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{{Short description|Classification of sex and gender into two opposite forms}}
{{Redirect|Binarism|3=Binary (disambiguation)}}{{About|gender from a sociological perspective|further information|Sex and gender distinction|Discrimination based on gender|Gender discrimination|the movement rooted in discrimination based on gender and gender theory|Anti-gender movement}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
[[File:Sexsacks.jpg|thumb|alt=Opaque grab bags labeled "girls" and "boys" |The gender binary in everyday life]]
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The '''gender binary''' (also known as '''gender binarism''')<ref name="Garber1997">{{cite book |author=Marjorie Garber |title=Vested Interests: Cross-dressing and Cultural Anxiety |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCzYJisHWHAC |access-date=18 September 2012 |date=25 November 1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-91951-7 |pages=2, 10, 14–16, 47}}</ref><ref name="Card1994">{{cite book |author=Claudia Card |title=Adventures in Lesbian Philosophy |
In this binary model, ''[[gender]]'' and ''[[sexuality]]'' may be assumed by default to align with one's [[sex assigned at birth]]. This may include certain expectations of how one dresses themselves, one's behavior, [[sexual orientation]], names or pronouns, which restroom one uses, and other qualities. For example, when a male is born, gender binarism may assume that the male will be masculine in appearance, have masculine character traits and behaviors, as well as having a [[heterosexual]] attraction to females.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Keating |first1=Anne |title=glbtq >> literature >> Gender |url=http://www.glbtq.com/literature/gender.html |website=www.glbtq.com |publisher=glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture |access-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403155153/http://www.glbtq.com/literature/gender.html |archive-date=3 April 2015}}</ref> These expectations may reinforce negative [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], [[bias]]es, and [[discrimination]] towards people who display [[Gender expression|expressions]] of [[Gender
==General==
The term ''gender binary'' describes the system in which a society allocates its members into one of two sets of [[gender role]]s and [[gender identity|gender identities]], which assign attributes based on their biological sex (chromosomal and genitalia).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gendered bodies : feminist perspectives |last1=Lorber |first1=Judith |last2=Moore |first2=Lisa Jean |date=2007 |publisher=Roxbury Pub. Co |isbn=978-1-933220-41-3 |___location=Los Angeles, Calif. |pages=2 |oclc=64453299}}</ref> In the case of [[intersex]] people, the gender binary system is limited. Those who are
Scholars who study the gender binary from an intersectional feminist and [[critical race theory]] perspective<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carbado |first1=Devon W. |last2=Crenshaw |first2=Kimberlé Williams |last3=Mays |first3=Vickie M. |last4=Tomlinson |first4=Barbara |date=2013 |title=INTERSECTIONALITY |journal=Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=303–312 |doi=10.1017/s1742058x13000349 |issn=1742-058X |pmc=4181947 |pmid=25285150}}</ref> argue that during the process of European colonization in North and South America, a binary system of gender was enforced as a means of maintaining patriarchal norms and upholding European [[nationalism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narayan |first=Yasmeen |date=2 October 2018 |title=Intersectionality, nationalisms, biocoloniality |url=https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/25144/3/25144.pdf |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=42 |issue=8 |pages=1225–1244 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2018.1518536 |issn=0141-9870 |s2cid=149928000}}</ref> The binary system has also been critiqued as scholars claim that biological sex and gender differ from one another; with sex relating to biological and chromosomal differences between males, females, and intersex people, while gender instead is a result of sociocultural socialization.<ref name="Darling-2021">Darling, Marsha J.Tyson. "Living on the Margins Beyond Gender Binaries: What Are the Challenges to Securing Rights." ''Public Integrity'', vol. 23, no. 6, Nov. 2021, pp. 573–94. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.1080/10999922.2020.1825180}}</ref>
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=== Language ===
In English, some nouns (e.g., boy), honorific titles (e.g., Miss), occupational titles (e.g., actress), and [[English personal pronouns|personal pronouns]] (e.g., she, his) are gendered, and they fall into a male/female binary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gustafsson Sendén |first1=Marie |last2=Bäck |first2=Emma A. |last3=Lindqvist |first3=Anna |date=2015 |title=Introducing a gender-neutral pronoun in a natural gender language: the influence of time on attitudes and behavior |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=6 |page=893 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00893 |pmid=26191016 |pmc=4486751 |issn=1664-1078 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Personal pronouns in the English language are typically associated with either men ([[he/him]]) or women ([[she/her]]), which excludes people who do not identify as a man or a woman.<ref name="Lab-2022a">{{Cite web |last=Lab |first=Purdue Writing |title=Gendered Pronouns & Singular "They" // Purdue Writing Lab |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/pronouns/gendered_pronouns_and_singular_they.html |access-date=2 May 2022 |website=Purdue Writing Lab |language=en}}</ref> However, [[Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns|gender-neutral pronouns]], such as [[Singular they|singular ''they'']] pronouns (they/them) are sometimes used by nonbinary and gender nonconforming individuals
