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{{short description|Livestream video performer}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Tone|date=June 2020}}
{{Update|date=April 2021}}
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{{Infobox occupation
|name = Webcam model
|image = Venus Berlin 2019
|imagesize = 250px
|caption = A webcam model
|official_names =
|type = [[Performing arts]]
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|average_salary =
}}
A '''webcam model''' ([[colloquially]], '''camgirl''', '''camboy''', or '''cammodel''') is a video performer who streams on the [[Internet]] with a live [[webcam]] broadcast.<ref name=Richtel>{{cite news|last1=Richtel|first1=Matt|title=Intimacy on the Web, With a Crowd|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/technology/intimacy-on-the-web-with-a-crowd.html|access-date=16 January 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 September 2013}}</ref> A webcam model often performs erotic acts online, such as [[Striptease|stripping]], [[masturbation]], or sex acts in exchange for money, goods, or attention.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Natasha|author-link=Natasha Bertrand|date=18 November 2014|title=How Webcam Models Make Money|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-how-webcam-models-make-money-2014-11|access-date=30 May 2020|website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/wjmbwn/cam-models-tell-us-how-much-money-they-are-really-making |title=Cam Models Tell Us How Much Money They Are Really Making |last=Isador |first=Graham |date=8 March 2019 |website=www.vice.com |publisher=Vice |access-date=30 May 2019 |quote=They were looking for people willing to strip then masturbate on webcam. }}</ref> They may also sell videos of their performances. Unlike other [[sex work]], webcam models operate solely online.<ref name="Richtel" /> Once viewed as a small niche in the world of [[Sex industry|adult entertainment]], camming became "the engine of the porn industry," according to Alec Helmy, the publisher of ''[[XBIZ]]'', a sex-trade industry journal.<ref name="Song">{{cite news|last1=Song|first1=Jason|title=As L.A. porn industry struggles, 'web camming' becomes a new trend|url=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-porn-camming-20160803-snap-story.html|access-date=16 January 2018|work=Los Angeles Times|date=3 August 2016}}</ref>▼
▲A '''webcam model''' ([[colloquially]], '''camgirl''', '''camboy''', or '''cammodel''') is a video performer who streams on the [[Internet]] with a live [[webcam]] broadcast.<ref name=Richtel>{{cite news|last1=Richtel|first1=Matt|title=Intimacy on the Web, With a Crowd|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/technology/intimacy-on-the-web-with-a-crowd.html|access-date=16 January 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 September 2013|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509141435/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/technology/intimacy-on-the-web-with-a-crowd.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A webcam model often performs erotic acts online, such as [[Striptease|stripping]], [[masturbation]], or sex acts in exchange for money, goods, or attention.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Natasha|author-link=Natasha Bertrand|date=18 November 2014|title=How Webcam Models Make Money|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-how-webcam-models-make-money-2014-11|access-date=30 May 2020|website=[[Business Insider]]|archive-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108115126/https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-how-webcam-models-make-money-2014-11|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vice.com/
As many webcam models operate in the comfort of their own homes, they are free to choose the amount of sexual content for their broadcasts.<ref name=Box>{{cite news|last1=Box|first1=Bobby|title=An Interview With A Webcam Model Who Makes $4,000 A Month Filming Herself|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/dating/sex/an-intimate-convo-with-webcam-model/1734402|access-date=24 January 2018|work=Elite Daily|date=29 December 2016}}</ref> While most display [[nudity]] and sexually provocative behavior, some choose to remain mostly clothed and merely talk about various topics, while still soliciting payment as tips from their fans.<ref name=Senft2>{{cite book|first=Theresa |last=Senft|chapter=I'd Rather Be a Camgirl than a Cyborg - The Future of Feminism on the Web| pages=45–48 |title=Camgirls: Celebrity & Community in the Age of Social Networks |___location= New York | publisher= Peter Lang Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8204-5694-2}}</ref> Webcam models are predominantly women, and also include noted performers of all genders and sexualities.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/susannahbreslin/2015/08/18/cam-girl-money/ |title=Meet The Vince Lombardi Of Cam Girls |last=Breslin |first=Susannah |date=18 August 2015 |work=Forbes |access-date=30 May 2020 }}</ref>▼
▲As many webcam models operate in the comfort of their own homes, they are free to choose the amount of sexual content for their broadcasts.<ref name=Box>{{cite news|last1=Box|first1=Bobby|title=An Interview With A Webcam Model Who Makes $4,000 A Month Filming Herself|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/dating/sex/an-intimate-convo-with-webcam-model/1734402|access-date=24 January 2018|work=Elite Daily|date=29 December 2016|archive-date=25 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125074600/https://www.elitedaily.com/dating/sex/an-intimate-convo-with-webcam-model/1734402|url-status=live}}</ref> While most display [[nudity]] and sexually provocative behavior, some choose to remain mostly clothed and merely talk about various topics, while still soliciting payment as tips from their fans.<ref name=Senft2>{{cite book|first=Theresa |last=Senft|chapter=I'd Rather Be a Camgirl than a Cyborg - The Future of Feminism on the Web| pages=45–48 |title=Camgirls: Celebrity & Community in the Age of Social Networks |___location= New York | publisher= Peter Lang Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8204-5694-2}}</ref> Webcam models are predominantly women, and also include noted performers of all genders and sexualities.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/susannahbreslin/2015/08/18/cam-girl-money/ |title=Meet The Vince Lombardi Of Cam Girls |last=Breslin |first=Susannah |date=18 August 2015 |work=Forbes |access-date=30 May 2020 |archive-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820235112/https://www.forbes.com/sites/susannahbreslin/2015/08/18/cam-girl-money/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Background==
