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===Open source as a term===
Open source as a term emerged in the late 1990s by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=O'Mahony |first=Siobhan Clare |title=The emergence of a new commercial actor: Community managed software projects |date=2002 |degree=PhD |publisher=Stanford University |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/305527434 |url-access=subscription |pages=34–42 |___location=Stanford, CA |id={{ProQuest|305527434}} }}</ref> In addition, the ambiguity of the term "free software" was seen as discouraging business adoption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |quote=The problem with it is twofold. First, ... the term "free" is very ambiguous ... Second, the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous.|first=Eric S.|last=Raymond|author-link=Eric S. Raymond }}</ref><ref name="infoworld1983">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yy8EAAAAMBAJ&q=us%20government%20public%20domain%20software&pg=PA31 |website=[[InfoWorld]] |date=23 June 1983|title=Free software – Free software is a junkyard of software spare parts |quote=''"In contrast to commercial software is a large and growing body of free software that exists in the public ___domain. Public-___domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists (also known as "hackers") many of whom are professional programmers in their work life. [...] Since everybody has access to source code, many routines have not only been used but dramatically improved by other programmers."'' |first=Tom |last=Shea |access-date= 10 February 2016}}</ref> However, the ambiguity of the word "free" exists primarily in English as it can refer to cost. The group included [[Christine Peterson]], Todd Anderson, [[Larry Augustin]], [[Jon Hall (programmer)|Jon Hall]], [[Sam Ockman]], [[Michael Tiemann]] and [[Eric S. Raymond]]. Peterson suggested "open source" at a meeting<ref name=osihistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensource.org/history |title=History of the OSI |date=19 September 2006 |first=Michael |last=Tiemann |author-link=Michael Tiemann |publisher=[[Open Source Initiative]] |access-date=23 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021001164015/http://www.opensource.org/docs/history.php |archive-date=1 October 2002 }}</ref> held at [[Palo Alto, California]], in reaction to [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]'s announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for [[Netscape Navigator|Navigator]].<ref name="Conflict">{{cite web |last1=Lunduke |first1=Bryan |author1-link=Bryan Lunduke |title=WATCH: Eric Raymond & Lunduke Argue About the Origin of "Open Source" |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuKSD_himSE |website=youtube.com |publisher=[[The Lunduke Journal]] |language=en |format=video |date=Feb 18, 2025}}</ref> [[Linus Torvalds]] gave his support the following day, and Phil Hughes backed the term in ''[[Linux Journal]]''. Richard Stallman, the founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) in 1985, quickly decided against endorsing the term.<ref name=osihistory/><ref name="rmsdissent">{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html |title=Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software |publisher=Free Software Foundation |date=18 May 2012 |first = Richard |last = Stallman}}</ref> The FSF's goal was to promote the development and use of free software, which they defined as software that grants users the freedom to run, study, share, and modify the code. This concept is similar to open source but places a greater emphasis on the ethical and political aspects of software freedom. Netscape released its source code under the Netscape Public License and later under the [[Mozilla Public License]].<ref name="Muffatto000">{{cite book | title = Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach | first = Moreno | last = Muffatto | publisher = Imperial College Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-86094-665-3 }}</ref>
Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.<ref name="raymondCall">{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |publisher=Catb.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> Shortly after, he founded The Open Source Initiative in collaboration with [[Bruce Perens]].<ref name=osihistory/>
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Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the [[pharmaceutical industry]] (which depends largely on patents, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.<ref>J.M. Pearce, ''[[Open-Source Lab (book)|Open-Source Lab]]: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs'', Elsevier, 2014.</ref>
There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.<ref>[http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields $800M Value, Study Finds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209195009/http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ |date=9 February 2015 }}- ''3D Printing Industry'' 2 February 2015.</ref> For example, in the context of [[open-source hardware]] design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. [[RepRap]] 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wittbrodt | first1 = B.T. | last2 = Glover | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Laureto | first3 = J. | last4 = Anzalone | first4 = G.C. | last5 = Oppliger | first5 = D. | last6 = Irwin | first6 = J.L. | last7 = Pearce | first7 = J.M. | year = 2013 | title = Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open-source 3-D printers | url = https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/materials_fp/48| journal = Mechatronics | volume = 23 | issue = 6| pages = 713–726 | issn = 0957-4158 | doi = 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002 | s2cid = 1766321 }}</ref> The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the [[peer production]] community.
