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{{Short description|Source code made freely available}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
'''Open source''' is [[source code]] that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code,<ref name="Open Source Org., 2007">{{cite web |url=https://opensource.org/docs/osd |title=The Open Source Definition |access-date=2020-01-22 |date=7 July 2006 |website=Open Source Org. |quote=Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611152544/https://opensource.org/docs/osd |archive-date=2007-06-11 }}</ref> design documents,<ref name="Diffingo Solutions Inc., 2008">{{Cite web |title=What is Open Source Software |url=https://diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=Diffingo Solutions Inc. |quote=Open source software <!-- differers --> differs from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged. Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code! |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028104313/http://www.diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |archive-date=2008-10-28 }}</ref> or content of the product. The '''open source model''' is a
[[File:Open Source Initiative.svg|thumb|[[Open Source Initiative]] logo]]▼
A main principle of [[Open-source software|open source software
▲'''Open source''' is [[source code]] that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code,<ref name="Open Source Org., 2007">{{cite web |url=https://opensource.org/docs/osd |title=The Open Source Definition |access-date=2020-01-22 |date=7 July 2006 |website=Open Source Org. |quote=Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611152544/https://opensource.org/docs/osd |archive-date=2007-06-11 }}</ref> design documents,<ref name="Diffingo Solutions Inc., 2008">{{Cite web |title=What is Open Source Software |url=https://diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=Diffingo Solutions Inc. |quote=Open source software <!-- differers --> differs from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged. Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code! |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028104313/http://www.diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |archive-date=2008-10-28 }}</ref> or content of the product. The '''open source model''' is a [[Decentralization|decentralized]] [[software development]] model that encourages [[open collaboration]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Levine | first1 = Sheen S. | last2 = Prietula | first2 = M. J. | year = 2013 | title = Open Collaboration for Innovation: Principles and Performance | journal = Organization Science | volume = 25| issue = 5| pages = 1414–1433 | issn = 1047-7039 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.2013.0872 | arxiv = 1406.7541 | ssrn = 1096442 | s2cid = 6583883 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym|url-access=registration|title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary|last=Raymond|first=Eric S.|publisher=OReilly|year=2001|isbn=978-0-596-00108-7|author-link=Eric S. Raymond}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref>
▲A main principle of [[open source software development]] is [[peer production]], with products such as source code, [[blueprint]]s, and documentation freely available to the public. The [[open source movement]] in software began as a response to the limitations of [[proprietary software|proprietary code]]. The model is used for projects such as in [[open source appropriate technology]],<ref name="Pearce2012">{{cite journal |title=The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=14 |issue= 3|pages=425–431 |year=2012 | issn = 1387-585X |doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9 |last1=Pearce |first1=Joshua M |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012EDSus..14..425P |url=https://www.academia.edu/1517361 }}</ref> and open source drug discovery.<ref name="business-standard.com">{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/sreelatha-menon-researchers-sans-borders/00/19/350429/ |title="Science 2.0 is here as CSIR resorts to open source drug research for TB"|first=Sreelatha|last=Menon|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=1 March 2009|via=Business Standard}}</ref><ref name="OpenWetWare" />
Open source promotes universal access via an
Generally, open source refers to a [[computer program]] in which the
==History==
{{main|History of free and open-source software}}
The sharing of technical information predates the Internet and the personal computer considerably. For instance, in the early years of automobile development a group of capital [[monopoly|monopolists]] owned the rights to a [[2 cycle|2-cycle]] gasoline-engine patent originally filed by [[George B. Selden]].<ref name="carculture">{{cite book |first=James J. |last=Flink |title=The Car Culture |publisher=MIT Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-262-56015-3 }}</ref> By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit.