According to Hyde and colleagues, children raised within English-speaking (and other gendered-language) environments come to view gender as a binary category.<ref name="Hyde-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Hyde |first1=Janet Shibley |last2=Bigler |first2=Rebecca S. |last3=Joel |first3=Daphna |last4=Tate |first4=Charlotte Chucky |last5=van Anders |first5=Sari M. |date=February 2019 |title=The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challenges to the gender binary |journal=American Psychologist |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=171–193 |doi=10.1037/amp0000307 |pmid=30024214 |issn=1935-990X |doi-access=free}}</ref> They state that for children who learn English as their primary language in the United States, adults' use of the gender binary to explicitly sort individuals (i.e. "boys" and "girls" bathrooms and sports teams), and not just the presence of gender markers, causes gender biases.<ref name="Hyde-2019" /> Those biases can appear in information processing, and can affect attitudes and behavior directed at those both inside and outside of the gender binary language system.<ref name="Keener-2023">Keener, Emily, and Kourtney Kotvas. "Beyond He and She: Does the Singular Use of 'They, Them, Their' Function Generically as Inclusive Pronouns for Cisgender Men and Women?" ''Gender Issues'', vol. 40, no. 1, Mar. 2023, pp. 23–43. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.1007/s12147-022-09297-8}}.</ref> An example of this would be the use of gendered language in job descriptions and advertisements: those who are excluded by the language used may not apply for the position, leading to a segregated field of work.<ref name="Keener-2023" /> For example, women could be systemically excluded from a workplace or career that exclusively uses the pronouns "he" to advertise new job openings.<ref name="Keener-2023" /> The exclusive use of "she" and "he" (binary pronouns) can also systemically exclude those who do not fit within the gender binary and may prefer gender neutral language.<ref name="Keener-2023" />
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Along with using the gender binary to categorize human bodies, cultures that obey the binary may also use it to label things, places, and ideas. For example, in American culture, people identify playing sports as a masculine activity and shopping as a feminine activity; blue is a color for boys while pink is for girls; care work is a feminine profession while management is associated with masculinity, etc.
Some languages [[Grammatical gender|gender their words]] into masculine and feminine forms, such as French or Spanish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wade
=== Education ===
The gender binary is introduced unconsciously at a young age, often within familial and school settings. For example, those considered to be girls are expected to be emotional, affectionate, talk excessively, complain more than average, and be picky about their surroundings and appearances, while boys are expected to be cruel, dominant, and act as a leader in group settings.<ref name="deMayo-2022">deMayo, Benjamin, et al. "Endorsement of Gender Stereotypes in Gender Diverse and Cisgender Adolescents and Their Parents." ''PLoS ONE'', vol. 17, no. 6, June 2022, pp. 1–16. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0269784|doi-access=free}}</ref> These characteristic while stereotypes, can be encouraged and influenced through objects like toys (e.g. baby dolls introducing maternal and domestic labor) but also in schools. Girls are often expected to excel in English classes, while
=== Religion ===
Major religions often teach a gender binary and act as authorities for gender roles.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}} Many Christians teach that the gender binary is both good and normal, pointing to the gender binary evident in the creation story of the [[Book of Genesis]] in the [[Bible]], where it is declared that, "God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schwarzwalder |first1=Rob |date=May 31, 2016 | title=Sexual Madness and the Image of God |url=https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/sexual-madness-and-the-image-of-god |access-date=17 December 2019 |publisher=[[Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Yuan | first=Christopher | date=14 December 2019 | title=He Made Them Male and Female: Sex, Gender, and the Image of God | website=Desiring God | url=https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/he-made-them-male-and-female
== In the LGBTQ+ community ==
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In the contemporary [[Western world|West]], [[non-binary]] or [[genderqueer]] people do not adhere to the gender binary by refusing terms like "male" and "female", as they do not identify as either. Transgender people have a unique place in relation to the gender binary. In some cases, attempting to conform to societal expectations for their gender, transgender individuals may opt for surgery, hormones, or both.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Transmen and FTMs: Identities, Bodies, Genders, and Sexualities |last=Cromwell |first=Jason |publisher=University of Illinois |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-252-06825-6 |___location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=511}}</ref>
