) ''Technology-enhanced language learning'', Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company.</ref> also emerged around the early 1990s: e.g. the TELL Consortium project, [[University of Hull]].

The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis onemphasizes student-centredcentered materials that allowempower learners to work on their ownindependently. SuchThese materials maycan be structured or unstructured, but they normallytypically embodyincorporate two importantkey features: interactive learning and individualisedindividualized learning. CALL isemploys essentially a tooltools that helpsassist teachers to facilitatein thefacilitating language learning, process.whether Itreinforcing canclassroom belessons usedor providing additional support to reinforcelearners. whatThe hasdesign alreadyof beenCALL learnedmaterials intypically theintegrates classroomprinciples orfrom [[language pedagogy]] and methodology, drawing from various learning theories such as abehaviourism, remedialcognitive tooltheory, toconstructivism, helpand learnerssecond-language whoacquisition requiretheories additionallike supportStephen Krashen's. [[monitor hypothesis]].

The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist, cognitive, constructivist) and second-language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's [[monitor hypothesis]].

A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as [[blended learning]]. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p.&nbsp;27).<ref>Pegrum M. (2009) ''From blogs to bombs: The future of digital technologies in education'', Perth: University of Western Australia Press.</ref>

See Davies ''et al.'' (2011: Section 1.1, ''What is CALL?'').<ref name=davieswalkeretal>Davies G., Walker R., Rendall H. & Hewer S. (2011) Introduction to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Module 1.4 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-4.htm</ref> See also Levy & Hubbard (2005), who raise the question ''Why call CALL "CALL"?''<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Levy | first1 = M. | last2 = Hubbard | first2 = P. | year = 2005 | title = Why call CALL "CALL"? | journal = Computer Assisted Language Learning | volume = 18 | issue = 3| pages = 143–149 | doi=10.1080/09588220500208884| s2cid = 62662197 }}</ref>

==History==

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Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices ranging from free to expensive,<ref>{{cite web|title=Reviews of Language Courses|url=http://Lang1234.com|publisher=Lang1234|access-date=12 September 2012}}</ref> and other programs are available only through university language courses.

There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America.<ref>Sanders R. (ed.) (1995) ''Thirty years of computer-assisted language instruction'', Festschrift for John R. Russell, ''CALICO Journal'' Special Issue, 12, 4.</ref> Delcloque (2000) documents the history of CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the new millennium.<ref>Delcloque P. (2000) ''History of CALL'' [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/History_of_CALL.pdf</ref> Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is going.<ref>Davies G. (2005) ''Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?'' [ Online]: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/UCALL_Keynote.htm</ref> Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally published in the years 1988–2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show promise in doing so in the future.<ref>Hubbard P. (2009) (ed.) ''Computer-assisted language learning'', Volumes I-IV, Routledge: London and New York: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcc/</ref> A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found in ''Language Learning & Technology'' 14, 3 (2010).<ref>''Language Learning & Technology'' (2010) 14, 3, pp. 14-1814–18 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2010/index.html</ref>

Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of view, namely the evolution of CALL in the dual fields of [[educational technology]] and second/foreign language acquisition and the paradigm shifts experienced along the way.<ref>Butler-Pascoe M. E. (2011) "The history of CALL: the intertwining paths of technology and second/foreign language teaching", ''International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT)'' 1, 1: 16–32: http://www.igi-global.com/ijcallt</ref>

See also Davies et al. (2011: Section 2, ''History of CALL'').<ref name=davieswalkeretal/>

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Since the 1990s, it has become increasingly difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends to the use of [[blogs]], [[wikis]], [[social networking]], [[podcasting]], [[Web 2.0]] applications, [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]] and [[interactive whiteboards]] (Davies et al. 2010: Section 3.7).<ref name=davieswalkeretal/>

Warschauer (1996)<ref name=warschauer96>Warschauer M. (1996) "Computer-assisted language learning: an introduction". In Fotos S. (ed.) ''Multimedia language teaching'', Tokyo: Logos International [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/warschauer.htm</ref> and Warschauer & Healey (1998)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warschauer | first1 = M. | last2 = Healey | first2 = D. | year = 1998 | title = Computers and language learning: an overview | journal = Language Teaching | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 57–71 | doi=10.1017/s0261444800012970| s2cid = 12813227 }}</ref> took a different approach. Rather than focusing on the typology of CALL, they identified three historical phases of CALL, classified according to their underlying pedagogical and methodological approaches:

* Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s.