In 1911, independent automaker [[Henry Ford]] won a challenge to [[George B. Selden#The Selden patent|the Selden patent]]. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the
Early instances of the free sharing of source code include [[IBM]]'s source releases of its [[operating system]]s and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the [[SHARE (computing)|SHARE]] user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software.<ref name="autogenerated172">{{cite book|title=IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History|last1=Fisher|first1=Franklin M.|publisher=Praeger|year=1983|isbn=978-0-03-063059-0|pages=172–9|first2=James W.|last2=McKie|first3=Richard B.|last3=Mancke}} IBM unbundled (began charging for) software 23 June 1969.</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">[http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html Dave Pitts' IBM 7090 support] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827134534/http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html |date=27 August 2015 }}{{spaced ndash}}An example of distributed source: Page contains a link to [[IBM 7090/94 IBSYS]] source, including [[COBOL]] and [[FORTRAN]] compilers.</ref> Beginning in the 1960s, [[ARPANET]] researchers used an open "[[Request for Comments]]" (RFC) process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols. This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969.
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===Open source as a term===
Open source as a term emerged in the late 1990s by a group of people in the
Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.<ref name="raymondCall">{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |publisher=Catb.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> Shortly after, he founded The
The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher [[
==Economics==
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[[File:Anwendungsgebiete Open Source.svg|thumb|Area of application of open-source software<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.swissict.ch/medien/medienmitteilungen/medienmitteilungen/open-source-studie-schweiz-2015-publiziert-mehr-unabhaengigkeit-und-sicherheit-dank-open-source/|title=Open Source Studie Schweiz 2015 publiziert: Mehr Unabhängigkeit und Sicherheit dank Open Source|website=Der Verband für den Informatiker & für die Informatik|language=de-CH|access-date=2018-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043750/http://www.swissict.ch/medien/medienmitteilungen/medienmitteilungen/open-source-studie-schweiz-2015-publiziert-mehr-unabhaengigkeit-und-sicherheit-dank-open-source/|archive-date=13 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
[[File:Einsatzgründe Open Source.svg|thumb|Survey on the reasons for using Open Source in 200 Swiss organizations<ref name=":0" />]]
Some economists agree that open-source is an [[information good]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The economics and management of intellectual property : towards intellectual capitalism|last=Granstrand|first=Ove|publisher=E. Elgar|year=1999|isbn=978-1-85898-967-9|___location=Cheltenham, UK}}</ref> or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost{{spaced ndash}}this is referred to as the [[marginal cost]] of a product. [[Copyright]] creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a [[derivative work]]—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a [[remix]] of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so.
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Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the [[pharmaceutical industry]] (which depends largely on patents, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.<ref>J.M. Pearce, ''[[Open-Source Lab (book)|Open-Source Lab]]: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs'', Elsevier, 2014.</ref>
There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.<ref>[http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields $800M Value, Study Finds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209195009/http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ |date=9 February 2015 }}- ''3D Printing Industry'' 2 February 2015.</ref> For example, in the context of [[open-source hardware]] design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. [[RepRap]] 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wittbrodt | first1 = B.T. | last2 = Glover | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Laureto | first3 = J. | last4 = Anzalone | first4 = G.C. | last5 = Oppliger | first5 = D. | last6 = Irwin | first6 = J.L. | last7 = Pearce | first7 = J.M. | year = 2013 | title = Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open-source 3-D printers | url = https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/materials_fp/48| journal = Mechatronics | volume = 23 | issue = 6| pages = 713–726 | issn = 0957-4158 | doi = 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002 | s2cid = 1766321 }}</ref> The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the [[peer production]] community.