The [[conceptual art]]ist [[Jennifer Ringley|Jenny Ringley]] is considered the first camgirl. In 1996, as a student at [[Dickinson College]], Ringley created a website called "[[Jennicam|JenniCam]]". Her webcam was located in her dorm room and automatically photographed her every few minutes. Ringley viewed her site as a straightforward document of her life. She did not wish to filter the events that were shown on her camera, so sometimes she was shown [[Nudity|nude]] or engaging in sexual behavior, including [[Coitus|sexual intercourse]] and [[masturbation]]. These images were then broadcast live over the Internet.<ref name="disobey">{{cite web |title=Forgotten Web Celebrities: Jennicam.org's Jennifer Ringley |url=http://www.disobey.com/ghostsites/2004_05_19_archive.html |access-date=March 27, 2014 |date=May 19, 2004 |first=Steve |last=Baldwin |publisher=Disobey.com: Content for the discontented (blog) |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224132134/https://www.disobey.com/ghostsites/2004_05_19_archive.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, in 1998, she divided her website's access between free and paying.<ref name=Bartlett>{{cite book|first=Jamie|last=Bartlett|chapter=Chapter 6: Lights, Web-camera, Action|pages=166–192|title=The Dark Net: Inside the Digital Underworld|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTlUBAAAQBAJ|___location=London|publisher=Melville House|year=2014|isbn=9780434023172|access-date=2018-01-19|archive-date=2023-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327180453/https://books.google.com/books?id=mTlUBAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>▼
Also in 1998, a commercial site called AmandaCam was launched. Amanda's site, like Ringley's, had multiple cameras around her house, which allowed people to look in on her.<ref name=Senft2/><ref name=coloradoart1>{{cite web | title=Histories of Internet Art: Fictions and Factions - Net Practice | url=https://art.colorado.edu/hiaff/artwork9fe4.html?id=28&cid=10 | access-date=28 January 2018 | work=University of Colorado | date=11 January 2014 | archive-date=29 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129080632/https://art.colorado.edu/hiaff/artwork9fe4.html?id=28&cid=10 | url-status=live }}</ref> However, Amanda made an important early discovery that would influence the camming industry for decades to come – that a website's popularity could be greatly increased by enabling viewers to chat with a performer while online.<ref name=Senft2/><ref name=webdaddie1>{{cite web | title=JenniCam - AmandaCam | url=http://alt.fan.jennicam.narkive.com/VJEXHwt1/amandacam | access-date=28 January 2018 | work=Narkive | date=13 July 2003 | archive-date=29 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129140604/http://alt.fan.jennicam.narkive.com/VJEXHwt1/amandacam | url-status=live }}</ref> Within her ''members section'', Amanda made it a point to chat with her viewers for over three hours a day.<ref name=Senft2/> Since the early days of live [[webcast]]s by Ringley and Amanda, the phenomenon of ''camming'' has grown to become a multibillion-dollar industry, which has an average of at least 12,500 cam models online at any given time, and more than 240,000 viewers at any given time.<ref name=Rabouin>{{cite news|last1=Rabouin|first1=Dion|title=Camming Gives Internet Porn Fans a Personal Touch|url=http://www.newsweek.com/camming-internet-porn-personal-touch-416577|access-date=28 January 2018|work=Newsweek|date=1 January 2016|archive-date=27 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127034837/http://www.newsweek.com/camming-internet-porn-personal-touch-416577|url-status=live}}</ref>▼
▲The [[conceptual art]]ist [[Jennifer Ringley|Jenny Ringley]] is considered the first camgirl. In 1996, as a student at [[Dickinson College]], Ringley created a website called "[[Jennicam|JenniCam]]". Her webcam was located in her dorm room and automatically photographed her every few minutes. Ringley viewed her site as a straightforward document of her life. She did not wish to filter the events that were shown on her camera, so sometimes she was shown [[Nudity|nude]] or engaging in sexual behavior, including [[Coitus|sexual intercourse]] and [[masturbation]]. These images were then broadcast live over the Internet.<ref name="disobey">{{cite web |title=Forgotten Web Celebrities: Jennicam.org's Jennifer Ringley |url=http://www.disobey.com/ghostsites/2004_05_19_archive.html |access-date=March 27, 2014 |date=May 19, 2004 |first=Steve |last=Baldwin |publisher=Disobey.com: Content for the discontented (blog)}}</ref> Two years later, in 1998, she divided her website's access between free and paying.<ref name=Bartlett>{{cite book|first=Jamie|last=Bartlett|chapter=Chapter 6: Lights, Web-camera, Action|pages=166–192|title=The Dark Net: Inside the Digital Underworld|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTlUBAAAQBAJ|___location=London|publisher=Melville House|year=2014|isbn=9780434023172}}</ref>
▲Also in 1998, a commercial site called AmandaCam was launched. Amanda's site, like Ringley's, had multiple cameras around her house, which allowed people to look in on her.<ref name=Senft2/><ref name=coloradoart1>{{cite web | title=Histories of Internet Art: Fictions and Factions - Net Practice | url=https://art.colorado.edu/hiaff/artwork9fe4.html?id=28&cid=10 | access-date=28 January 2018 |work=University of Colorado |date=11 January 2014}}</ref> However, Amanda made an important early discovery that would influence the camming industry for decades to come – that a website's popularity could be greatly increased by enabling viewers to chat with a performer while online.<ref name=Senft2/><ref name=webdaddie1>{{cite web | title=JenniCam - AmandaCam | url=http://alt.fan.jennicam.narkive.com/VJEXHwt1/amandacam | access-date=28 January 2018 |work=Narkive |date=13 July 2003}}</ref> Within her ''members section'', Amanda made it a point to chat with her viewers for over three hours a day.<ref name=Senft2/> Since the early days of live [[webcast]]s by Ringley and Amanda, the phenomenon of ''camming'' has grown to become a multibillion-dollar industry, which has an average of at least 12,500 cam models online at any given time, and more than 240,000 viewers at any given time.<ref name=Rabouin>{{cite news|last1=Rabouin|first1=Dion|title=Camming Gives Internet Porn Fans a Personal Touch|url=http://www.newsweek.com/camming-internet-porn-personal-touch-416577|access-date=28 January 2018|work=Newsweek|date=1 January 2016}}</ref>
