Memory error: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 15:15, 22 March 2023

Latest revision as of 12:48, 21 August 2025

(10 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{Short description|Error caused by a memory fault}}

'''Memory gaps and errors''' refer to the incorrect [[Recall (memory)|recall]], or complete loss, of information in the [[memory]] system for a specificcertain detail and/or event. Memory errors may include remembering events that never occurred, or remembering them differently from the way they actually happened.<ref name="Roediger">Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21'', 803–814</ref> These errors or gaps can occur due to a number of different reasons, including the emotional involvement in the situation, expectations and environmental changes. As the retention interval between [[Encoding (memory)|encoding]] and retrieval of the memory lengthens, there is an increase in both the amount that is forgotten, and the likelihood of a memory error occurring.

==Overview==

Line 11:

===Transience===

Transience refers to forgetting what occurs with the passage of time.<ref name = Schacter243>{{cite book|last=Schacter|first=Daniel|title=Psychology 2nd Ed.|year=2011|publisher=Worth Publishers|___location=New York|pages=243}}</ref> Transience occurs during the storage phase of memory, after an experience has been encoded and before it is retrieved.<ref name = Schacter243 /> As time passes, the quality of our memory also changes, deteriorating from specific to more general.<ref name = Schacter243 /> German philosopher named Hermann Ebbinghaus decided to measure his own memory for lists of nonsense syllables at various times after studying them. He decided to draw out a curve of his forgetting pattern over time. He realized that there is a rapid drop-off in retention during the first tests and there is a slower rate of forgetting later on.<ref name = Schacter243 /> Therefore, transience denotes the gradual change of a specific knowledge or idea into more general memories.<ref>Schacter, Daniel L.,["Psychology 2nd Ed."],"Worth Publishers", 2009, 2011.</ref>

===Absentmindedness===

Absentmindedness is a gap in attention which causes memory failure. In this situation the information does not disappear from memory, it can later be recalled. But the lack of attention at a specific moment prevents the information from being recalled at that specific moment. A common cause of absentmindedness is a lack of attention.{{Clarify|date=March 2018}} Attention is vital to encoding information in long-term memory. Without proper attention, material is much less likely to be stored properly and recalled later.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel L. 2011">Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "Chapter 6: Memory." Psychology. ; Second Edition. N.p.: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 244-45.</ref> When attention is divided, less activity in the lower left frontal lobe diminishes the ability for elaborative memory encoding to take place, and results in absentminded forgetting. More recent research has shown that divided attention also leads to less hippocampal involvement in encoding.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel L. 2011"/> A common example of absentmindedness is not remembering to carry out actions that had been planned to be done in the future, for example, picking up grocery items, and remembering times of meetings.<ref>Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "Chapter 6: Memory." Psychology. ; Second Edition. N.p.: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 245.</ref>

===False memories===

Line 81:

====Encoding specificity====

[[Encoding specificity principle|Encoding specificity]] is when retrieval is successful to the extent that the retrieval cues used to help recall, match the cues the individual used during learning or encoding.<ref name="Tulving">Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. ''Psychological Review, 80''(5), 352–373</ref> Memory errors due to encoding specificity means that the memory is likely not forgotten, however, the specific cues used during encoding the primary event are now unavailable to help remember the event. The cues used during encoding are dependent on the environment of the individual at the time the memory occurred. In context-dependent memory, recall is based on the difference between the encoding and recall environments.<ref>Smith, S.M. (1984). A comparison of two techniques for reducing context-dependent forgetting. ''Memory and Cognition, 12''(5), 477–482.</ref> Recall for items learned in a particular context is better when recall occurs in the same place as when the initial memory occurred. This is why it is sometimes useful to “return"return to the scene of the crime”crime" to help witnesses remember details of a crime, or for explaining why going to a specific ___location such as a residence or community setting, may lead to becoming flooded with memories of things that happened in that context. Recall can also depend on state-dependency, or the conditions of one's internal environment, at both the time of the event and of recall.<ref name="Eich">Eich, J.E. (1980). The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. ''Memory and Cognition, 8''(2), 157–173.</ref> For example, if intoxicated at the time the memory actually occurred, recall for details of the event is greater when recalling while intoxicated. Associated with state-dependency, recall can also depend on mood-dependency, in which recall is greater when the mood for when the memory occurred matches the mood during recall.<ref name="Hyman"/> These specific dependencies are based on the fact that the cues used during the initial event can be specific to the context or state one was in. In other words, various features of the environment (both internal and external) can be used to help encode the memory, and thus become retrieval cues. However, if the context or state changes at the time of recall, these cues may no longer be available, and thus recall is hindered.