Many open-source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open-source projects are:<ref>{{citation|surname1=Joe McCann|periodical=Forbes|title=The Meteoric Rise Of Open Source And Why Investors Should Care|language=de|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/09/22/the-meteoric-rise-of-open-source-and-why-investors-should-care/|access-date=2017-10-10
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!4
|[[Node.js]]
|[[NodeSource]]
|{{dunno}}
|-
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!7
|[[Elasticsearch]]
|[[Elastic NV]]
|$700 million
|-
!8
|[[Apache Spark|Spark]]
|[[Databricks]]
|$513 million
|-
!9
|[[MongoDB]]
|[[MongoDB Inc.]]
|$1.57 billion
|-
!10
|[[Selenium (software)|Selenium]]
|[[Sauce Labs]]
|$470 million
|}
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* Give away the product and charge something related – charge for support of open-source [[enterprise software]], give away music but charge for concert admission.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* Give away work to gain market share – used by artists, in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor (for example in the [[browser wars]] and the [[Android operating system]]).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* For own use – Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem, bearing the full cost of initial creation. They will then open source the solution, and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs. Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users; [[free rider problem|free riders]] can also benefit without undermining the creation process. [[Drupal]]'s founder [[Dries Buytaert]] has summarized this as the Maker/Taker problem.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How takers hurt makers in open source |url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/2264089/how-takers-hurt-makers-in-open-source.html |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=InfoWorld |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Blockchain based licensing. Developers register their contributions on a blockchain and when usage licenses are generated the revenue is shared through the blockchain.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Frey |last2=Schmitt |date= |title=Open Compensation Token License |website=[[GitHub]] |url=https://github.com/open-compensation-token-license/octl}}</ref>
== Open collaboration ==
{{main|Open collaboration}}
[[File:Bluesky Logo.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Bluesky]], an open source social media platform]]
The open-source model is a decentralized [[software development]] model that encourages [[open collaboration]],<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Raymond |first=Eric S. |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |year=2001 |title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary |url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym |url-access=registration |publisher=OReilly |isbn=978-0-596-00108-7}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> A main principle of [[open-source software development]] is [[peer production]], with products such as source code, [[blueprint]]s, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in [[open-source appropriate technology]],<ref name="Pearce2012" /> and open-source drug discovery.<ref name="business-standard.com"/><ref name="OpenWetWare">[[OpenWetWare:OSDDMalaria:GSK Arylpyrrole Series:Story so far|"Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium]].</ref>
The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008">Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2008). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220521057_Knowledge_Collaboration_Among_Professionals_Protecting_National_Security_Role_of_Transactive_Memories_in_Ego-Centered_Knowledge_Networks Knowledge Collaboration Among Professionals Protecting National Security: Role of Transactive Memories in Ego-Centered Knowledge Networks]. ''Organization Science'', 19(2), 260–276 {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1070.0315}}. {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> and [[online communities]].<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011">Faraj, S., Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2011). [http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006214955/http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf |date=6 October 2021 }}. ''Organization Science'', 22(5), 1224–1239, {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1100.0614}} {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including [[TEDx]] and Wikipedia.<ref name="kurzweilai.net">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kurzweilai.net/open-collaboration-leading-to-novel-organizations|title=Open collaboration leading to novel organizations « Kurzweil}}</ref>
Open collaboration is the principle underlying [[peer production]], [[mass collaboration]], and [[wikinomics]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> It was observed initially in open-source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s,<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008"/> Internet communities,<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011"/> and many instances of [[open content]], such as [[Creative Commons license|Creative Commons]]. It also explains some instances of [[crowdsourcing]], [[collaborative consumption]], and [[open innovation]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" />
Riehle et al. define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of [[egalitarianism]], [[meritocracy]], and [[self-organization]].<ref name="RiehleEllenberger2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Riehle| first1=D. |last2=Ellenberger |first2=J. |last3=Menahem| first3=T. |last4=Mikhailovski |first4=B. |last5=Natchetoi| first5=Y. |last6=Naveh |first6=B. |last7=Odenwald |first7=T. |date=March 2009 |title=Open Collaboration within Corporations Using Software Forges |journal=IEEE Software |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=52–58 |doi=10.1109/MS.2009.44 | bibcode=2009ISoft..26b..52R |issn=0740-7459 |s2cid=6038418 |url=http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008003536/http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2016 |access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> This definition captures multiple instances, all joined by similar principles. For example, all of the elements – goods of economic value, open access to contribute and consume, interaction and exchange, purposeful yet loosely coordinated work – are present in an open-source software project, in Wikipedia, or in a user forum or community. They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on [[user-generated content]]. In all of these instances of open collaboration, anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing, which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated.