===Payment systems and earnings===
A camming website acts as
A July 2020 survey found the average webcam model in the United States works 18 hours per week, and earns $4,470 per month. Webcam models who work full-time (40 hours per week or more) earn $11,250 per month on average. Top-earning webcam models have a self-reported income of over $312,000 annually, while bottom earners take home as little as $100 per week.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://readysetcam.com/blogs/camming-101/how-much-do-cam-girls-make |title=How Much Do Cam Girls Make? (2020 Cam Girl Salary Report) |last=Haze |first=Moon |date=30 July 2020 |website=readysetcam.com |publisher=Ready Set Cam |access-date=28 October 2020 |quote=The average webcam model earns $1,043 per week from an 18 hour work week... The top-earning cam models in the United States earn as much as $6,000 per week, while beginner cam models can earn as little as $100 per week... models who cam for 35+ hours per week typically make $2,500 per week or more. |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027172640/https://readysetcam.com/blogs/camming-101/how-much-do-cam-girls-make |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Personal connection and interaction===
Performances can be
This is not the first time conversational interaction has become a boon for the erotic entertainment industry. In the early 20th century, [[Sociology|sociologist]] Paul Cressey noted that within the hundreds of [[taxi dance hall|taxi-dance halls]] of America, "the traffic in romance and feminine society" would become available when [[taxi dancer]]s would offer their companionship and "the illusion of romance" for ten cents a dance.<ref name="Cressey1">{{cite book| last=Cressey| first=Paul| title=The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation and City Life| date=1932| publisher=University of Chicago Press| ___location=Chicago, IL| isbn=9780226120515| pages=[https://archive.org/details/taxidancehall00paul/page/10 10–11, 129]| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/taxidancehall00paul/page/10}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite news | last1=Wright | first1=Evan | title=Dance With A Stranger | url=http://www.laweekly.com/news/dance-with-a-stranger-2130263 | access-date=6 February 2018 | work=LA Weekly | date=20 January 1999 | archive-date=19 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119224627/http://www.laweekly.com/news/dance-with-a-stranger-2130263 | url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theatre]] strip club is credited with the invention of the [[lap dance]] in 1977 when their new stage, New York Live, pioneered customer-contact shows with [[stripper]]s that came off the stage and sat in the laps of customers for tips.<ref name=McCumber1>{{cite book | first=David | last=McCumber | pages=78–80, 155 | title=X-Rated | ___location= New York | publisher= Pinnacle Books | year=1992 | isbn=978-0786011131}}</ref> Enabled with this new revenue stream for strippers, the [[strip club]] industry went through a period of extreme growth during the 1980s.
Unlike traditional pornography, the interactive nature of the camming medium titillates with the promise of ''virtual friendship''. [[Princeton University]] sociologist and author of ''The Purchase of Intimacy'', [[Viviana Zelizer]], states of camming: "they're defining a new kind of intimacy. It's not traditional sex work, not a relationship, but something in between."<ref name=Richtel/> In addition to performing sex work, cam models also perform through their hosting duties, conveying authenticity, creating and animating fantasies, and managing relationships over time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nayar|first=Kavita|title=Working it: the professionalization of amateurism in digital adult entertainment|journal=Feminist Media Studies|volume=17|year=2017|issue=3|pages=473–488|doi=10.1080/14680777.2017.1303622|s2cid=151835520}}</ref>
Within ''Cam Girlz'', a documentary film about the industry, male fans often say that they come to camming sites as a way to fulfill emotional needs. The film's director, Sean Dunne, states of the fans, "they said it's not like a strip club – it's like a community, and you feel it when
However, Dr Kari Lerum of the [[University of Washington]] suggests that men are more open and vulnerable in cam rooms than in strip clubs, and can become very invested in relationships which only exist on the screen.<ref name=Richtel/> This proposition was supported by a 2019 study of over 6,000 webcam users by the webcam platform [[Stripchat]]. The study found that over 40% of its users had developed significant relationships with their cam models, ranging from friendship to deep emotional connections.<ref name="Ley">{{cite news | last1=Ley | first1=David | title=Am iCheating? | url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/women-who-stray/201907/am-icheating
==Terminology==
The term [[webcam]] is a [[clipped compound]],
When webcam models create
The
==Camming industry==
As of 2016, the money generated by camming sites was upwards of US$2 billion annually. The pornography business as a whole is estimated to be about $5 billion.<ref name=Rabouin/> According to the [[web traffic]] analysis service [[Compete.com]], [[LiveJasmin]] generates more than 9 million unique viewers a month. Similar webcam model hosting sites such as [[Chaturbate]], [[
The decentralized business model of camming has upended the pornography industry in multiple ways. Camming revenue has been severely cutting into the profits of the pornographic movie business, which has also been eroded for several years by piracy and the distribution of free sexual content on the Internet.<ref name=Richtel/> The pornographic film industry used to be male-dominated, except for the performers. Since camming requires only a video camera, broadband service, and a computer, there has now been a power reversal, and female webcam performers are driving the industry.<ref name=Rachel/><ref name=Hess>{{cite news |last1=Hess |first1=Amanda |date=5 May 2018 |title=Who Gets to Be Sexy? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/05/style/porn-women-nonbinary-queer.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=7 May 2018 |archive-date=12 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112095631/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/05/style/porn-women-nonbinary-queer.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Todd Blatt, a former pornographic movie producer, has said, "If you're the middle guy who has been eating off this industry for 20 years, it's a big change. The girls don't need anybody."<ref name=Richtel/>▼
