Code-division multiple access: Difference between revisions

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{{About|a channel access method|the mobile phone technology referred to as CDMA|cdmaOne|and|CDMA2000}}

{{Multiplex_techniques}}

{{Confused|Carrier-sense multiple access}}

'''Code-division multiple access''' ('''CDMA''') is a [[channel access method]] used by various [[radio]] communication technologies. CDMA is an example of [[channel access method|multiple access]], where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]]). To permit this without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs [[spread spectrum]] technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code).<ref name="ref 1">{{cite book| title=Principles of Spread-Spectrum Communication Systems, 4th ed.| year=2018|last1=Torrieri|first1=Don}}</ref><ref name="ref 2">{{cite book| title=Principles of Mobile Communication, 4th ed.| year=2017|last1=Stuber|first1=Gordon L.}}</ref>

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CDMA optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and does not limit the user's frequency range.

It is used as the access method in many [[mobile phone standards]]. [[cdmaOne|IS-95]], also called "cdmaOne", and its [[3G]] evolution [[CDMA2000]], are often simply referred to as "CDMA", but [[UMTS]], the 3G standard used by [[GSM]] carriers, also uses "wideband CDMA", or W-CDMA, as well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies. Many carriers (such as [[AT&T Corporation|AT&T]], [[U.S. Cellular|UScellular]] and [[Verizon (mobile network)|Verizon]]) shut down 3G CDMA-based networks in 2022 and 2024, rendering handsets supporting only those protocols unusable for calls, even to [[9-1-1|911]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/22/tech/att-3g-network-shutdown/index.html|title=AT&T is shutting down its 3G network. Here's how it could impact you|first=Samantha Murphy|last=Kelly|date=February 22, 2022|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Johnson|first=Allison|date=2021-03-30|title=Verizon will shutter its 3G CDMA by the end of 2022|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/3/30/22358628/verizon-3g-cdma-shutdown-date-2022|access-date=2021-10-09|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref>

It can be also used as a channel or medium access technology, like [[ALOHA]] for example or as a permanent pilot/signalling channel to allow users to synchronize their local oscillators to a common system frequency, thereby also estimating the channel parameters permanently.

In these schemes, the message is modulated on a longer spreading sequence, consisting of several [[Chip_(CDMA)|chips]] (0es0s and 1es1s). Due to their very advantegousadvantageous auto- and crosscorrelation characteristics, these spreading sequences have also been used for radar applications for many decades, where they are called [[Barker-Codes code]]s (with a very short sequence length of typically 8 to 32).

For space-based communication applications, CDMA has been used for many decades due to the large path loss and Doppler shift caused by satellite motion. Due to these effects, in those applications neither FDMA nor TDMACDMA is typicallyoften used aswith a[[binary singlephase-shift modulation. CDMA is often used withkeying]] (BPSK) in its simplest form, but can be combined with any modulation scheme like (in advanced cases) [[quadrature amplitude modulation]] (QAM) or [[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM), which typically makes it very robust and efficient (and equipping them with accurate ranging capabilities, which is difficult without CDMA). Other schemes use subcarriers based on [[binary offset carrier modulation]] (BOC modulation), which is inspired by [[Manchester codescode]]s and enable a larger gap between the virtual center frequency and the subcarriers, which is not the case for OFDM subcarriers. Many carriers (such as [[AT&T Corporation|AT&T]] and [[Verizon (mobile network)|Verizon]]) will shut down 3G CDMA networks in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Johnson|first=Allison|date=2021-03-30|title=Verizon will shutter its 3G CDMA by the end of 2022|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/3/30/22358628/verizon-3g-cdma-shutdown-date-2022|access-date=2021-10-09|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref>

==History==

The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known.

The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known. In the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR), the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by [[Dmitry Vasiliyevich Ageev|Dmitry Ageev]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ageev|first=D. V.|title=Bases of the Theory of Linear Selection. Code Demultiplexing|journal=Proceedings of the Leningrad Experimental Institute of Communication|year=1935|pages=3–35}}</ref> It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory.{{clarify|date=August 2020|reason=No such thing.}} The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer [[Leonid Kupriyanovich]] in Moscow made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station.<ref>{{Cite patent | country = Soviet Union

===United States===

In the US, one of the earliest descriptions of CDMA can be found in the summary report of Project Hartwell on "The Security of Overseas Transport", which was a summer research project carried out at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] from June to August 1950.<ref name=Scholtz_1982May_IEEE>{{cite journal| author=Robert A. Scholtz| date=May 1982| title=The Origins of Spread-Spectrum Communications| journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Communications]]| volume=30| issue=5| pages=822–854| doi=10.1109/TCOM.1982.1095547}}</ref> Further research in the context of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] and [[Electronic counter-countermeasure|anti-jamming]] was carried out in 1952 at [[MIT_Lincoln_Laboratory|Lincoln Lab]].<ref name=Price_Shannon_19820728>{{cite web| author=Robert Price| date=28 July 1982| url=https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Claude_E._Shannon| title=Oral-History: Claude E. Shannon| publisher=[[Engineering and Technology History Wiki]]| access-date=30 January 2022}}</ref>