[[Ball culture]] is an example of how the LGBT community interprets and rejects the gender binary. ''[[Paris Is Burning (film)|Paris is Burning]]'', a film directed by [[Jennie Livingston]], depicts New York's ballroom scene in the late 1980s.<ref name="Livingston-1990">{{cite AV media |author=Livingston, Jennie |author2=Xtravaganza, Angie |author3=Corey, Dorian |author4=Dupree, Paris |author5=LaBeija, Pepper |author6=Ninja, Willi |title=Paris Is Burning |oclc=1269377435}}</ref> To compete in the balls, men, women, and everyone in between create costumes and walk in their respective categories: [[Butch Queen]], Transmale Realness, and [[Femme]] Queen to name a few.<ref name="Livingston-1990" /> During the balls, the gender binary is thrown out the window, and the people competing are allowed to express themselves however they interpret the category.<ref name="Livingston-1990" /> Within the scenes of people competing in various categories there
==Criticism of the binary==
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Gendered stereotypes maintain the gender binary and the systems of power within it.<ref name="Jacques-2022">Jacques, Sarah A., et al. "Perceptions of Nonbinary Identifying Individuals: Through the Lens of Gender and Race." ''Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research'', vol. 27, no. 1, Spring 2022, pp. 46–58. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.24839/2325-7342.JN27.1.46}}.</ref>
People outside of the gender binary also experience harmful stereotypes, and are both affected by cisgender stereotypes and biases regarding being transgender or gender nonconforming. For example, the labels "mentally ill" and "confused" are stereotypes uniquely assigned to transgender individuals by cisgender people.<ref name="Howansky-2021">Howansky, Kristina, et al. "(Trans)Gender Stereotypes and the Self: Content and Consequences of Gender Identity Stereotypes." ''Self & Identity'', vol. 20, no. 4, June 2021, pp. 478–95. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.1080/15298868.2019.1617191}}.</ref> Interesting enough, transgender children themselves appear to endorse less gender stereotypes at a young age and are tolerant of larger levels of gender nonconformity.<ref name="deMayo-2022" /> Often, stereotypes applied by cisgender individuals to transgender and gender nonconforming people are a combination of stereotypes surrounding biological sex and broader stereotypes about transgender identities. These result in conflicting and false images that directly and violently harm trans people; a study in conducted in 2021 found that cis individuals would stereotype a trans-man as "aggressive like cis-men, weak like cis-women, and mentally ill like trans-women."<ref name="Howansky-2021" /> [[Transphobic]] stereotypes like these contribute to violence against trans and gender nonconforming communities, where transgender individuals are physically assaulted or killed, misgendered, denied access to spaces that affirm their identity, and are legally blocked from changing their identifies on government and other official documents.<ref name="Howansky-2021" /> Discrimination and assault rates are even higher for trans and gender nonconforming people of color than their white counterparts. In 2017, a study found that it was 2.7 times more likely for BIPOC trans and gender nonconforming individuals to be sexually or physically assaulted and intimidated than white transgender and gender nonconforming people.<ref name="Jacques-2022" />
=== Cisnormativity ===
[[Cisnormativity]] is a product of the gender binary that assumes people are cisgender, meaning that their gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth.<ref name="Worthen-2021">{{Cite journal |last=Worthen |first=Meredith G. F. |date=1 September 2021 |title=Why Can't You Just Pick One? The Stigmatization of Non-binary/Genderqueer People by Cis and Trans Men and Women: An Empirical Test of Norm-Centered Stigma Theory |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01216-z |journal=Sex Roles |language=en |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=343–356 |doi=10.1007/s11199-020-01216-z |s2cid=233903735 |issn=1573-2762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Both binary and nonbinary transgender individuals are excluded from this ideology.<ref name="Worthen-2021" /> This leads to individuals outside the gender binary experiencing disparities in health and violence at individual, interpersonal, and institutional levels due to their non-normative status.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=LeMaster |first=Benny |date=2017 |title=Unlearning the Violence of the Normative |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/qed.4.2.0123 |journal=QED: A Journal in GLBTQ Worldmaking |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=123–130 |doi=10.14321/qed.4.2.0123 |jstor=10.14321/qed.4.2.0123 |s2cid=149243928 |issn=2327-1574|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== Discrimination ==
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==See also==
{{Portal|LGBTQ}}
* {{annotated link|Androgyny}}
▲* [[Anti-gender movement]]
* {{annotated link|Dyad (sociology)|Dyad}}
▲* [[Butch and femme]]
* {{annotated link|Effeminacy}}
* {{annotated link|Endosex}}
* {{annotated link|Complementarianism}}
*
*
*
*
*
▲* [[Postgenderism]]
▲* [[Sexual inversion (sexology)]]
==Notes==
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==Further reading==
* binaohan, b. ''decolonizing trans/gender 101.'' biyuti publishing, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-9937935-1-6}}
* ''GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary'' (Alyson), ([[Joan Nestle]], Clair Howell Co-Editors) 2002 {{ISBN|978-1-55583-730-3}}
* {{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/09/pregnant-males-and-pseudopenises-complex-sex-in-the-animal-kingdom/ |title=Pregnant males and pseudopenises: complex sex in the animal kingdom |date=9 September 2012 |publisher=[[Ars Technica]]}}
{{Sexual identities}}
{{Sex}}
{{
{{Discrimination}}
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[[Category:Feminist theory]]
[[Category:Queer theory]]
[[Category:Transgender topics]]
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