▲As of 2016, the money generated by camming sites was upwards of US$2 billion annually. The pornography business as a whole is estimated to be about $5 billion.<ref name=Rabouin/> According to the [[web traffic]] analysis service [[Compete.com]], [[LiveJasmin]] generates more than 9 million unique viewers a month. Similar webcam model hosting sites such as [[Chaturbate]], [[CAM4]], and [[MyFreeCams]] boast 4.1 million, 3.7 million and 2 million unique monthly visitors, respectively.<ref name=Rabouin/> Certain hosting sites such as the aforementioned Chaturbate, LiveJasmin, [[ManyVids]], and many other providers also offer payment in cryptocurrency.<ref>{{Cite web|last=intimate.io|date=2018-11-01|title=How to get paid in crypto|url=https://medium.com/@intimate/how-to-get-paid-in-crypto-81b8fcd9c0ad|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref>
The new revolution that the decentralized camming industry has brought also challenged many cultural stereotypes concerning both the camgirls and their customers.<ref name=Ciapponi>{{cite news |last=Ciapponi |first=Giana |date=13 June 2014 |title=Of Dildos and Degrees: Why College-Educated Women are Turning to Sex Work |url=https://ravishly.com/2014/06/13/college-women-sex-work-tuition |work=Ravishly |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430140522/https://ravishly.com/2014/06/13/college-women-sex-work-tuition |url-status=live }}</ref> Ethnography researcher Dr Theresa Senft became a camgirl for a year while doing four years of research for her 2008 book ''Camgirls: Celebrity and Community in the Age of Social Networks''. Senft has described herself as "the first academic camgirl" while becoming a "camgirl writing about camgirls."<ref name=Senft1>{{Cite book |last=Senft |first=Theresa |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction: The Personal as Political in the Age of the Global Network |title=Camgirls: Celebrity & Community in the Age of Social Networks |___location= New York |publisher=Peter Lang Publishing |pages=8–11 |isbn=978-0-8204-5694-2}}</ref> Anna Katzen, a camgirl who has a postgraduate degree from Harvard, stated during an interview:▼
▲The decentralized business model of camming has upended the pornography industry in multiple ways. Camming revenue has been severely cutting into the profits of the pornographic movie business, which has also been eroded for several years by piracy and the distribution of free sexual content on the Internet.<ref name=Richtel/> The pornographic film industry used to be male-dominated, except for the performers. Since camming requires only a video camera, broadband service, and a computer, there has now been a power reversal, and female webcam performers are driving the industry.<ref name=Rachel/><ref name=Hess>{{cite news |last1=Hess |first1=Amanda |date=5 May 2018 |title=Who Gets to Be Sexy? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/05/style/porn-women-nonbinary-queer.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref> Todd Blatt, a former pornographic movie producer, has said, "If you're the middle guy who has been eating off this industry for 20 years, it's a big change. The girls don't need anybody."<ref name=Richtel/>
▲The new revolution that the decentralized camming industry has brought also challenged many cultural stereotypes concerning both the camgirls and their customers.<ref name=Ciapponi>{{cite news |last=Ciapponi |first=Giana |date=13 June 2014 |title=Of Dildos and Degrees: Why College-Educated Women are Turning to Sex Work |url=https://ravishly.com/2014/06/13/college-women-sex-work-tuition |work=Ravishly |access-date=25 January 2018}}</ref> Ethnography researcher Dr Theresa Senft became a camgirl for a year while doing four years of research for her 2008 book ''Camgirls: Celebrity and Community in the Age of Social Networks''. Senft has described herself as "the first academic camgirl" while becoming a "camgirl writing about camgirls."<ref name=Senft1>{{Cite book |last=Senft |first=Theresa |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction: The Personal as Political in the Age of the Global Network |title=Camgirls: Celebrity & Community in the Age of Social Networks |___location= New York |publisher=Peter Lang Publishing |pages=8–11 |isbn=978-0-8204-5694-2}}</ref> Anna Katzen, a camgirl who has a postgraduate degree from Harvard, stated during an interview:
{{Blockquote|The men I meet online rarely fall into the category of anonymous asses who have abandoned all social etiquette, nor do they resemble the pasty, calculator-wristwatch-wearing forebears of chat rooms past. Many, in fact, are successful professionals in their field – whether it be law, the arts or academia. Some of my most popular performances entail me reading erotica, perhaps [[Anaïs Nin]] or the [[Marquis de Sade]], in the buff. Oftentimes, the books are gifts from fans, who will probe me for literary analysis if I don't probe myself with something else first.}}
Furthermore, she says that:
{{Blockquote|I have unwittingly created a powerful 'brand' for myself: the wild intellectual, the bluestocking in garters. {{'}}''I came for the tits, but stayed for the intellectual banter'',{{'}} remarked one of my visitors, and another stated, {{'}}''most guys aren't looking for some airbrushed [[Barbie]]. They want real, intelligent girls – like you.''{{'}}<ref name=Katzen>{{Cite news |last=Katzen |first=Anna |date=9 February 2014 |title=From Harvard to Webcam Girl |url=https://www.salon.com/2014/02/10/from_harvard_to_webcam_girl/ |work=Salon |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=26 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126184910/https://www.salon.com/2014/02/10/from_harvard_to_webcam_girl/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [emphasis in original, links added]}}