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* An instructional designer. Developing a CALL package is more than just putting a text book into a computer. An instructional designer will probably have a background in cognitive psychology and media technology, and will be able to advise the subject specialists in the team on the appropriate use of the chosen technology (Gimeno & Davies 2010).<ref>Gimeno-Sanz A. & Davies G. (2010) CALL software design and implementation. Module 3.2 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-2.htm</ref>

CALL inherently supports [[learner autonomy]], the final of the eight conditions that Egbert et al. (2007) cite as "Conditions for Optimal Language Learning Environments". Learner autonomy places the learner firmly in control so that he or she "decides on learning goals" (Egbert et al., 2007, p.&nbsp;8).<ref>Egbert J., Chao C.-C., & Hanson-Smith E. (2007) Introduction: Foundations for Teaching and Learning. In Egbert J. & E. Hanson-Smith (eds.) '' CALL environments: Research, practice, and critical issues '' (2nd edition). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. (pp. 1-141–14).</ref>

It is all too easy when designing CALL software to take the comfortable route and produce a set of multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, using a simple authoring tool (Bangs 2011),<ref>Bangs P. (2011) Introduction to CALL authoring programs. Module 2.5 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-5.htm</ref> but CALL is much more than this; Stepp-Greany (2002), for example, describes the creation and management of an environment incorporating a [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] and [[whole language]] philosophy. According to constructivist theory, learners are active participants in tasks in which they "construct" new knowledge derived from their prior experience. Learners also assume responsibility for their learning, and the teacher is a facilitator rather than a purveyor of knowledge. Whole language theory embraces constructivism and postulates that language learning moves from the whole to the part, rather than building sub-skills to lead towards the higher abilities of comprehension, speaking, and writing. It also emphasises that comprehending, speaking, reading, and writing skills are interrelated, reinforcing each other in complex ways. Language acquisition is, therefore, an active process in which the learner focuses on cues and meaning and makes intelligent guesses. Additional demands are placed upon teachers working in a technological environment incorporating constructivist and whole language theories. The development of teachers' professional skills must include new pedagogical as well as technical and management skills. Regarding the issue of teacher facilitation in such an environment, the teacher has a key role to play, but there could be a conflict between the aim to create an atmosphere for learner independence and the teacher's natural feelings of responsibility. In order to avoid learners' negative perceptions, Stepp-Greany points out that it is especially important for the teacher to continue to address their needs, especially those of low-ability learners.<ref name=steppgreany>Stepp-Greany J. (2002) "Student perceptions on language learning in a technological environment: implications for the new millennium", ''Language Learning & Technology'' 6, 1: 165–180 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num1/steppgreany/default.html</ref>

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The emergence of the [[World Wide Web]] (now known simply as "the Web") in the early 1990s marked a significant change in the use of communications technology for all computer users. [[Email]] and other forms of [[electronic communication]] had been in existence for many years, but the launch of [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], the first graphical [[Web browser]], in 1993 brought about a radical change in the ways in which we communicate electronically. The launch of the Web in the public arena immediately began to attract the attention of language teachers. Many language teachers were already familiar with the concept of [[hypertext]] on stand-alone computers, which made it possible to set up non-sequential structured reading activities for language learners in which they could point to items of text or images on a page displayed on the computer screen and branch to any other pages, e.g. in a so-called "stack" as implemented in the [[HyperCard]] program on Apple Mac computers. The Web took this one stage further by creating a worldwide hypertext system that enabled the user to branch to different pages on computers anywhere in the world simply by pointing and clicking at a piece of text or an image. This opened up access to thousands of authentic foreign-language websites to teachers and students that could be used in a variety of ways. A problem that arose, however, was that this could lead to a good deal of time-wasting if Web browsing was used in an unstructured way (Davies 1997: pp.&nbsp;42–43),<ref name=davieslessons/> and language teachers responded by developing more structured activities and online exercises (Leloup & Ponterio 2003).<ref>LeLoup J. & Ponterio R. (2003) "Interactive and multimedia techniques in online language lessons: a sampler", ''Language Learning & Technology'' 7, 3 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/net/default.html</ref> Davies (2010) lists over 500 websites, where links to online exercises can be found, along with links to online dictionaries and encyclopaedias, concordancers, translation aids and other miscellaneous resources of interest to the language teacher and learner.<ref>Davies G. (2010) [http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/websites.htm Graham Davies's Favourite Websites]</ref>

