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{{Short description|Computer programming for quantum computers}}
{{Primary sources|date=August 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
'''Quantum programming'''
When working with quantum processor-based systems, quantum programming languages provide high-level abstractions to express quantum algorithms efficiently. These languages often integrate with classical programming environments and support hybrid quantum-classical workflows. The development of quantum software has been strongly influenced by the [[open-source]] community, with many toolkits and frameworks—such as [[Qiskit]], [[Cirq]], PennyLane, and qBraid SDK—available under open licenses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Häner|first1=Thomas |last2=Steiger|first2=Damian S.|last3=Svore|first3=Krysta|author3-link= Krysta Svore |last4=Troyer|first4=Matthias|date=2018|title=A software methodology for compiling quantum programs|journal=Quantum Science and Technology|volume=3|issue=2|pages=020501|doi=10.1088/2058-9565/aaa5cc|issn=2058-9565|arxiv=1604.01401|bibcode=2018QS&T....3b0501H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/qiskit/qiskit|title=Qiskit GitHub repository|website=GitHub}}</ref>
Quantum programming can also be used to model or control experimental systems through quantum instrumentation and sensor-based platforms. While some quantum computing architectures—such as [[linear optical quantum computing]] using the [[KLM protocol]]—require specialized hardware, others use gate-based quantum processors accessible through software interfaces. In both cases, quantum programming serves as the bridge between theoretical algorithms and physical implementation.
== Quantum instruction sets ==
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=== OpenQASM ===
{{Main|OpenQASM}}
[[OpenQASM]]<ref>{{Citation|title=qiskit-openqasm: OpenQASM specification|date=2017-07-04|url=https://github.com/IBM/qiskit-openqasm|publisher=International Business Machines|access-date=2017-07-06}}</ref> is the intermediate representation introduced by IBM for use with [[#Qiskit|Qiskit]] and the
=== QIR ===
'''Quantum Intermediate Representation''' (QIR) is a hardware-agnostic intermediate representation developed by [[Microsoft]] as part of the [[Quantum Development Kit]]. It is based on the [[LLVM]] compiler infrastructure and is designed to represent quantum programs in a way that supports optimization and execution across diverse quantum hardware backends.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quantum Intermediate Representation (QIR) |url=https://github.com/qir-alliance/qir-spec|website=QIR Alliance|access-date=2025-06-02}}</ref> QIR serves as a common target for quantum compilers, enabling interoperation between different programming languages, such as Q#, and low-level hardware control layers. It is maintained by the [[QIR Alliance]], a collaborative group of academic and industry partners.
=== Quil ===
{{Main|Quil (instruction set architecture)}}
[[Quil (instruction set architecture)|Quil]] is an instruction set architecture for quantum computing that first introduced a shared quantum/classical memory model. It was introduced by Robert Smith, Michael Curtis, and William Zeng in ''A Practical Quantum Instruction Set Architecture''.<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1608.03355 |title=A Practical Quantum Instruction Set Architecture |last1=Smith |first1=Robert S. |last2=Curtis |first2=Michael J. |last3=Zeng |first3=William J. |year=2016 |class=quant-ph }}</ref>
== Quantum software development kits ==
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==== Cirq ====
{{Main|Cirq}}
An open source project developed by [[Google]], which uses the [[Python programming]] language to create and manipulate quantum circuits.
==== Classiq ====
A cloud-based quantum IDE developed by Classiq, uses a high-level quantum language, [[#Qmod|Qmod]], to generate scalable and efficient quantum circuits with
▲A cloud-based quantum IDE developed by Classiq, uses a high-level quantum language, [[#Qmod|Qmod]], to generate scalable and efficient quantum circuits with the hardware-aware synthesis engine, that can be deployed across a wide range of QPUs. The platform includes a large library of quantum algorithms.