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the webcamming industry experienced explosive growth.<ref>{{cite news |last = Boseley |first = Matilda |date = 22 December 2020 |title = 'Everyone and their mum is on it': OnlyFans booms in popularity during the pandemic |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/dec/23/everyone-and-their-mum-is-on-it-onlyfans-boomed-in-popularity-during-the-pandemic |work = The Guardian |access-date = 15 January 2023 |archive-date = 21 April 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210421213703/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/dec/23/everyone-and-their-mum-is-on-it-onlyfans-boomed-in-popularity-during-the-pandemic |url-status = live }}</ref> The popular platform [[OnlyFans]] reported $2.4 billion in transactions in 2020, a 600% increase from 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1 = Hancock |first1 = Alice |last2 = Nilsson |first2 = Patricia |date = 25 April 2021 |title = OnlyFans feels the lockdown love as transactions hit £1.7bn
===Hosting websites===
Webcam models typically make use of third-party websites to stream their real-time video performances on the Internet. Some sites charge viewers a fixed fee per minute, although many allow free access for unregistered visitors.<ref>Prager, Michael. (May 29, 2002) [[Boston Globe]] ''Wired now looks as good as it is.'' Section: Li';l'kving; Pge D4.</ref> These Internet hosting websites, known as ''camming sites'', take care of the technical work {{ndash}} hosting the video feed broadcast, processing payments, providing an intuitive interface, advertising {{ndash}} so that the cam model only has to focus on the actual shows for their video chat room.<ref name=McGehee/>
A fee can be charged for service as a percentage of the revenue made by the model.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webcammodels.com/|title=70% Payout To Webcam Models|website=WebcamModels.com|access-date=2021-03-25|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410191533/https://www.webcammodels.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> To improve [[security]] and anonymity, some webcamming services (such as Live Stars) use [[blockchain]] technology to handle the payment and to protect the model's entered personal information.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/live-stars/how-blockchain-will-change-webcam-business-security-and-anonymity-121688beca19|title=How blockchain will change webcam business: security and anonymity|website=Medium|date=29 December 2017|access-date=25 March 2021|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109023633/https://medium.com/live-stars/how-blockchain-will-change-webcam-business-security-and-anonymity-121688beca19|url-status=live}}</ref> SpankChain is another similar camming site and cryptocurrency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://steemit.com/stateofthedapps/@samminator/spankchain-bringing-crypto-revolution-to-adult-entertainment-industries|title=Spankchain - Bringing Crypto Revolution To Adult Entertainment Industries|author=samminator|date=9 May 2019|website=Steemit|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512150223/https://steemit.com/stateofthedapps/@samminator/spankchain-bringing-crypto-revolution-to-adult-entertainment-industries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/swlh/how-spankchain-got-hacked-af65b933393c|title=How Spankchain Got Hacked|first=Alex|last=Roan|date=26 March 2020|website=Medium|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512104811/https://medium.com/swlh/how-spankchain-got-hacked-af65b933393c|url-status=live}}</ref>
By presenting hundreds of different models via individual chat rooms, a camming site becomes a talent aggregator and middleman.<ref name=Richtel/> Though a camming website may carry many hundreds of models, they frequently provide an interface for the viewer to easily switch between the most-visited models' rooms, and that interface occasionally resembles the multiple channel selection of [[cable television]].<ref name=McGehee/>
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Most cam models are [[independent contractor]]s for camming sites, and are not employees.<ref name=McGehee/>
Camming sites typically supply each webcam model with an individual profile webpage where the performer can describe themselves and more importantly, create a virtual store where they can sell items like videos, photos, personal clothing, and memberships to their fan club. The profile page's virtual store creates a stream of passive income, meaning that even if a camgirl is not online and performing, she can still generate money while fans come to the ever-present profile page to purchase its wares. Some of the most popular items are homemade videos cam models make of themselves.<ref name=Hess/> While most of these videos are sexual in nature, they often include elements of comedy, fashion, and a narration of their lifestyles.<ref name=Gibson>{{Cite news |last=Gibson |first=Finley |date=11 November 2017 |title=The Crowdsourced Lifestyle of an Internet Webcam Model |url=https://designurbate.com/blog/how-to-use-your-chaturbate-fanclub-to-make-more-money |work=DesignUrbate |access-date=18 February 2019 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215072516/https://designurbate.com/blog/how-to-use-your-chaturbate-fanclub-to-make-more-money |url-status=live }}</ref>
The affordability of and access to new video recording technology has spawned new variations and genres of pornography since individual women, as well as industry players, can now create content.<ref name=Hess/> A profile page might also sell contact information like a personal phone number, a spot on a model's Snapchat contact list, or the ability to send her private messages through a camming site's friends list.<ref name=McGehee/> The profile page may also suggest tip amounts for real-time performance requests, like a sexy dance, a song request, removal of clothing, or a particular sex act.<ref name=McGehee/> All prices on a profile page are listed in quantities of tips, which are electronic tokens that the viewer can buy in bunches from the cam site to be given to various models during the performance, or in later purchases upon the profile page.<ref name=Richtel/><ref name="auto2" />
