Computer-assisted language learning: Difference between revisions

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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}

{{Use British English|date=November 2013}}

{{Redirect|CALL|other uses|Call (disambiguation){{!}}Call}}

'''Computer-assisted language learning''' ('''CALL'''), British,known oras '''computer-aidedassisted instructionlearning''' ('''CAI'''CAL)/ in British English and '''computer-aided language instruction''' (CALI) and '''CALIcomputer-aided instruction''' (CAI), in American English,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higgins|first=John|date=1983|title=Computer assisted language learning|journal=Language Teaching|volume=16|issue=2|pages=102–114|doi=10.1017/S0261444800009988|s2cid=145169394 }}</ref> is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p.&nbsp; 1) briefly defines it as "the search forexploration and study of computer applications of the computer in language teaching and learning.".<ref name="levy1997">Levy, M. (1997). ''CALL: contextContext and conceptualisation'',Conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> CALL embraces a wide range of [[information and communications technology]] "applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, ranging from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterisedcharacterized CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g.such as usedthose in autilized [[virtual learning environment]] and Web-based [[distance learning]]. It also extends to the use of [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards,<ref name="schmidcutrim2009">Schmid, Euline Cutrim. (2009). ''Interactive whiteboardWhiteboard technologyTechnology in the languageLanguage classroomClassroom: exploringExploring newNew pedagogicalPedagogical opportunities'',Opportunities. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.</ref> computer-mediated communication (CMC),<ref name="lamyhampel">Lamy M.-N. & Hampel R. (2007) ''Online communication in language learning and teaching'', Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]], and [[Mobile-assisted language learning|mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)]].<ref name="shieldkukulska">Shield, L., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (edsEds.). (2008). Special edition of ''ReCALL'' (20, 3) on ''Mobile Assisted Language Learning''.</ref>

The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in useused before CALL, reflecting its originsoriginating as a subset of the generalbroader term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favourfavor among language teachers, however, asbecause it appearedseemed to implyemphasize a teacher-centredcentered approach (instructional), whereasapproach. languageLanguage teachers areincreasingly more inclined to preferfavored a student-centredcentered approach, focusingfocused on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins, 1982: p.&nbsp; 3).<ref>Davies G. & Higgins J. (1982) ''Computers, language and language learning'', London: CILT.</ref> and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of [[#Professional associations|professional associations]] worldwide.

An alternative term, technology-enhanced language learning (TELL),<ref>Bush M. & Terry R. (1997) (eds.) ''Technology-enhanced language learning'', Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company.</ref> also emerged around the early 1990s: e.g. the TELL Consortium project, [[University of Hull]].

The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis onemphasizes student-centredcentered materials that allowempower learners to work on their ownindependently. SuchThese materials maycan be structured or unstructured, but theytypically normally embodyincorporate two importantkey features: interactive learning and individualisedindividualized learning. CALL usesemploys tools that helpassist teachers facilitatein thefacilitating language learning, process.whether Theyreinforcing canclassroom belessons usedor providing additional support to reinforcelearners. whatThe hasdesign alreadyof beenCALL learnedmaterials intypically theintegrates classroomprinciples orfrom help[[language learnerspedagogy]] whoand requiremethodology, additionaldrawing supportfrom various learning theories such as behaviourism, cognitive theory, constructivism, and second-language acquisition theories like Stephen Krashen's. [[monitor hypothesis]].

The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g., behaviourist, cognitive, constructivist) and second-language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's [[monitor hypothesis]].

A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as [[blended learning]]. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p.&nbsp;27).<ref>Pegrum M. (2009) ''From blogs to bombs: The future of digital technologies in education'', Perth: University of Western Australia Press.</ref>

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There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America.<ref>Sanders R. (ed.) (1995) ''Thirty years of computer-assisted language instruction'', Festschrift for John R. Russell, ''CALICO Journal'' Special Issue, 12, 4.</ref> Delcloque (2000) documents the history of CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the new millennium.<ref>Delcloque P. (2000) ''History of CALL'' [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/History_of_CALL.pdf</ref> Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is going.<ref>Davies G. (2005) ''Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?'' [ Online]: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/UCALL_Keynote.htm</ref> Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally published in the years 1988–2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show promise in doing so in the future.<ref>Hubbard P. (2009) (ed.) ''Computer-assisted language learning'', Volumes I-IV, Routledge: London and New York: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcc/</ref> A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found in ''Language Learning & Technology'' 14, 3 (2010).<ref>''Language Learning & Technology'' (2010) 14, 3, pp. 14–18 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2010/index.html</ref>

Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of view, namely the evolution of CALL in the dual fields of [[educational technology]] and second/foreign language acquisition and the paradigm shifts experienced along the way.<ref>Butler-Pascoe M. E. (2011) "The history of CALL: the intertwining paths of technology and second/foreign language teaching", ''International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT)'' 1, 1: 16–32: http://www.igi-global.com/ijcallt</ref>

See also Davies et al. (2011: Section 2, ''History of CALL'').<ref name=davieswalkeretal/>

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* Animation tools – comic strips, movies, etc.

* [[Mashup (web application hybrid)|Mashup]]s

* Blog assisted language learning (BALL)<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_26/push%20button%20publishing%20ward%202004.pdf {{Bare URL|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20231209150053/http://esp-world.info/Articles_26/push%20button%20publishing%20ward%202004.pdf PDF|archive-date=March2023-12-09 2022|title=Blog Assisted Language Learning (BALL): Push button publishing for the pupils |first=Jason M. |last=Ward |journal=TEFL Web Journal |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=2004}}</ref>

There is no doubt that the Web has proved to be a main focus for language teachers, who are making increasingly imaginative use of its wide range of facilities: see Dudeney (2007)<ref>Dudeney G. (2007) ''The Internet and the language classroom'', Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> and Thomas (2008).<ref>Thomas M. (2008) ''Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning'', Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA: IGI Global.</ref> Above all, the use of Web 2.0 tools calls for a careful reexamination of the role of the teacher in the classroom (Richardson 2006).<ref>Richardson W. (2006) ''Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts and the Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms''. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.</ref>

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Parsing is also used in CALL programs to analyse the learner's input and diagnose errors. Davies (2002)<ref>Davies G. (2002) Article on CALL in the ''Good Practice Guide'' at the website of the Subject Centre for Languages, Linguistics and Area Studies (LLAS), University of Southampton [Online]: http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/61</ref> writes:

"Discrete error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response, pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities. ... Error analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into CALL via the disciplines of [[computational linguistics]], e.g. Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who come into CALL via language teaching. [...] An alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to parse the learner's response – so-called [[Intelligent computer-assisted language learning|''intelligent CALL'' (ICALL)]] – but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL programs (Matthews 1994)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Matthews | first1 = C | year = 1994 | title = Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning as cognitive science: the choice of syntactic frameworks for language tutoring | journal = Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 533–56 }}</ref> and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this approach as a threat to humanity (Last 1989:153)".<ref>Last R.W. (1989) ''Artificial intelligence techniques in language learning'', Chichester: Ellis Horwood.</ref>

Underwood (1989)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = J | year = 1989 | title = On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s | journal = Computers and the Humanities | volume = 23 | pages = 71–84 | doi=10.1007/bf00058770| s2cid = 60043026 }}</ref> and Heift & Schulze (2007)<ref>Heift T. & Schulze M. (eds.) (2007) ''Errors and intelligence in CALL: parsers and pedagogues'', New York: Routledge.</ref> present a more positive picture of AI.

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*[[CALICO (consortium)|CALICO]]: Established in 1982. Currently based at Texas State University, USA. CALICO publishes the ''CALICO Journal''.

*[[EUROCALL]]: Founded by a group of enthusiasts in 1986 and established with the aid of European Commission funding as a formal professional association in 1993. Currently based at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland. EUROCALL's journal, ''ReCALL'', is published by Cambridge University Press. EUROCALL also publishes the ''EUROCALL Review''.

*IALLT: The US-based International Association for Language Learning Technology, originally known as IALL (International Association for Learning Labs). IALLT is a professional organisation dedicated to promoting effective uses of media centres for language teaching, learning, and research. IALLT published the ''IALLT Journal'' until 2018. In early 2019, IALLT officially merged the journal into the''The FLTMAG'' [https://fltmag.com Foreign Language Technology Magazine (FLTMAG)].

*IATEFL: The UK-based International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. IATEFL embraces the Learning Technologies Special Interest Group (LTSIG) and publishes the ''CALL Review'' newsletter.

*JALTCALL: Japan. The JALT CALL SIG publishes ''The JALT CALL Journal''.

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* [[List of flashcard software]]

* [[Online learning community]]

* [[Promova]]

* [[Second-language acquisition]]

* [[Smigin]]