==== Forest ====
An open source project developed by [[Rigetti]], which uses the [[Python programming]] language to create and manipulate quantum circuits. Results are obtained either using simulators or prototype quantum devices provided by Rigetti. As well as the ability to create programs using basic quantum operations, higher level algorithms are available within the Grove package.<ref>{{Cite web
==== MindQuantum ====
MindQuantum is a quantum computing framework based on [[MindSpore]], focusing on the implementation of [[NISQ]] algorithms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindspore.cn/mindquantum/docs/en/master/index.html|title=MindSpore Quantum Documentation|website=www.mindspore.cn/mindquantum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite arXiv|title=MindSpore Quantum: A User-Friendly, High-Performance, and AI-Compatible Quantum Computing Framework|eprint=2406.17248 |last1=Xu |first1=Xusheng |last2=Cui |first2=Jiangyu |last3=Cui |first3=Zidong |last4=He |first4=Runhong |last5=Li |first5=Qingyu |last6=Li |first6=Xiaowei |last7=Lin |first7=Yanling |last8=Liu |first8=Jiale |last9=Liu |first9=Wuxin |last10=Lu |first10=Jiale |last11=Luo |first11=Maolin |last12=Lyu |first12=Chufan |last13=Pan |first13=Shijie |last14=Pavel |first14=Mosharev |last15=Shu |first15=Runqiu |last16=Tang |first16=Jialiang |last17=Xu |first17=Ruoqian |last18=Xu |first18=Shu |last19=Yang |first19=Kang |last20=Yu |first20=Fan |last21=Zeng |first21=Qingguo |last22=Zhao |first22=Haiying |last23=Zheng |first23=Qiang |last24=Zhou |first24=Junyuan |last25=Zhou |first25=Xu |last26=Zhu |first26=Yikang |last27=Zou |first27=Zuoheng |last28=Bayat |first28=Abolfazl |last29=Cao |first29=Xi |last30=Cui |first30=Wei |date=2024 |class=quant-ph |display-authors=1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/mindspore-ai/mindquantum|title=mindquantum|website=github.com}}</ref>
==== Ocean ====
An [[open source]] suite of tools developed by D-Wave. Written mostly in the Python programming language, it enables users to formulate problems in Ising Model and Quadratic Unconstrained Binary Optimization formats (QUBO). Results can be obtained by submitting to an online quantum computer in Leap, D-Wave's real-time Quantum Application Environment, customer-owned machines, or classical samplers.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
==== PennyLane ====
An [[open-source software|open-source]]
==== Perceval ====
An open-source project created by {{interlanguage link|Quandela|fr}} for designing photonic quantum circuits and developing quantum algorithms, based on [[Python (programming language)|Python]]. Simulations are run either on the user's own computer or on the [[cloud computing|cloud]]. Perceval is also used to connect to Quandela's cloud-based [[List of quantum processors|photonic quantum processor]].<ref>{{cite news |title=La puissance d'un ordinateur quantique testée en ligne (The power of a quantum computer tested online) |newspaper=Le Monde.fr |date=November 22, 2022 |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/sciences/article/2022/11/22/la-puissance-d-un-ordinateur-quantique-testee-en-ligne_6151063_1650684.html |publisher=Le Monde}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heurtel |first1=Nicolas |last2=Fyrillas |first2=Andreas |last3=de Gliniasty |first3=Grégoire |last4=Le Bihan |first4=Raphaël |last5=Malherbe |first5=Sébastien |last6=Pailhas |first6=Marceau |last7=Bertasi |first7=Eric |last8=Bourdoncle |first8=Boris |last9=Emeriau |first9=Pierre-Emmanuel |last10=Mezher |first10=Rawad |last11=Music |first11=Luka |last12=Belabas |first12=Nadia |last13=Valiron |first13=Benoît |last14=Senellart |first14=Pascale |last15=Mansfield |first15=Shane |last16=Senellart |first16=Jean |title=Perceval: A Software Platform for Discrete Variable Photonic Quantum Computing |journal=Quantum |date=February 21, 2023 |volume=7 |page=931 |doi=10.22331/q-2023-02-21-931 |arxiv=2204.00602 |bibcode=2023Quant...7..931H |s2cid=247922568 |url=https://quantum-journal.org/papers/q-2023-02-21-931/}}</ref>[[File:QProg1-Refreshed.png|thumb|upright=2.4|Sample code using projectq with Python]]
==== ProjectQ ====
An open source project developed at the Institute for Theoretical Physics at [[ETH]], which uses the
==== qBraid SDK ====
The qBraid SDK is an [[open-source|open-source]] platform-agnostic quantum runtime framework developed by qBraid. It enables users to write quantum programs once and execute them across various quantum hardware and simulators without modifying the code. The SDK supports multiple quantum programming libraries, including Qiskit, Cirq, PennyLane, PyQuil, and Braket, among others. It features a graph-based transpiler that facilitates conversion between different quantum program types, allowing seamless interoperability between frameworks. The SDK also provides tools for job submission, result retrieval, and circuit visualization. It is integrated with qBraid Lab, offering access to over 20 quantum devices and simulators from providers such as IonQ, Rigetti, QuEra, and IQM.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://docs.qbraid.com/sdk/user-guide/overview|title=qBraid SDK Overview|website=docs.qbraid.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qbraid.com/blog-posts/qbraid-announces-qbraid-sdk-integrated-with-amazon-braket|title=qBraid Announces qBraid SDK Integrated with Amazon Braket on qBraid Lab|website=qbraid.com}}</ref>
==== Qibo ====
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{{Main|Qiskit}}
An open source project developed by [[IBM]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qiskit.org/|title=qiskit.org|website=qiskit.org}}</ref> Quantum circuits are created and manipulated using
==== Qrisp ====
[[Eclipse Qrisp|Qrisp]]<ref>{{cite web|title = Qrisp official website|url=https://www.qrisp.eu/}}</ref> is an open source project coordinated by the [[Eclipse Foundation]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Eclipse Foundation (website) |url=https://www.eclipse.org/org/foundation/}}</ref> and developed in
==== Quantum Development Kit ====
A project developed by [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/quantum/|title=Azure Quantum documentation, QDK & Q# API reference - Azure Quantum|website=learn.microsoft.com}}</ref> as part of the [[.NET Framework]]. Quantum programs can be written and run within [[Visual Studio]] and [[VSCode]] using the quantum programming language Q#.