The camming site keeps a percentage of the tips, and the amount varies. Big earners can get a bigger chunk of their tips.<ref name=Richtel/> Commissions earned by webcam models vary widely by website and are usually based on a percentage of gross sales, although sometimes they are in the form of a flat fee. They may also earn money through advertising or commissions by persuading customers to sign up for membership at adult pornographic paysites.<ref name=Bartlett/> Many sites encourage viewers to purchase items from online wish lists.<ref name="auto2" /> Some webcam models cater to particular fetishes, such as a [[Foot fetishism|fascination with feet]], and might earn additional money by selling worn socks to patrons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baxter |first=Annabelle |year=2013 |title=Secrets of a Webcam Girl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VCHCgAAQBAJ |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |isbn=978-1620876671 |access-date=2017-11-06 |archive-date=2023-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327180443/https://books.google.com/books?id=3VCHCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Some models will cater to extremely specific [[Sexual fetishism|fetishes]], as customers with uncommon fetishes tend to pay more. This has been criticized as a "race to the bottom," where webcam models will attempt to outdo each other in perversity. In reaction, cam models on websites such as [[Chaturbate]] have developed a culture discouraging engagement in fetishes they consider demeaning.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=van Doorn & Velthius|first=Niels & Olav|date=April 9, 2018|title=A good hustle: the moral economy of market competition in adult webcam modeling|journal=Journal of Cultural Economy|volume=11|issue=3|pages=177–192|doi=10.1080/17530350.2018.1446183|s2cid=149728986|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/45397082/2_28_2020_A_good_hus.pdf
Camming sites specify rules and restrictions for their cam models, which in turn tend to give the camming site a distinct style and format. For example, one major free-access site, which only allows female models, fosters an environment where the camgirls are not necessarily obligated to do masturbation shows or even display nudity.<ref name=MFCRules>{{Cite web |url=https://wiki.myfreecams.com/wiki/Rules_for_Models |title=Rules for Models - MFC
===Social media===
Webcam models often rely on social media to interact with existing customers and to meet new customers. This has potential disadvantages; however, mainstream social media platforms often have poorly
===Resources for performers===
Cam studios allow models to rent facilities outside of their homes. These businesses can supply models with video equipment, Internet service, computer, lighting, and furniture. One example was the pornographic film company [[Kink.com]], which rented individual cam studios in the [[San Francisco Armory]] by the hour from 2013 until the building was sold in 2018.<ref name=Richtel/><ref>{{cite news |last=Dineen |first=J. K. |date=7 February 2018 |title=SF Armory sells for $65 million — to be used for manufacturing and offices |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/SF-Armory-sells-for-65-million-to-be-used-12560076.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028073451/https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/SF-Armory-sells-for-65-million-to-be-used-12560076.php |url-status=live }}</ref>▼
▲Cam studios allow models to rent facilities outside of their homes. These businesses can supply models with video equipment, Internet service, computer, lighting, and furniture. One example was the pornographic film company [[Kink.com]], which rented individual cam studios in the [[San Francisco Armory]] by the hour from 2013 until the building was sold in 2018.<ref name=Richtel/><ref>{{cite news |last=Dineen |first=J. K. |date=7 February 2018 |title=SF Armory sells for $65 million — to be used for manufacturing and offices |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/SF-Armory-sells-for-65-million-to-be-used-12560076.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=22 April 2018}}</ref>
Within some studios, cam models can work by the percentage of business that they bring in, instead of renting studio time. The cam models do not have to pay to join this type of studio and are also not guaranteed a salary. These models can typically charge customers between $1 and $15 per minute, and then the studio keeps half of the gross while the model gets the rest.<ref name=Song/>
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Another workplace option is called a "camgirl mansion", which is a place that provides equipment and broadcast rooms, where multiple camgirls can live and share expenses without a studio owner.<ref name=McGehee/>
Various support websites<!-- Do not add specific examples without a reliable, independent source. --> supply general information about business strategies, upcoming conferences, performance tips, and studio equipment reviews. Support sites also advise on how to protect privacy, discourage piracy, avoid Internet security lapses, and prevent financial scams.<ref name=Richtel/><ref name="auto2" /> Some chat websites for cam models provide message boards for the models, which enables them to discuss their work concerns and issues, such as clients who get overly attached.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://www.dailydot.com/irl/cam-girls-vulnerable/ |title=The internet is leaving cam girls vulnerable |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=26 November 2019 |website=www.dailydot.com |publisher=Daily Dot |access-date=30 May 2020 |archive-date=9 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709060616/https://www.dailydot.com/irl/cam-girls-vulnerable/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Conferences and industry trade shows can also aid cam models by allowing cam models to network and meet others in the profession on a personal level.<ref name=McGehee/> Cam model Nikki Night provides a coaching service for cam models, in which she advises them on business practices that maximize revenues.<ref name="auto1"/>
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==Legal issues and risks==
===Laws===
Due to the controversial nature of pornography, camming, like most sex work, is not considered a legitimate form of labor in most [[Developed country|developed countries]]. As a result, cam models