The launch of the (free) ''[[Hot Potatoes]]'' (Holmes & Arneil) authoring tool, which was first demonstrated publicly at the EUROCALL 1998 conference, made it possible for language teachers to create their own online interactive exercises. Other useful tools are produced by the same authors.<ref>Holmes M. & Arneil S. ''Hot Potatoes'', University of Victoria, Canada. Downloadable from: http://hotpot.uvic.ca: A library of Clipart for use with ''Hot Potatoes'' and other authoring tools is also available at the University of Victoria site: http://hcmc.uvic.ca/clipart/</ref>

In its early days the Web could not compete seriously with [[multimedia]] CALL on CD-ROM and DVD. Sound and video quality was often poor, and interaction was slow. But now the Web has caught up. Sound and video are of high quality and interaction has improved tremendously, although this does depend on sufficient bandwidth being available, which is not always the case, especially in remote rural areas and developing countries. One area in which CD-ROMs and DVDs are still superior is in the presentation of listen/respond/playback activities, although such activities on the Web are continually improving.

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* [[Social bookmarking]]

* Discussion lists, [[blog]]s, [[wiki]]s, [[social networking]]

* [[Chat room]]s, [[Multi-user dungeon|MUD]]s, [[MOO]]s and [[MUVE]]s (virtual worlds)

* [[Podcasting]]

* Audio tools

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* Animation tools – comic strips, movies, etc.

* [[Mashup (web application hybrid)|Mashup]]s

* Blog assisted language learning (BALL)<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_26/push%20button%20publishing%20ward%202004.pdf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20231209150053/http://esp-world.info/Articles_26/push%20button%20publishing%20ward%202004.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-09 |title=Blog Assisted Language Learning (BALL): Push button publishing for the pupils |first=Jason M. |last=Ward |journal=TEFL Web Journal |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=2004}}</ref>

There is no doubt that the Web has proved to be a main focus for language teachers, who are making increasingly imaginative use of its wide range of facilities: see Dudeney (2007)<ref>Dudeney G. (2007) ''The Internet and the language classroom'', Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> and Thomas (2008).<ref>Thomas M. (2008) ''Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning'', Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA: IGI Global.</ref> Above all, the use of Web 2.0 tools calls for a careful reexamination of the role of the teacher in the classroom (Richardson 2006).<ref>Richardson W. (2006) ''Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts and the Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms''. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.</ref>

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An early reference to the use of electronic concordancers in language teaching can be found in Higgins & Johns (1984: pp.&nbsp;88–94),<ref>Higgins J. & Johns T. (1984) ''Computers in language learning'', London: Collins.</ref> and many examples of their practical use in the classroom are described by Lamy & Klarskov Mortensen (2010).<ref name = lamyklarskov/>

It was Tim Johns (1991), however, who raised the profile of the use of concordancers in the language classroom with his concept of Data-driven learning (DDL).<ref>Johns T. (1991) "From printout to handout: grammar and vocabulary teaching in the context of Data Driven Learning". In Johns T. & King P. (eds.) ''Classroom concordancing'', Special issue of ''ELR Journal'' 4, University of Birmingham, Centre for English Language Studies: 27-4527–45.</ref> DDL encourages learners to work out their own rules about the meaning of words and their usage by using a concordancer to locate examples in a corpus of authentic texts. It is also possible for the teacher to use a concordancer to find examples of authentic usage to demonstrate a point of grammar or typical collocations, and to generate exercises based on the examples found. Various types of concordancers and where they can be obtained are described by Lamy & Klarskov Mortensen (2011).<ref name=lamyklarskov>Lamy M-N. & Klarskov Mortensen H. J. (2011) Using concordance programs in the Modern Foreign Languages classroom. Module 2.4 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-4.htm</ref>