====Transfer-appropriate processing====

Line 94:

====Brain damage====

{{Cerebrum labelled map|Human Cerebrum|caption=<small>Damage in the temporal lobe (green) and frontal lobe (blue) are associated with resulting memory errors.</small>}}

[[Neuroimaging]] studies have provided evidence for links between brain damage and memory errors. Brain areas implicated include the [[frontal lobe]] and [[Temporal lobe|medial-temporal]] regions of the brain. Such damage may result in significant [[confabulation]]s and source confusion.<ref name="Johnson"/>

The [[prefrontal cortex]] is in charge of making [[heuristic]] judgments and systematic judgments, which involve analyzing the qualities of memories and the retrieval and evaluation of supporting or disconfirming information.<ref name="Johnson"/> Thus, if the frontal region is damaged, these abilities will be impaired and memories may not be retrieved or evaluated correctly. For example, one patient who suffered frontal lobe damage after an automobile accident reported memories of the support his family provided for him after the accident, which in reality, was false.<ref>Conway, M. A., & Tacchi, P. C. (1996). Motivated confabulation. ''Neurocase, 2'', 325–338</ref>

Line 142:

;[[Leading questions]]

:refersRefers to how wording of questions can influence how an event is remembered. This can result from a [[misinformation effect]] or an imagination inflation effect.<ref name="whitehouse">Whitehouse, W.G., Orne, E.C., Dinges, D.F. (2010). Extreme cognitive interviewing: A blueprint for false memories through imagination inflation. ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 58''(3), 269–287</ref> The misinformation effect occurs when information is presented after the events in question have occurred which leads to memory errors in later retrieval.<ref name="english">English, S.M., Nielson, K.A. (2010). Reduction of the misinformation effect by arousal induced after learning. ''Cognition, 117''(2), 237–242.</ref> Studies have suggested that witnesses may misattribute accuracy to misleading information because the sources of misleading information and witnessed information become confused.<ref name="english"/> Misleading information can be acquired through reading of the newspaper, watching the news, being interviewed or when sitting in the courthouse during the trial. When witnesses are asked to recall specific details of an event they can begin to doubt their memory, which can cause memory errors. Misinformation can manifest itself as a memory leading the individual to believe it as true and witnesses may also begin to doubt their own memories of the event deciding instead that they must be wrong.<ref name="english"/> Memory errors also occur through the imagination inflation effect. As stated earlier, the imagination inflation effect takes place when an individual imagines an event to the point where it is believed as a memory of an actual event.<ref name="whitehouse"/> During trial, witnesses hear many different possible occurrences of events and are led to imagine these situations. Through imagining and rehearsal of the occurrences, witnesses may begin to see vividness and validity in the stories simply from rehearsal, not factual memories.<ref name="whitehouse"/> This can create problems for witnesses when trying to distinguish between imagined events and the actual occurrence of the events. Small but largely significant details become easily mixed and these occurrences of memory errors can make or break a trial.

;[[Weapon focus|Weapons Focusfocus Effecteffect]]