Regulation would be beneficial{{According to whom|date=October 2024}} to camming, since it would prevent cam models from being exploited for their labor. However, regulation could also potentially take away cam models' independence, such as sexual freedom and bodily autonomy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Barrett-Ibarria|first=Sofia|date=2020-01-14|title=Cam girl reality: an enticing illusion leaves many models poor and defeated|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/jan/14/cam-girl-webcamming-porn-industry|access-date=2021-05-12|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=2021-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513005312/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/jan/14/cam-girl-webcamming-porn-industry|url-status=live}}</ref> Although in-person sex work such as prostitution can be regulated by policing the streets, online sex work is hard to regulate, due to anonymity, and risk of encroaching on content that is risqué, but not necessarily pornographic.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Sanders|first1=Teela|title=Policing Online Sex Markets|date=2017-09-19|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65630-4_5|work=Internet Sex Work|pages=121–151|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-65629-8|access-date=2021-12-24|last2=Scoular|first2=Jane|last3=Campbell|first3=Rosie|last4=Pitcher|first4=Jane|last5=Cunningham|first5=Stewart|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-65630-4_5|archive-date=2023-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327180530/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-65630-4_5|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In a study on sex work in [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]] where a specific district decriminalized sex work while its surround districts did not, researchers found that anti-prostitution laws decreased the use of [[
==== China ====
In accordance with the 1997 penal code, [[Pornography in China|pornography is illegal]] in [[China]]. The law only permits educational or artistic depictions of sexual intercourse. Historically, the law is not interpreted by the government to include pornography under the umbrella of art.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-29|title=China's Pornography Laws Are a Backdoor for Censorship|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/11/29/chinas-pornography-laws-are-backdoor-censorship|access-date=2021-05-12|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en|archive-date=2021-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213103701/https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/11/29/chinas-pornography-laws-are-backdoor-censorship|url-status=live}}</ref> As such, camming faces strict regulation on the internet in contrast to Western countries, where its legal distinction protects it from prostitution. However, camming can also be a form of solace for sex workers since it allows them to escape online where they can avoid persecution for their profession.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tsang|first1=Eileen Yuk-ha|last2=Lowe|first2=John|date=2019-05-12|title=Sex Work and the Karmic Wheel: How Buddhism Influences Sex Work in China|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624x19847437|journal=International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology|volume=63|issue=13|pages=2356–2377|doi=10.1177/0306624x19847437|pmid=31081394|s2cid=153285795|issn=0306-624X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
China has planned to extend anti-camming laws to [[ASMR]]. The Chinese government claims that ASMR constitutes pornography, but Chinese ASMR content creators dispute this, arguing that pornographic ASMR represents a different category from non-sexual ASMR.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Starr|first1=Rebecca Lurie|last2=Wang|first2=Tianxiao|last3=Go|first3=Christian|date=2020-02-18|title=Sexuality vs. sensuality: The multimodal construction of affective stance in Chinese ASMR performances*|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/josl.12410|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|volume=24|issue=4|pages=492–513|doi=10.1111/josl.12410|s2cid=214335253|issn=1360-6441|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==== India ====
Sex work is legal in [[India]], but many related elements such as [[
==== Philippines ====
Sex work is illegal in the [[Philippines]], but enforcement of the law is not strict such that it is quite commonplace. There is a perception that Filipino sex workers are victims of [[human trafficking]], but this isn't always the case. Camming, in particular, is usually consensual and not always explicitly sexual, likening it more to performance than pornography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=Paul William|date=2017-03-21|title=Cam Models, Sex Work, and Job Immobility in the Philippines|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2017.1293835|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=23|issue=3|pages=160–183|doi=10.1080/13545701.2017.1293835|s2cid=151998282|issn=1354-5701|access-date=2022-01-06|archive-date=2023-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327180527/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13545701.2017.1293835|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==== United Kingdom ====
Sex work and camming in the [[United Kingdom]] is heavily regulated by the government. Sex work is not recognized as legitimate employment by the government. As a result, sex workers are often afraid to report crimes committed against them, making sex work a dangerous occupation. Sex workers, both online and offline, are often subject to [[stalking]], unwanted messages, and other forms of [[
A sex work researcher, Rachel Stuart, notes a paradox in British law that tends to focus on the uploading of pornographic recordings, but does not deal with erotic performance when streamed upon the Internet through camming. For instance, the [[Audiovisual Media Services Regulations 2014]] ban certain acts from being depicted and uploaded by pornography producers in the United Kingdom, and the [[Digital Economy Act 2017]] seeks to restrict minors' access to pornographic material online, yet both laws will have no effect if the performances are ''streamed'' as opposed to ''recorded''. Stuart states of the legal conundrum in England, "Performing an explicitly pornographic act via a webcam carries no repercussions, but if the same show is recorded and uploaded, the performer can be liable to a fine."<ref name="Rachel" />
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==== United States ====
Lawrence Walters, a Florida lawyer who is an expert in [[Obscenity|obscenity law]], said that there was nothing inherently illegal about web model camming shows, as long as the models were over 18, and performed at home or in a model's studio.<ref name=Richtel/>
===Risks===
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Another issue faced by cam models is that viewers may record streams or images of the model without their consent and then redistribute them on pornography websites. In addition to taking away the model's ability to choose where their content is shown, unauthorized use has been likened to theft of the model's property, since the porn site will earn money from the video and not the cam model.<ref name="auto"/>