Robb (2003) shows how it is possible to use Google as a concordancer, but he also points out a number of drawbacks, for instance there is no control over the educational level, nationality, or other characteristics of the creators of the texts that are found, and the presentation of the examples is not as easy to read as the output of a dedicated concordancer that places the key words (i.e. the search terms) in context.<ref>Robb T. (2003) "Google as a Quick 'n Dirty Corpus Tool", ''TESL-EJ'' 7, 2 [Online]: http://tesl-ej.org/ej26/int.html</ref>

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Parsing is also used in CALL programs to analyse the learner's input and diagnose errors. Davies (2002)<ref>Davies G. (2002) Article on CALL in the ''Good Practice Guide'' at the website of the Subject Centre for Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies (LLAS), University of Southampton [Online]: http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/61</ref> writes:

"Discrete error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response, pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities. ... Error analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into CALL via the disciplines of [[computational linguistics]], e.g. Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who come into CALL via language teaching. [...] An alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to parse the learner's response – so-called [[Intelligent computer-assisted language learning|''intelligent CALL'' (ICALL)]] – but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL programs (Matthews 1994)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Matthews | first1 = C | year = 1994 | title = Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning as cognitive science: the choice of syntactic frameworks for language tutoring | journal = Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 533–56 }}</ref> and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this approach as a threat to humanity (Last 1989:153)".<ref>Last R.W. (1989) ''Artificial intelligence techniques in language learning'', Chichester: Ellis Horwood.</ref>

Underwood (1989)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = J | year = 1989 | title = On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s | journal = Computers and the Humanities | volume = 23 | pages = 71–84 | doi=10.1007/bf00058770| s2cid = 60043026 }}</ref> and Heift & Schulze (2007)<ref>Heift T. & Schulze M. (eds.) (2007) ''Errors and intelligence in CALL: parsers and pedagogues'', New York: Routledge.</ref> present a more positive picture of AI.

Research into speech synthesis, speech recognition and parsing and how these areas of NLP can be used in CALL are the main focus of the NLP Special Interest Group<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group: http://siglp.eurocall-languages.org/</ref> within the [[European Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning|EUROCALL]] professional association and the ICALL Special Interest Group<ref>CALICO ICALL Special Interest Group: [https://archive.today/20120712140702/http://purl.org/calico/icall{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}]</ref> within the [[CALICO (consortium)|CALICO]] professional association. The EUROCALL NLP SIG also maintains a Ning.<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group Ning: http://nlpsig.ning.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184147/http://nlpsig.ning.com/ |date=14 July 2011 }}</ref>

==Impact==

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The question of the impact of CALL in language learning and teaching has been raised at regular intervals ever since computers first appeared in educational institutions (Davies & Hewer 2011: Section 3).<ref name=ict4ltmod11>Davies G. & Hewer S. (2011) Introduction to new technologies and how they can contribute to language learning and teaching. Module 1.1 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-1.htm</ref> Recent large-scale impact studies include the study edited by Fitzpatrick & Davies (2003)<ref>Fitzpatrick A. & Davies G. (eds.) (2003) ''The impact of Information and Communications Technologies on the teaching of foreign languages and on the role of teachers of foreign languages'', EC Directorate General of Education and Culture.</ref> and the EACEA (2009) study,<ref>Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) of the European Commission (2009) ''Study on the impact of ICT and new media on language learning'' [Online]: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/studies/study_impact_ict_new_media_language_learning_en.php</ref> both of which were produced for the European Commission.