Many open-source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open-source projects are:<ref>{{citation|surname1=Joe McCann|periodical=Forbes|title=The Meteoric Rise Of Open Source And Why Investors Should Care|language=de|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/09/22/the-meteoric-rise-of-open-source-and-why-investors-should-care/|access-date=2017-10-10
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The open-source model is a decentralized [[software development]] model that encourages [[open collaboration]],<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Raymond |first=Eric S. |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |year=2001 |title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary |url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym |url-access=registration |publisher=OReilly |isbn=978-0-596-00108-7}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> A main principle of [[open-source software development]] is [[peer production]], with products such as source code, [[blueprint]]s, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in [[open-source appropriate technology]],<ref name="Pearce2012" /> and open-source drug discovery.<ref name="business-standard.com"/><ref name="OpenWetWare">[[OpenWetWare:OSDDMalaria:GSK Arylpyrrole Series:Story so far|"Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium]].</ref>
The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008">Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2008). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220521057_Knowledge_Collaboration_Among_Professionals_Protecting_National_Security_Role_of_Transactive_Memories_in_Ego-Centered_Knowledge_Networks Knowledge Collaboration Among Professionals Protecting National Security: Role of Transactive Memories in Ego-Centered Knowledge Networks]. ''Organization Science'', 19(2), 260–276 {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1070.0315}}. {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> and [[online communities]].<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011">Faraj, S., Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2011). [http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006214955/http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf |date=6 October 2021 }}. ''Organization Science'', 22(5), 1224–1239, {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1100.0614}} {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including [[TEDx]] and Wikipedia.<ref name="kurzweilai.net">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kurzweilai.net/open-collaboration-leading-to-novel-organizations|title=Open collaboration leading to novel organizations « Kurzweil}}</ref>
Open collaboration is the principle underlying [[peer production]], [[mass collaboration]], and [[wikinomics]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> It was observed initially in open-source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s,<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008"/> Internet communities,<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011"/> and many instances of [[open content]], such as [[Creative Commons license|Creative Commons]]. It also explains some instances of [[crowdsourcing]], [[collaborative consumption]], and [[open innovation]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" />
Riehle et al. define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of [[egalitarianism]], [[meritocracy]], and [[self-organization]].<ref name="RiehleEllenberger2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Riehle| first1=D. |last2=Ellenberger |first2=J. |last3=Menahem| first3=T. |last4=Mikhailovski |first4=B. |last5=Natchetoi| first5=Y. |last6=Naveh |first6=B. |last7=Odenwald |first7=T. |date=March 2009 |title=Open Collaboration within Corporations Using Software Forges |journal=IEEE Software |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=52–58 |doi=10.1109/MS.2009.44 | bibcode=2009ISoft..26b..52R |issn=0740-7459 |s2cid=6038418 |url=http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008003536/http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2016 |access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> This definition captures multiple instances, all joined by similar principles. For example, all of the elements – goods of economic value, open access to contribute and consume, interaction and exchange, purposeful yet loosely coordinated work – are present in an open-source software project, in Wikipedia, or in a user forum or community. They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on [[user-generated content]]. In all of these instances of open collaboration, anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing, which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated.