:refersRefers to the fact that witnesses are highly likely to pay close attention to the weapon being used during an event, which creates a reduction in the ability to remember other details regarding the crime.<ref name=loftus1>Loftus, E.F., Loftus, G.R., Messo, J. (1987). Some fact about “weapon focus”. ''Law and Human Behavior, 11''(1), 55–62.</ref> This can in turn create memory errors leaving the witness less able to remember details such as what the assailant was wearing or what distinctive features could be found on their body or face. One explanation for why witnesses tend to gravitate toward the weapon being used is said to be that the arousal of the witness is increased.<ref name= "mitchell">Mitchell, K.J., Livosky, M., Mather, M. (1998). The weapon focus effect revisited: The role of novelty. ''Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3'', 287–303</ref> When arousal becomes increased the number of perceptional cues being utilized by the brain decreases.<ref name= "mitchell"/> This allows the individual to focus on the weapon cue and ignore other cues such as distinct scars or a bright red shirt. The weapons focus effect can also refer to how the report of the use of weapons in the case can influence the memory of the event, leading to a false memory of having heard a weapon being fired even if the witness did not.<ref name="mitchell"/> For example, if a newspaper reports that the victim was beaten with a hammer, upon reading this, the witness will begin to believe that a hammer was in fact used, even if they at no point saw a hammer. This can cause many memory errors and conflict of stories for witnesses. As a society we believe that newspapers or televised news reports have fact behind them. If they report the hammer being used, a witness might begin to second-guess their memory wondering if they missed the hammer or failed to remember that detail.<ref name="loftus1"/> Also, their story may become mixed with the media's representation of the story and the knife that they did see will be forgotten and instead be replaced with the hammer that was reported.<ref name="mitchell"/>

;[[Exposure effect|Familiarity Effecteffect]]

:refersRefers to the tendency of individuals to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar.<ref>Moreland, R.L., Zajonc, R.B. (1982). Exposure effects in person perception: Familiarity, similarity, and attraction. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 18''(5), 395–415</ref> This can leave an individual to identify familiar people as guilty, even if they are not. When wea areperson is continuously exposed to the same object or person, wethey begin to develop a positive attraction towards said object or person. Simply their familiarity creates a positive sense when re-exposed to the individual or object. In reality one can know very little about a person but by seeing them over and over again can gain unconscious positive recall for their face. This can create memory errors when individuals are asked to identify a criminal and someone familiar to them is placed in the line up. When a familiar face is in among the individuals that the witness is being asked to study, the witness will find himself or herselfthemselves gravitating towards the familiar face whether or not this is who they witnessed committing the crime. This leaves them more likely to ignore the cues that are leading them towards other individuals and concentrate on the familiar face, resulting in a false accusation. The sense of familiarity can play a large role in the identification of criminals but when the familiarity of a criminal is mixed in with the familiarity of other individuals, choosing the right person can become quite difficult.

===Child abuse===

Memory errors regarding the recovery of repressed childhood abuse can occur due to post-event suggestions from a trusted source, such as a family member, or more commonly, a mental health professional. Due to possible relationships between childhood abuse and [[mental illness]] later in life, some mental health professionals believe in the [[Freudian theory]] of repressed memories as a defense mechanism for the anxiety that recall of the abuse would cause. Freud said that repression operates unconsciously in individuals who are not able to recall a threatening situation or may even forget that the abusive individual was ever part of their lives. Therefore, mental health professionals will sometimes seek to uncover possible instances of childhood abuse in patients, which may lead to [[suggestibility]] and cause a [[false memory]] of childhood abuse to arise, in an attempt to seek a cause to a mental illness.<ref name="lindsay">Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1994). Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective. ''Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8'', 281–338.</ref> No matter the confidence in the memory, this does not necessarily equate to the memory being true. This is an example of the [[misinformation effect]] and false memory effect. The fact that memories are not retrieved as whole entities but rather are reconstructed from information remaining in memory and other related knowledge make them easily susceptible to memory errors.<ref name="hyman">Hyman Jr., I.E., & Pentland, J. (1996). The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories. ''Journal of Memory and Language, 35'', 101–117.</ref> This explains why working with mental health professionals and [[Suggestibility|leading questions]] can sometimes manifest false memories by creating knowledge of possible events and asking individuals to focus on if these events actually took place.<ref name="lindsay2">Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1995). Memory work and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Scientific evidence and public, professional, and personal issues. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1''(4), 846–908</ref> Individuals begin to overthink these situations visualizing them in their mind and overanalyzing them. This in turn leads to the belief of situations and vivid memories. Patients are left with memories they believe are real and new events from their childhood which can lead to stress and trauma in their adult life and loss of relationships with those who are believed to be the abuser.

== See also ==

* [[Amnesia]]

* [[False memory syndrome]]

* [[Memory implantation]]

* [[Memory loss]]

* [[Memory and aging]]

* [[Memory bias]]

* [[Memory conformity]]

* [[KleptomnesiaMemory disorder]]

==References==