An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensym.org/about-us/|title=About|work=The International Symposium on Open Collaboration|date=15 June 2010}}</ref> As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes)."<ref name="Opensym">{{cite web |title=Definition of Open Collaboration |work=The Joint International Symposium on Open Collaboration |first=Dirk |last=Riehle |quote=Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes). |access-date=2013-03-26 |url=http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312135554/http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
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Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But [[Eric Raymond]] and other founders of the [[open-source movement]] have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling. The broader impact of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.
The [[open-source movement]] has inspired increased [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] and liberty in [[biotechnology]] research, for example [[CAMBIA]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |title='Open-Source Practices for Biotechnology' — Cambia — Enabling Innovation |publisher=Cambia |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101235609/http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |archive-date=1 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open-source principles.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Joshua M.|title=Open Source Research in Sustainability|journal=Sustainability: The Journal of Record|date=1 August 2012|volume=5|issue=4|pages=238–243| issn = 1937-0695 |doi=10.1089/sus.2012.9944|url=https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=materials_fp|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It has also given rise to the rapidly-expanding [[open-source hardware]] movement.
===Computer software===
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Some publishers of [[open-access]] journals have argued that [[Open data|data]] from [[food science]] and [[gastronomy]] studies should be freely available to aid [[reproducibility]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcblog/2013/12/02/mega-bites-how-open-data-and-gastronomy-are-proving-a-recipe-for-success/|title = Mega Bites – how open data and gastronomy are proving a recipe for success|work = Research in Progress Blog|date = 2 December 2013|first = Kam |last = Arkinstall|publisher = biomedcentral.com }}</ref> A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.<ref>{{cite web|title=TEXTURE – A hydrocolloid recipe collection|first=Martin|last=Lersch|url=http://blog.khymos.org/wp-content/2009/02/hydrocolloid-recipe-collection-v3.0.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Open-source cola]]s – cola soft drinks, similar to [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]], whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages keep their formulas secret and unknown to the general public.<ref name="octavio1">{{cite web|url=http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf
* [[Free Beer]] (originally ''Vores Øl'') – is an open-source beer created by students at the [[IT University of Copenhagen|IT-University]] in Copenhagen together with [[Superflex]], an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.<ref>The concept expands upon a statement found in the [[Free Software Definition]]: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer.'"</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Stallman, Richard M.|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=The Gnu Organisation: What is free software?|publisher=Gnu.org |access-date=2012-10-25|author-link=Richard Stallman }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cohn|first=David|title=Free Beer for Geeks|journal=Wired News|date=18 July 2005|url=https://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,68144,00.html?tw=wn_17culthead}}</ref>
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|doi-access=free
}}</ref> which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tropicaldisease.org/ |title=the Tropical Disease Initiative |publisher=Tropicaldisease.org |date=16 July 2009 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium.<ref name="OpenWetWare" />
* Genomics – The term "open-source genomics" refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data (especially raw reads) and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that
|author=Rohde H
|title=Open-Source Genomic Analysis of Shiga-Toxin–Producing E. coli O104:H4
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===Science and engineering===
{{further|Open research}}
▲[[File:Open
* Research – The [[Science Commons]] was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencecommons.org/ |title=Science — Creative Commons |publisher=Sciencecommons.org |date=17 November 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* Research – [[The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field]] (OSOTF)<ref name="osotf">{{cite journal|last1=Pearce|first1=Joshua M.|first2=Adegboyega |last2=Babasola |first3=Rob |last3=Andrews |title=Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization|journal=Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference|year=2012|pages=1–7|url=http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/features/conference/2012/papers/Pearce-Babasola-Andrews-queensu.pdf}}</ref> is a grid-connected [[photovoltaic]] test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.<ref name="osotf" />
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====Robotics====
{{Main|Open-source robotics}}
An open-source robot is a [[robot]] whose blueprints, schematics, or source code are released under an open-source model.