An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensym.org/about-us/|title=About|work=The International Symposium on Open Collaboration|date=15 June 2010}}</ref> As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes)."<ref name="Opensym">{{cite web |title=Definition of Open Collaboration |work=The Joint International Symposium on Open Collaboration |first=Dirk |last=Riehle |quote=Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes). |access-date=2013-03-26 |url=http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312135554/http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
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Some publishers of [[open-access]] journals have argued that [[Open data|data]] from [[food science]] and [[gastronomy]] studies should be freely available to aid [[reproducibility]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcblog/2013/12/02/mega-bites-how-open-data-and-gastronomy-are-proving-a-recipe-for-success/|title = Mega Bites – how open data and gastronomy are proving a recipe for success|work = Research in Progress Blog|date = 2 December 2013|first = Kam |last = Arkinstall|publisher = biomedcentral.com }}</ref> A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.<ref>{{cite web|title=TEXTURE – A hydrocolloid recipe collection|first=Martin|last=Lersch|url=http://blog.khymos.org/wp-content/2009/02/hydrocolloid-recipe-collection-v3.0.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Open-source cola]]s – cola soft drinks, similar to [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]], whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages keep their formulas secret and unknown to the general public.<ref name="octavio1">{{cite web|url=http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf
* [[Free Beer]] (originally ''Vores Øl'') – is an open-source beer created by students at the [[IT University of Copenhagen|IT-University]] in Copenhagen together with [[Superflex]], an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.<ref>The concept expands upon a statement found in the [[Free Software Definition]]: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer.'"</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Stallman, Richard M.|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=The Gnu Organisation: What is free software?|publisher=Gnu.org |access-date=2012-10-25|author-link=Richard Stallman }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cohn|first=David|title=Free Beer for Geeks|journal=Wired News|date=18 July 2005|url=https://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,68144,00.html?tw=wn_17culthead}}</ref>
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===Science and engineering===
[[File:Open Access logo PLoS white.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open access]] logo]]▼
{{further|Open research}}
▲[[File:Open Access logo PLoS white.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open access]] logo]]
* Research – The [[Science Commons]] was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencecommons.org/ |title=Science — Creative Commons |publisher=Sciencecommons.org |date=17 November 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* Research – [[The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field]] (OSOTF)<ref name="osotf">{{cite journal|last1=Pearce|first1=Joshua M.|first2=Adegboyega |last2=Babasola |first3=Rob |last3=Andrews |title=Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization|journal=Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference|year=2012|pages=1–7|url=http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/features/conference/2012/papers/Pearce-Babasola-Andrews-queensu.pdf}}</ref> is a grid-connected [[photovoltaic]] test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.<ref name="osotf" />
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* Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.
* [[Open-design movement|Open-design]] – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |title=Open collaborative design |publisher=AdCiv |date=29 July 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629170541/http://adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |archive-date=29 June 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]] (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as [[free and open-source software]].<ref name="buitenhuis">A. J. Buitenhuis, I. Zelenika and J. M. Pearce, "[http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf Open Design-Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725131916/http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf |date=25 July 2018 }}", ''Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference : Open'', 25–27 March 2010, pp. 1–12.</ref> These technologies must be "[[appropriate technology]]" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the [[RepRap]] to manufacture appropriate technology.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J.M. Pearce |author2=C. Morris Blair |author3=K.J. Laciak |author4=R. Andrews |author5=A. Nosrat |author6=I. Zelenika-Zovko |title=3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=17–29 |year=2010 | issn = 1913-9063 |doi=10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Open-source learning|Teaching]] – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |title=JEDI: The Open Source {{not a typo|Curricullum}} — Project Kenai |publisher=Kenai.com |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516040735/http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |archive-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other examples include [[Khan Academy]] and [[wikiversity]]. At the university level, the use of [[Open-source appropriate technology|open-source-appropriate technology]] classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:<ref>{{cite journal |author=J.M. Pearce |title=Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects |journal=The Physics Teacher |volume=45 |pages=164–7 |year=2007 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTEAH000045000003000164000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes |doi=10.1119/1.2709675| issn = 0031-921X |issue=3|bibcode=2007PhTea..45..164P }}</ref> This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of [[appropriate technology]]. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving [[service learning]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Joshua M. |last=Pearce |title=Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |year=2009 | issn = 0973-4082 |doi=10.1177/097340820900300112|hdl=1974/5306 |citeseerx=10.1.1.620.246 |s2cid=145118511 | url = http://hdl.handle.net/1974/5306 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference
|last1=Murphy|first1=Sharon|last2=Saleh|first2=Nasser
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Open-source ethics is split into two strands:
* Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the [[Association of Internet Researchers|AoIR]] Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.<ref>[http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/berry2.pdf Berry (2004) Internet Ethics: Privacy, Ethics and Alienation{{spaced ndash}}An Open Source Approach.] (PDF file)</ref>
* Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |author=El-Emam, K |title=Ethics and Open Source |journal=Empirical Software Engineering |volume=6 |issue=4 |year=2001 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1011962213685 |url=http://springerlink.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=hf0bld3qlk0unn8f8x2m&referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,12;journal,14,33;linkingpublicationresults,1:100262,1#ContactOfAuthor1}}</ref>
===Religion===
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[[Open-source film|Open-source movie production]] is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie [[Elephants Dream]] is said to be the "world's first open movie",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elephantsdream.org/ |title=Elephants Dream |publisher=Elephants Dream |date=13 August 2006 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> created entirely using open-source technology.