==== Strawberry Fields ====
An [[open-source software|open-source]]
==== t|ket> ====
A quantum programming environment and optimizing compiler developed by
==== Wolfram Quantum Framework ====
An add-on [[Wolfram Language]] paclet that provides a symbolic, high-level representation for quantum objects such as basis, states, operators, channels, measurements, and circuits, integrated with [[Mathematica]].<ref name=qf>{{Cite web|url=https://resources.wolframcloud.com/PacletRepository/resources/Wolfram/QuantumFramework/|title=QuantumFramework |website=resources.wolframcloud.com|access-date=2025-08-18}}</ref> The framework includes tools for simulation and analysis—such as time evolution, measurement simulation, entanglement monotones, partial trace/transpose, discrete Wigner transforms, stabilizer methods, and tensor-network utilities—as well as a library of named constructs (e.g., Bell/GHZ states, [[Pauli matrices|Pauli operators]], Fourier, Grover etc).<ref name=qf/> It offers built-in visualization (e.g., circuit diagrams and Bloch-sphere plots) and interoperability with external platforms, including conversion to Qiskit and Amazon Braket formats and the ability to send queries to quantum processing units (QPUs) via service connections.
== Quantum programming languages ==
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=== Imperative languages ===
The most prominent representatives of the imperative languages are QCL,<ref>{{cite web |author=
==== Ket ====
Ket<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Da Rosa |first1=Evandro Chagas Ribeiro |last2=De Santiago |first2=Rafael |date=2022-01-31 |title=Ket Quantum Programming |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3474224 |journal=ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1145/3474224 |issn=1550-4832|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is an open-source embedded language designed to facilitate quantum programming, leveraging the familiar syntax and simplicity of Python. It serves as an integral component of the Ket Quantum Programming Platform,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ket Quantum Programming |url=https://quantumket.org |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=quantumket.org |language=en}}</ref> seamlessly integrating with a [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]] [[runtime library]] and a quantum simulator. Maintained by Quantuloop, the project emphasizes accessibility and versatility for researchers and developers. The following example demonstrates the implementation of a [[Bell state]] using Ket:<syntaxhighlight lang="python" line="1">
from ket import *
a, b = quant(2) # Allocate two quantum bits
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==== LQP ====
The Logic of Quantum Programs (LQP) is a dynamic quantum logic, capable of expressing important features of quantum measurements and unitary evolutions of multi-partite states, and provides logical characterizations of various forms of entanglement. The logic has been used to specify and verify the correctness of various protocols in quantum computation.<ref name="LQP">A. Baltag and S. Smets, [https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.01361 "LQP: The Dynamic Logic of Quantum Information"], Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 16(3):491-525, 2006.</ref><ref name="PLQP">{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10773-013-1987-3 | doi=10.1007/s10773-013-1987-3 | title=PLQP & Company: Decidable Logics for Quantum Algorithms | year=2014 | last1=Baltag | first1=Alexandru | last2=Bergfeld | first2=Jort | last3=Kishida | first3=Kohei | last4=Sack | first4=Joshua | last5=Smets | first5=Sonja | last6=Zhong | first6=Shengyang | journal=International Journal of Theoretical Physics | volume=53 | issue=10 | pages=3628–3647 | bibcode=2014IJTP...53.3628B | s2cid=254573992 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==== Q language ====
Q Language is the second implemented imperative quantum programming language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sra.itc.it/people/serafini/qlang/ |title=Software for the Q language |date=2001-11-23 |access-date=2017-07-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620011647/http://sra.itc.it/people/serafini/qlang/ |archive-date=2009-06-20 }}</ref> Q Language was implemented as an extension of [[C++]] programming language. It provides classes for basic quantum operations like QHadamard, QFourier, QNot, and QSwap, which are derived from the base class Qop.
