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{{Short description|Error caused by a memory fault}}
'''Memory gaps and errors''' refer to the incorrect [[Recall (memory)|recall]], or complete loss, of information in the [[memory]] system for a
==Overview==
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===Blocking===
The feeling that a person gets when they know the information, but can not remember a specific detail, like an individual's name or the name of a place is described as the ''"tip-of-the-tongue"'' experience. The ''tip-of-the-tongue'' experience is a classic example of '''blocking''', which is a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it.<ref name = Schachter2011>{{cite book|last=Schacter|first=Daniel L.|title=Psychology Second Edition|year=2011|publisher=Worth Publishers|___location=
===Transience===
Transience refers to forgetting what occurs with the passage of time.<ref name = Schacter243>{{cite book|last=Schacter|first=Daniel|title=Psychology 2nd Ed.|year=2011|publisher=Worth Publishers|___location=
===Absentmindedness===
Absentmindedness is a gap in attention which causes memory failure. In this situation the information does not disappear from memory, it can later be recalled. But the lack of attention at a specific moment prevents the information from being recalled at that specific moment. A common cause of absentmindedness is a lack of attention.{{Clarify|date=March 2018}} Attention is vital to encoding information in long-term memory. Without proper attention, material is much less likely to be stored properly and recalled later.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel L. 2011">Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "Chapter 6: Memory." Psychology
===False memories===
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===Problem of bias===
The problem of '''bias''', which is the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences.<ref name = Schacter253>{{cite book|last=Schacter|first=Daniel L.|title=Psychology Second Edition|year=2011|publisher=Worth Publishers|___location=
===Misinformation effect===
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====Encoding specificity====
[[Encoding specificity principle|Encoding specificity]] is when retrieval is successful to the extent that the retrieval cues used to help recall, match the cues the individual used during learning or encoding.<ref name="Tulving">Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. ''Psychological Review, 80''(5), 352–373</ref> Memory errors due to encoding specificity means that the memory is likely not forgotten, however, the specific cues used during encoding the primary event are now unavailable to help remember the event. The cues used during encoding are dependent on the environment of the individual at the time the memory occurred. In context-dependent memory, recall is based on the difference between the encoding and recall environments.<ref>Smith, S.M. (1984). A comparison of two techniques for reducing context-dependent forgetting. ''Memory and Cognition, 12''(5), 477–482.</ref> Recall for items learned in a particular context is better when recall occurs in the same place as when the initial memory occurred. This is why it is sometimes useful to
====Transfer-appropriate processing====
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====Brain damage====
{{Cerebrum labelled map|Human Cerebrum|caption=<small>Damage in the temporal lobe (green) and frontal lobe (blue) are associated with resulting memory errors.</small>}}
[[Neuroimaging]] studies have provided evidence for links between brain damage and memory errors. Brain areas implicated include the [[frontal lobe]] and [[Temporal lobe|medial-temporal]] regions of the brain. Such damage may result in significant [[confabulation]]s and source confusion.<ref name="Johnson"/>
The [[prefrontal cortex]] is in charge of making [[heuristic]] judgments and systematic judgments, which involve analyzing the qualities of memories and the retrieval and evaluation of supporting or disconfirming information.<ref name="Johnson"/> Thus, if the frontal region is damaged, these abilities will be impaired and memories may not be retrieved or evaluated correctly. For example, one patient who suffered frontal lobe damage after an automobile accident reported memories of the support his family provided for him after the accident, which in reality, was false.<ref>Conway, M. A., & Tacchi, P. C. (1996). Motivated confabulation. ''Neurocase, 2'', 325–338</ref>
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* [[Mood congruence effect#The mood congruence effect|Mood-congruency]] - Items/events are better recalled when the mood of the individual at the time of the event and the time of recall are the same. Thus, if the mood at the time of recall does not match the mood experienced at the time the event occurred, there is an increased chance that complete recall will be affected/interrupted.<ref name="Ruci">Ruci, L., Tomes, J.L., & Zelenski, J.M. (2009). Mood-congruent false memories in the DRM paradigm. ''Cognition and Emotion, 23''(6), 1153–1165</ref>
==Memory errors in
[[Abnormal psychology]] is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as a [[mental disorder]]. Memory errors can commonly be found in types of abnormal psychology such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Depression (mood)|depression]], and [[schizophrenia]].
===Alzheimer's
Alzheimer's
[[Priming (psychology)|priming]] tasks.<ref name="Mimura">Mimura, M., & Komatsu, S.I. (2010). Factors of error and effort in memory intervention for patients with Alzheimer's disease and amnesic syndrome. ''Psychogeriatrics, 10'', 179–186.</ref> Patients also demonstrate errors known as misattribution errors, otherwise known as source confusion. However, studies show that these misattribution errors are dependent on whether the task is a familiarity or recollection task.<ref name="Mitchell">Mitchell, J.P., Sullivan, A.L., Schacter, D.L., & Budson, A.E. (2006). Misattribution errors in Alzheimer’s disease: The [[illusory truth effect]]. ''Neuropsychology, 20''(2), 185–192.</ref>
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;[[Leading questions]]
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;[[Weapon focus|Weapons
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;[[Exposure effect|Familiarity
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===Child abuse===
Memory errors regarding the recovery of repressed childhood abuse can occur due to post-event suggestions from a trusted source, such as a family member, or more commonly, a mental health professional. Due to possible relationships between childhood abuse and [[mental illness]] later in life, some mental health professionals believe in the [[Freudian theory]] of repressed memories as a defense mechanism for the anxiety that recall of the abuse would cause. Freud said that repression operates unconsciously in individuals who are not able to recall a threatening situation or may even forget that the abusive individual was ever part of their lives. Therefore, mental health professionals will sometimes seek to uncover possible instances of childhood abuse in patients, which may lead to [[suggestibility]] and cause a [[false memory]] of childhood abuse to arise, in an attempt to seek a cause to a mental illness.<ref name="lindsay">Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1994). Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective. ''Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8'', 281–338.</ref> No matter the confidence in the memory, this does not necessarily equate to the memory being true. This is an example of the [[misinformation effect]] and false memory effect. The fact that memories are not retrieved as whole entities but rather are reconstructed from information remaining in memory and other related knowledge make them easily susceptible to memory errors.<ref name="hyman">Hyman Jr., I.E., & Pentland, J. (1996). The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories. ''Journal of Memory and Language, 35'', 101–117.</ref> This explains why working with mental health professionals and [[Suggestibility|leading questions]] can sometimes manifest false memories by creating knowledge of possible events and asking individuals to focus on if these events actually took place.<ref name="lindsay2">Lindsay, D.S., & Read, J.D. (1995). Memory work and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Scientific evidence and public, professional, and personal issues. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1''(4), 846–908</ref> Individuals begin to overthink these situations visualizing them in their mind and overanalyzing them. This in turn leads to the belief of situations and vivid memories. Patients are left with memories they believe are real and new events from their childhood which can lead to stress and trauma in their adult life and loss of relationships with those who are believed to be the abuser.
== See also ==
* [[Amnesia]]
* [[False memory syndrome]]
* [[Memory
* [[Memory
* [[Memory
* [[Memory
* [[Memory conformity]]
* [[Memory disorder]]
==References==
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