===Soviet Union===

The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known. In the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR), the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by [[Dmitry Vasiliyevich Ageev|Dmitry Ageev]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ageev|first=D. V.|title=Bases of the Theory of Linear Selection. Code Demultiplexing|journal=Proceedings of the Leningrad Experimental Institute of Communication|year=1935|pages=3–35}}</ref> It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory.{{clarify|date=August 2020|reason=No such thing.}} The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer [[Leonid Kupriyanovich]] in Moscow made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station.<ref>{{Cite patent | country = Soviet Union

| number = 115494 | title = Устройства вызова и коммутации каналов радиотелефонной связи (Devices for calling and switching radio communication channels) | pubdate = 1957-11-04 | inventor = Куприянович (Leonid Kupriyanovich) | url = https://patents.su/7-115494-ustrojjstva-vyzova-i-kommutacii-kanalov-radiotelefonnojj-svyazi.html}}</ref> LK-1 has a weight of 3&nbsp;kg, 20–30&nbsp;km operating distance, and 20–30 hours of battery life.<ref>''[[Nauka i Zhizn]]'' 8, 1957, p. 49.</ref><ref>''Yuniy technik'' 7, 1957, p. 43–44.</ref> The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5&nbsp;kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, which he called "correlator."<ref>''Nauka i Zhizn'' 10, 1958, p. 66.</ref><ref>''[[Tekhnika Molodezhi]]'' 2, 1959, p. 18–19.</ref> In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the "[[Altai (mobile telephone system)|Altai]]" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed {{convert|11|kg|abbr=on}}. It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service started in Moscow, and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://englishrussia.com/2006/09/18/first-russian-mobile-phone/|title=First Russian Mobile Phone|date=September 18, 2006}}</ref>

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* The [[Qualcomm]] standard [[IS-95]], marketed as cdmaOne.

* The Qualcomm standard [[IS-2000]], known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile phone companies, including the [[Globalstar]] network.{{refn|group=nb|Globalstar uses elements of CDMA, [[time-division multiple access|TDMA]] and [[FDMA]] combining with satellite multiple beam antennas.<ref>M. Mazzella, M. Cohen, D. Rouffet, M. Louie and K. S. Gilhousen, "Multiple access techniques and spectrum utilisation of the GLOBALSTAR mobile satellite system," Fourth IEE Conference on Telecommunications 1993, Manchester, UK, 1993, pp. 306-311.</ref>}}

* The [[UMTS]] 3G mobile phone standard, which uses [[W-CDMA]].{{refn|group=nb|The UMTS networks and other CDMA based systems are also known as a kind of ''interference-limited'' systems.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Holma|editor-first1=H.|editor-last2=Toskala|editor-first2=A.|date=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7m-MnwW_o7AC&q=lte+umts+are+interference+limited&pg=PT439|title=WCDMA for UMTS: HSPA Evolution and LTE|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=9781119991908}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Laiho|editor-first1=J.|editor-last2=Wacker|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=Novosad|editor-first3=T.|date=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RE32TlXZBQC&q=is+umts+interference+limited+systems&pg=PA303|title=Radio Network Planning and Optimisation for UMTS (Vol. 2)|___location=New York|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]]|page=303|isbn=9780470031391}}</ref> This relates to the properties of the CDMA technology: all users operate in the same frequency range that impacts [[Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio|SINR]] and, hence, reduces coverage and capacity.<ref name="Walke-Seidenberg-Althoff_2003">{{cite book |title=UMTS: The Fundamentals |author-first1=Bernhard H. |author-last1=Walke |author-link1=Bernhard Walke |author-first2=Peter |author-last2=Seidenberg |author-first3=Marc Peter |author-last3=Althoff |translator-first=Hedwig Jourdan |translator-last=von Schmoeger |date=March 2003 |orig-date=2001 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Ltd]] |edition=First English |isbn=0-470-84557-0 |pages=18-1918–19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRlUvPWeTYQC&pg=PA18}} (NB. Based on the 2001 German edition.)</ref>}}

* CDMA has been used in the '''OmniTRACS''' satellite system for transportation [[logistics]].

==Steps in CDMA modulation==

CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique. A spread-spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a [[Pseudorandom binary sequence|pseudo-random code]] in the time ___domain that has a narrow [[ambiguity function]] in the frequency ___domain, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined by bitwise [[XOR#Bitwise operation|XOR]] (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of <math>T_b</math> (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of <math>T_c</math> (chip period). (Note: [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] is proportional to <math>1/T</math>, where <math>T</math> = bit time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is <math>1/T_b</math> and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is <math>1/T_c</math>. Since <math>T_c</math> is much smaller than <math>T_b</math>, the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio <math>T_b/T_c</math> is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.<ref name="ref 1"/><ref name="ref 2"/>

[[File:Generation of CDMA.svg|thumb|500px|center|Generation of a CDMA signal]]

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Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due to the orthogonality of these systems. This is not true for asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any asynchronous CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power-control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.

In 2019, schemes to precisely estimate the required length of the codes in dependence of Doppler and delay characteristics have been developed.<ref>{{Cite conference|last=Enneking, Antreich, Appel, Almeida|date=2019|title=Pure Pilot Signals: How short can we choose GNSS spreading codes?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331065214|book-title=Proceedings of the 2019 International Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation|pages=925–935|doi=10.33012/2019.16737|isbn=978-0-936406-21-3|s2cid=86666944}}</ref> Soon after, machine learning based techniques that generate sequences of a desired length and spreading properties have been published as well. These are highly competitive with the classic Gold and Welch sequences. These are not generated by linear-feedback-shift-registers, but have to be stored in lookup tables.

===Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques===

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* [[CDMA2000]]

* [[Comparison of mobile phone standards]]

* [[IS-95|cdmaOne]]

* [[Orthogonal variable spreading factor]] (OVSF), an implementation of CDMA

* [[Pseudo-randomPseudorandom noise]]

* [[Quadrature-division multiple access]] (QDMA), an implementation of CDMA

* [[Rise over thermal]]