An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material [[footage]], and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit ''[[WBCN and the American Revolution]]'', which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.<ref>"Web Power to the People", The Boston Herald, 29 September 2005.</ref><ref>"The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston", Boston Globe, Op-Ed, 18 July 2009.</ref><ref>"'BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors", Boston Herald, 11 August 2009.</ref><ref>"WBCN and The American Revolution", The Huffington Post, 11 August 2009.</ref> The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Center for Independent Documentary. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nfb.ca/ |title=Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online |publisher=NFB.ca |date=27 August 2012 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701062521/http://www.nfb.ca/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Open-source film|Open-source film-making]] refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.
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* Karl Fogel. [http://producingoss.com Producing Open Source Software] (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.
* {{cite book |title=Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy |first1=Ron |last1=Goldman |first2=Richard P. |last2=Gabriel |year=2005 |publisher=Richard P. Gabriel |url=http://dreamsongs.com/IHE/IHE.html |isbn=978-1-55860-889-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals |first=Isaac Hunter |last=Dunlap |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford: Chandos |url=http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php?ID=98 |isbn=978-1-84334-161-1 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204175446/http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php%3FID%3D98 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/nettingsmeier_dont_hack.html ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
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* {{cite journal |author1=v. Hippel, E. |author2=v. Krogh, G. |title=Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science |journal=Organization Science |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=209–223 |year=2003 |doi= 10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992 | issn = 1047-7039 |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/66145/1/SSRN-id1410789.pdf|hdl=1721.1/66145 |s2cid=11947692 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. |title=The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors |journal=American Economic Review |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=114–8 |year=2006 |doi=
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner, J., Tirole, J. |title=Some simple economics on open source |journal=Journal of Industrial Economics |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=197–234 |year=2002 |doi= 10.1111/1467-6451.00174 | issn = 0022-1821 |citeseerx=10.1.1.461.3373 |s2cid=219722756 }} [http://www.people.hbs.edu/jlerner/simple.pdf earlier revision (PDF)]
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Scope of Open Source Licensing |journal=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization |volume=21 |pages=20–56 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jleo/ewi002| issn = 8756-6222 |citeseerx=10.1.1.72.465 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–120 |year=2005 |doi=10.1257/0895330054048678 | issn = 0895-3309 |s2cid=17968894 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10956.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |author=Maurer, S.M. |title=Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several) |journal=UMKC Law Review |volume=76 |issue=2 |year=2008 |ssrn=1114371 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1114371 |s2cid=54046895 |url=https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/1516 | issn = 1556-5068 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Osterloh |first1=M. |last2=Rota |first2=S. |title=Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention? |journal=Research Policy |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=157–171 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004 | issn = 0048-7333 |hdl=10419/214322 |url=http://www.crema-research.ch/papers/2005-08.pdf |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Riehle |first=D. |title=The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives |journal=IEEE Computer |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=25–32 |date=April 2007 |url=http://www.riehle.org/computer-science/research/2007/computer-2007-article.html | issn = 0018-9162 |doi=10.1109/MC.2007.147|s2cid=168544 |url-access=subscription }}
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