Quantum memory is represented by class Qreg.
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==== Qmod ====
Quantum Modeling (Qmod) language is a high-level language that abstracts away the gate-level qubit operation, providing a functional approach to the implementation of quantum algorithms on quantum registers. The language is part of the [https://classiq.io Classiq] platform and can be used directly with its native syntax, through a Python SDK, or with a visual editor, all methods can take advantage of the larger library of algorithms and the efficient circuit optimization.
==== Q|SI> ====
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==== Quantum pseudocode ====
Quantum pseudocode proposed by E. Knill is the first formalized language for description of [[quantum algorithm]]s.
==== Scaffold ====
Scaffold is a C-like language, that compiles to QASM and OpenQASM.
==== Silq ====
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=== Functional languages ===
Efforts are underway to develop [[functional programming languages]] for [[quantum computing]]. Functional programming languages are well-suited for reasoning about programs. Examples include Selinger's QPL,<ref name="qpl">Peter Selinger, [http://www.mathstat.dal.ca/~selinger/papers.html#qpl "Towards a quantum programming language"], Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 14(4):527-586, 2004.</ref> and the [[Haskell]]-like language QML by Altenkirch and Grattage.<ref name="qml1">[http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~jjg/qml.html Jonathan Grattage: QML Research<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080331114452/http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~jjg/qml.html |date=March 31, 2008 }} (website)</ref><ref name="qml2">T. Altenkirch, V. Belavkin, J. Grattage, A. Green, A. Sabry, J. K. Vizzotto, [http://sneezy.cs.nott.ac.uk/qml QML: A Functional Quantum Programming Language]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710201728/http://sneezy.cs.nott.ac.uk/QML/
==== LIQUi|> ====
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Quantum lambda calculi are extensions of the classical [[lambda calculus]] introduced by [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Stephen Cole Kleene]] in the 1930s. The purpose of quantum lambda calculi is to extend quantum programming languages with a theory of [[higher-order function]]s.
The first attempt to define a quantum lambda calculus was made by Philip Maymin in 1996.<ref>Philip Maymin, [https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9612052 "Extending the Lambda Calculus to Express Randomized and Quantumized Algorithms"], 1996</ref> His lambda-q calculus is powerful enough to express any quantum computation. However, this language can efficiently solve [[NP-complete]] problems, and therefore appears to be strictly stronger than the standard quantum computational models (such as the [[quantum Turing machine]] or the [[quantum circuit]] model). Therefore, Maymin's lambda-q calculus is probably not implementable on a physical device.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}}
In 2003, André van Tonder defined an extension of the [[lambda calculus]] suitable for proving correctness of quantum programs. He also provided an implementation in the [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] programming language.<ref>{{cite web |author=
In 2004, Selinger and Valiron defined a [[strongly typed]] lambda calculus for quantum computation with a type system based on [[linear logic]].<ref>Peter Selinger, Benoˆıt Valiron, [https://www.mscs.dal.ca/~selinger/papers/qlambdabook.pdf "Quantum Lambda Calculus"].</ref>
==== Quipper ====
{{For|the education technology company|Quipper (company)}}
Quipper was published in 2013.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mathstat.dal.ca/~selinger/quipper/ | title=The Quipper Language}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Green |first=Alexander S.
<syntaxhighlight lang="haskell">
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return r
</syntaxhighlight>
==See also==
{{Portal|Computer programming}}
* [[List of quantum computing journals]]
== References ==
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* [https://quantiki.org/wiki/quantum-programming-language Quantum programming language] in [http://www.quantiki.org/ Quantiki]
* [https://github.com/lanl/qmasm/wiki QMASM documentation]
*[https://pyquil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html pyQuil documentation] including [https://pyquil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/intro.html Introduction to Quantum Computing]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718165337/https://pyquil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/intro.html |date=July 18, 2018 }}
* [https://github.com/epiqc/ScaffCC Scaffold Source]
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