Sex workers have formed support groups where sex workers may give each other advice and possibly cope with harassment and marginalization. The word "camily", a [[portmanteau]] of "cam" and "family", refers to communities formed by sex workers to help deal with such issues.<ref>{{Citation|last=Jones|first=Angela|title=We Are Camily|date=2020-02-18|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479842964.003.0007|work=Camming|pages=134–152|publisher=NYU Press|doi=10.18574/nyu/9781479842964.003.0007|isbn=9781479842964|s2cid=241706061|access-date=2021-12-24|archive-date=2023-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327181040/http://mr.crossref.org/iPage?doi=10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9781479842964.003.0007|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
===Incidents===
====1990s====
A ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' report described the story of [[Justin Berry]], a 13-year-old boy who, after hooking up his webcam and listing himself on an online forum in order to make friends, was propositioned by older men to strip and [[Masturbation|masturbate]] on camera. [[CNN]] referred to him as "in the language of cyberspace... a cam-whore".<ref>Phillips, Kyra. (December 21, 2005) [[CNN|CNN News]] ''Protecting Kids From Internet Dangers.'' Part 2.</ref> He started his own [[paysite]], [[prostitution|prostituted]] himself, sold video recordings of his encounters with Mexican prostitutes, and helped hire other underage models. He made several hundred thousand dollars over five years before turning all information over to prosecutors in exchange for immunity.<ref name="webcam">Eichenwald, Kurt (2005-12-19). [[The New York Times]] ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/19/national/19kids.ready.html?ex=1292648400&en=aea51b3919b2361a&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss Through His Webcam, a Boy Joins a Sordid Online World.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418213856/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/19/national/19kids.ready.html?ex=1292648400&en=aea51b3919b2361a&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss |date=2015-04-18 }}''.</ref>
====2010s====
In October 2014, a 19-year-old [[Oregon State University]] student, [[Kendra Sunderland]], had been working as a camgirl before she made an hour-long video for MyFreeCams.com of herself at the Oregon State University Library, in which she stripped and masturbated on camera for a live audience. She was then charged with public indecency after the show was recorded by someone who was watching MyFreeCams.com online, and then posted it on other sites. Sunderland faced fines up to $6,250 and one year of jail.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tomlinson|first1=Stuart|title=Former OSU student cited for public indecency in library filming faces up to 1 year in jail, $6,250 fine|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/index.ssf/2015/01/former_osu_student_cited_for_p.html|access-date=19 December 2016|work=The Oregonian|date=29 January 2015|archive-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625044025/http://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/index.ssf/2015/01/former_osu_student_cited_for_p.html|url-status=live}}</ref> She pleaded guilty, paid $1,000, and avoided jail. The incident generated headlines around the country and landed Sunderland reported deals with ''[[Playboy]]'', and a contract with [[Penthouse (magazine)|''Penthouse'']]'s parent company [[Friend Finder Networks]] purportedly worth six figures.<ref name=Richtel/> The incident greatly increased Sunderland's popularity, and she has continued to do camming and speak positively of it as a career.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Silverstein|first1=Jason|title=EXCLUSIVE: Oregon State webcam girl Kendra Sunderland opens up in first interview: 'I've always been the type of girl who's not afraid to show off'|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/oregon-webcam-girl-kendra-sunderland-interview-article-1.2105248|access-date=19 December 2016|work=New York Daily News|date=6 February 2015|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506153519/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/oregon-webcam-girl-kendra-sunderland-interview-article-1.2105248|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Rabouin/>
In Arizona during 2015, a fan took his appreciation of camgirls to an illegal level when he was indicted for spending $476,000 on a company credit card, which he used for tips on camming websites. He spent more than $100,000 on MyFreeCams.com alone, and sent $26,800 to one cam model in particular to pay for her college tuition bill and new tires for her car. According to the indictment, he also purchased flowers, chocolates, electronic equipment, shoes, a TV, a handbag, laptop computer, and an iPod for some of his favorite camgirls.<ref name=Rabouin/>
In one case, [[Sex trafficking|sex traffickers]] who operated illegal brothels forced an indentured victim to have sex in webcam shows.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/crime/article49875620.html|title=11 years in prison for man convicted in Miami gay Hungarian sex-slave ring|newspaper=Miami Herald|first=David|last=Ovalle|date=15 December 2015
In January 2019, a 29-year-old [[Grant Amato]] killed his father, mother and brother and staged the scene as a murder-suicide, placing the gun by his
==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[
* [[American burlesque]]
* [[Cybersex]]
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|doi=10.1086/686758
|s2cid=151749909
|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/686758
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jade |first1=Jasmine |title=Camgirl Manual |date=2015 |publisher=Metal Motion Productions Incorporated |isbn=9780993608704 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Senft |first1=Theresa M. |title=Camgirls: Celebrity and Community in the Age of Social Networks |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9780820456942 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9w-XY_gU2gC |language=en}}
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==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
{{Sex|state=collapsed}}
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