===Other===
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* Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.
* [[Open-design movement|Open-design]] – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |title=Open collaborative design |publisher=AdCiv |date=29 July 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629170541/http://adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |archive-date=29 June 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]] (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as [[free and open-source software]].<ref name="buitenhuis">A. J. Buitenhuis, I. Zelenika and J. M. Pearce, "[http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf Open Design-Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725131916/http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf |date=25 July 2018 }}", ''Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference : Open'', 25–27 March 2010, pp. 1–12.</ref> These technologies must be "[[appropriate technology]]" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the [[RepRap]] to manufacture appropriate technology.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J.M. Pearce |author2=C. Morris Blair |author3=K.J. Laciak |author4=R. Andrews |author5=A. Nosrat |author6=I. Zelenika-Zovko |title=3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=17–29 |year=2010 | issn = 1913-9063 |doi=10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Open-source learning|Teaching]] – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |title=JEDI: The Open Source {{not a typo|Curricullum}} — Project Kenai |publisher=Kenai.com |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516040735/http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |archive-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other examples include [[Khan Academy]] and [[wikiversity]]. At the university level, the use of [[Open-source appropriate technology|open-source-appropriate technology]] classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:<ref>{{cite journal |author=J.M. Pearce |title=Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects |journal=The Physics Teacher |volume=45 |pages=164–7 |year=2007 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTEAH000045000003000164000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes |doi=10.1119/1.2709675| issn = 0031-921X |issue=3|bibcode=2007PhTea..45..164P }}</ref> This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of [[appropriate technology]]. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving [[service learning]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Joshua M. |last=Pearce |title=Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |year=2009 | issn = 0973-4082 |doi=10.1177/097340820900300112|hdl=1974/5306 |citeseerx=10.1.1.620.246 |s2cid=145118511 | url = http://hdl.handle.net/1974/5306 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference
|last1=Murphy|first1=Sharon|last2=Saleh|first2=Nasser
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The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often [[copyright]]ed, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the United States) and penalties, such as those articulated in the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies.<ref name="copyright1998">{{cite web|url=http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf |title=The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 |date = December 1998|author = US Copyright Office |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under [[fair use|fair-use]] doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines
The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "[[Free Culture movement|Free Culture]]", but is substantively different. ''Free culture'' is a term derived from the [[free software movement]], and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods (as in "the Good life"{{clarify|date=April 2023}}) and ends.
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Open-source ethics is split into two strands:
* Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the [[Association of Internet Researchers|AoIR]] Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.<ref>[http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/berry2.pdf Berry (2004) Internet Ethics: Privacy, Ethics and Alienation{{spaced ndash}}An Open Source Approach.] (PDF file)</ref>
* Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |author=El-Emam, K |title=Ethics and Open Source |journal=Empirical Software Engineering |volume=6 |issue=4 |year=2001 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1011962213685 |url=http://springerlink.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=hf0bld3qlk0unn8f8x2m&referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,12;journal,14,33;linkingpublicationresults,1:100262,1#ContactOfAuthor1}}</ref>
===Religion===
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[[Open-source film|Open-source movie production]] is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie [[Elephants Dream]] is said to be the "world's first open movie",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elephantsdream.org/ |title=Elephants Dream |publisher=Elephants Dream |date=13 August 2006 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> created entirely using open-source technology.
An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material [[footage]], and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit ''[[WBCN and the American Revolution]]'', which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.<ref>"Web Power to the People", The Boston Herald, 29 September 2005.</ref><ref>"The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston", Boston Globe, Op-Ed, 18 July 2009.</ref><ref>"'BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors", Boston Herald, 11 August 2009.</ref><ref>"WBCN and The American Revolution", The Huffington Post, 11 August 2009.</ref> The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Center for Independent Documentary. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nfb.ca/ |title=Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online |publisher=NFB.ca |date=27 August 2012 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701062521/http://www.nfb.ca/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Open-source film|Open-source film-making]] refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.