A distinction needs to be made between the impact and the effectiveness of CALL. Impact may be measured quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of the uptake and use of [[Information and communications technology|ICT]] in teaching foreign languages, issues of availability of hardware and software, budgetary considerations, Internet access, teachers' and learners' attitudes to the use of CALL,<ref>{{cite journal|last=mahmoudi|first=elham|title=Attitude and student's performance in Computer Assisted English Language Learning (CALL) for Learning Vocabulary|journal=Procedia -– Social and Behavioral Sciences|date=30 June 2012|volume=66|pages=489–498|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.293|doi-access=free}}</ref> changes in the ways in which languages are learnt and taught, and paradigm shifts in teachers' and learners' roles. Effectiveness, on the other hand, usually focuses on assessing to what extent ICT is a more effective way of teaching foreign languages compared to using traditional methods – and this is more problematic as so many variables come into play. Worldwide, the picture of the impact of CALL is extremely varied. Most developed nations work comfortably with the new technologies, but developing nations are often beset with problems of costs and broadband connectivity. Evidence on the effectiveness of CALL – as with the impact of CALL – is extremely varied and many research questions still need to be addressed and answered. Hubbard (2002) presents the results of a CALL research survey that was sent to 120 CALL professionals from around the world asking them to articulate a CALL research question they would like to see answered. Some of the questions have been answered but many more remain open.<ref>Hubbard P. (2002) ''Survey of unanswered questions in Computer Assisted Language Learning: Effectiveness issues'' [Online]: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callsurvey/index.html</ref> Leakey (2011) offers an overview of current and past research in CALL and proposes a comprehensive model for evaluating the effectiveness of CALL platforms, programs and pedagogy.<ref>Leakey J. (2011) ''Evaluating Computer Assisted Language Learning: an integrated approach to effectiveness research in CALL'', Bern: Peter Lang.</ref>

A crucial issue is the extent to which the computer is perceived as taking over the teacher's role. Warschauer (1996: p.&nbsp;6) perceived the computer as playing an "intelligent" role, and claimed that a computer program "should ideally be able to understand a user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also for appropriateness. It should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax, or usage and then intelligently decide among a range of options (e.g. repeating, paraphrasing, slowing down, correcting, or directing the student to background explanations)."<ref name=warschauer96/> Jones C. (1986), on the other hand, rejected the idea of the computer being "some kind of inferior teacher-substitute" and proposed a methodology that focused more on what teachers could do with computer programs rather than what computer programs could do on their own: "in other words, treating the computer as they would any other classroom aid".<ref name=jones86>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = C | year = 1986 | title = It's not so much the program: more what you do with it: the importance of methodology in CALL | journal = System | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 171–178 | doi=10.1016/0346-251x(86)90006-0}}</ref> Warschauer's high expectations in 1996 have still not been fulfilled, and currently there is an increasing tendency for teachers to go down the route proposed by Jones, making use of a variety of new tools such as [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards<ref name= schmidcutrim2009/> and applications for online communication.<ref name= lamyhampel/>

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Since the advent of the Web there has been an explosion in online learning, but to what extent it is effective is open to criticism. Felix (2003) takes a critical look at popular myths attached to online learning from three perspectives, namely administrators, teachers and students. She concludes: "That costs can be saved in this ambitious enterprise is clearly a myth, as are expectations of saving time or replacing staff with machines."<ref>Felix U. (2003) "Teaching languages online: deconstructing the myths", ''Australian Journal of Educational Technology'' 19, 1: 118–138 [Online]: http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314045708/http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html |date=14 March 2011 }}</ref>

As for the effectiveness of CALL in promoting the four skills, Felix (2008) claims that there is "enough data in CALL to suggest positive effects on spelling, reading and writing", but more research is needed in order to determine its effectiveness in other areas, especially speaking online. She claims that students' perceptions of CALL are positive, but she qualifies this claim by stating that the technologies need to be stable and well supported, drawing attention to concerns that technical problems may interfere with the learning process. She also points out that older students may not feel comfortable with computers and younger students may not possess the necessary metaskillsmeta-skills for coping effectively in the challenging new environments. Training in computer literacy for both students and teachers is essential, and time constraints may pose additional problems. In order to achieve meaningful results she recommends "time-series analysis in which the same group of students is involved in experimental and control treatment for a certain amount of time and then switched – more than once if possible".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felix | first1 = U | year = 2008 | title = The unreasonable effectiveness of CALL: what have we learned in two decades of research? | journal = ReCALL | volume = 20 | issue = 2| pages = 141–161 | doi=10.1017/s0958344008000323| s2cid = 26766962 }}</ref>