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* [[Open standard]]
* [[Paywall]]
* [[Hackathon]]
{{div col end}}
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* Karl Fogel. [http://producingoss.com Producing Open Source Software] (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.
* {{cite book |title=Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy |first1=Ron |last1=Goldman |first2=Richard P. |last2=Gabriel |year=2005 |publisher=Richard P. Gabriel |url=http://dreamsongs.com/IHE/IHE.html |isbn=978-1-55860-889-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals |first=Isaac Hunter |last=Dunlap |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford: Chandos |url=http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php?ID=98 |isbn=978-1-84334-161-1 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204175446/http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php%3FID%3D98 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/nettingsmeier_dont_hack.html ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
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* {{cite journal |author1=v. Hippel, E. |author2=v. Krogh, G. |title=Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science |journal=Organization Science |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=209–223 |year=2003 |doi= 10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992 | issn = 1047-7039 |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/66145/1/SSRN-id1410789.pdf|hdl=1721.1/66145 |s2cid=11947692 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. |title=The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors |journal=American Economic Review |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=114–8 |year=2006 |doi=
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner, J., Tirole, J. |title=Some simple economics on open source |journal=Journal of Industrial Economics |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=197–234 |year=2002 |doi= 10.1111/1467-6451.00174 | issn = 0022-1821 |citeseerx=10.1.1.461.3373 |s2cid=219722756 }} [http://www.people.hbs.edu/jlerner/simple.pdf earlier revision (PDF)]
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Scope of Open Source Licensing |journal=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization |volume=21 |pages=20–56 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jleo/ewi002| issn = 8756-6222 |citeseerx=10.1.1.72.465 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–120 |year=2005 |doi=10.1257/0895330054048678 | issn = 0895-3309 |s2cid=17968894 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10956.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |author=Maurer, S.M. |title=Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several) |journal=UMKC Law Review |volume=76 |issue=2 |year=2008 |ssrn=1114371 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1114371 |s2cid=54046895 |url=https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/1516 | issn = 1556-5068 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Osterloh |first1=M. |last2=Rota |first2=S. |title=Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention? |journal=Research Policy |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=157–171 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004 | issn = 0048-7333 |hdl=10419/214322 |url=http://www.crema-research.ch/papers/2005-08.pdf |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Riehle |first=D. |title=The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives |journal=IEEE Computer |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=25–32 |date=April 2007 |url=http://www.riehle.org/computer-science/research/2007/computer-2007-article.html | issn = 0018-9162 |doi=10.1109/MC.2007.147|s2cid=168544 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Rossi |first=M.A. |chapter=Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions |chapter-url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/usi/wpaper/424.html |chapter-format=PDF |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Bitzer |editor2-first=P. |editor2-last=Schröder |title=The Economics of Open Source Software Development |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-444-52769-1 |pages=15–55 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Schiff |first=A. |title=The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature |journal=Review of Network Economics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=66–74 |year=2002 |url=http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030507164146/http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-date=7 May 2003 | issn = 2194-5993 |doi=10.2202/1446-9022.1004|s2cid=201280221 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Schwarz, M. |author2=Takhteyev, Y. |title=Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem |journal=Journal of Public Economic Theory |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=609–639 |year=2010 | issn = 1097-3923 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x |citeseerx=10.1.1.625.2368 |s2cid=154317482 }} [http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946 earlier revision]
* {{cite journal |last1=Spagnoletti |first1=P. |last2=Federici |first2=T. |title=Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation |journal=Communications of the Association for Information Systems
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Bruce |title=Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalphoenixwh00abra |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51196-4}}
* {{cite book |first=K.S. |last=Sampathkumar |title=Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JwU71HSkikC |isbn=978-8-184-65469-1}}
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