Types of technology training in CALL for language teaching professionals certainly vary. Within second language teacher education programs, namely pre-service course work, we can find "online courses along with face-to-face courses", computer technology incorporated into a more general second language education course, "technology workshops","a series of courses offered throughout the teacher education programs, and even courses specifically designed for a CALL certificate and a CALL graduate degree"<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = K. H. | year = 2010 | title = CALL teacher education as an impetus for 12 teachers in integrating technology | journal = ReCALL | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 53–69 | doi = 10.1017/s095834400999019X | s2cid = 27700801 }}</ref> The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has identified four levels of courses with only components, namely "web-supplemented, web-dependent, mixed mod and fully online".<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013.pdf</ref>

There is a rapidly growing interest in resources about the use of technology to deliver CALL. Journals that have issues that "deal with how teacher education programs help prepare language teachers to use technology in their own classrooms" include ''Language Learning and Technology'' (2002), ''Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching'' (2009) and the TESOL international professional association's publication of technology standards for TESOL includes a chapter on preparation of teacher candidates in technology use, as well as the upgrading of teacher educators to be able to provide such instruction. Both CALICO and EUROCALL have special interest groups for teacher education in CALL.<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

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The following professional associations are dedicated to the promulgation of research, development and practice relating to the use of new technologies in language learning and teaching. Most of them organise conferences and publish journals on CALL.<ref>Links to these associations can be found in the Resource Centre of the ICT4LT website: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_resource.htm#profassocs</ref>

*[httphttps://www.apacall.org/ APACALL]: The Asia-Pacific Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning. APACALL publishes the APACALL Book Series and APACALL Newsletter Series.

*[http://asiacall.org AsiaCALL]: The Asia Association of Computer Assisted Language Learning, Korea. AsiaCALL publishes the ''AsiaCALL Online Journal''.

*Association of University Language Centres (AULC) in the UK and Ireland.

*[[CALICO (consortium)|CALICO]]: Established in 1982. Currently based at Texas State University, USA. CALICO publishes the ''CALICO Journal''.

*[[EUROCALL]]: Founded by a group of enthusiasts in 1986 and established with the aid of European Commission funding as a formal professional association in 1993. Currently based at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland. EUROCALL's journal, ''ReCALL'', is published by Cambridge University Press. EUROCALL also publishes the ''EUROCALL Review''.

*IALLT: The US-based International Association for Language Learning Technology, originally known as IALL (International Association for Learning Labs). IALLT is a professional organisation dedicated to promoting effective uses of media centres for language teaching, learning, and research. IALLT published the ''IALLT Journal'' until 2018. In early 2019, IALLT officially merged the journal into the''The FLTMAG'' [https://fltmag.com Foreign Language Technology Magazine (FLTMAG)].

*IATEFL: The UK-based International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. IATEFL embraces the Learning Technologies Special Interest Group (LTSIG) and publishes the ''CALL Review'' newsletter.

*JALTCALL: Japan. The JALT CALL SIG publishes ''The JALT CALL Journal''.

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*PacCALL: The Pacific Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning, promoting CALL in the Pacific, from East to Southeast Asia, Oceania, across to the Americas. Organises the Globalization and Localization in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (GLoCALL) conference jointly with APACALL.

*[http://www.tclt.us/ TCLT]: Technology and Chinese Language Teaching, an organization of Chinese CALL studies in the United States, with biennial conference and workshops since 2000 and a double blind, peer-reviewed online publication-Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching since 2010 and in-print supplement Series of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching in the U.S. with China Social Sciences Press since 2012.

*[[WorldCALL]]: A worldwide umbrella association of CALL associations. The first WorldCALL conference was held at the University of Melbourne in 1998. The second WorldCALL conference took place in Banff, Canada, 2003. The third WorldCALL took place in Japan in 2008. The fourth WorldCALL conference took place in Glasgow, Scotland, 2013. The fifth WorldCALL conference took place in Concepción, Chile in 2018.

==See also==

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* [[List of flashcard software]]

* [[Online learning community]]

* [[Promova]]

* [[Second -language acquisition]]

* [[Smigin]]

* [[SuperMemo]]

* [[Tandem language learning]]

* [[Telecollaboration]]

* [[Virtual exchange]]

* [[Virtual world language learning]]

* [[Social Media Language Learning]]