Content deleted Content added
m Open access bot: url-access=subscription updated in citation with #oabot. |
|||
| (12 intermediate revisions by 10 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{Short description|Typically short and indeclinable word with a grammatical function but no clear part of speech}}
In [[grammar]], the term '''''particle''''' ([[list of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] '''{{sc|ptcl}}''') has a traditional meaning, as a [[part of speech]] that cannot be [[Inflection|inflected]], and a modern meaning, as a [[function word]] (functor) associated with another word or phrase in order to impart meaning. Although a particle may have an intrinsic meaning and may fit into other grammatical categories, the fundamental idea of the particle is to add context to the sentence, expressing a mood or indicating a specific action.
In English, for example, the phrase "oh well" has no purpose in speech other than to convey a mood. The word "up" would be a particle in the phrase "look up" (as in "look up this topic"), implying that one researches something rather than that one literally gazes skywards.
Many languages use particles in varying amounts and for varying reasons. In Hindi, they may be used as honorifics, or to indicate emphasis or negation. In some languages, they are clearly defined; for example, in Chinese, there are three types of {{ However, [[Polynesian languages]], which are almost devoid of inflection, use particles extensively to indicate mood, tense, and case. == Modern meaning ==
In modern grammar, a '''particle''' is a [[function word]] that must be associated with another word or phrase to impart meaning, i.e., it does not have its own lexical definition.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}} According to this definition, particles are a separate [[part of speech]] and are distinct from other [[word class|classes]] of function words, such as [[article (grammar)|articles]], [[preposition]]s, [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] and [[adverbs]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}} Languages vary widely in how much they use particles, some using them extensively and others more commonly using alternative devices such as prefixes/suffixes, inflection, [[auxiliary verb]]s and word order. Particles are typically words that encode [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] (such as [[negation (linguistics)|negation]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], or [[grammatical case|case]]), [[clitic]]s, [[Filler (linguistics)|filler]]s or (oral) [[discourse markers]] such as ''well'', ''um'', etc. Particles are never [[Inflection|inflected]].<ref>McArthur, Tom: "The Oxford Companion to the English Language", pp.
== Afrikaans ==
Line 29 ⟶ 35:
== English ==
''Particle'' is a somewhat nebulous term for a variety of small words that do not conveniently fit into other classes of words.<ref name="Glossary Particle">{{Cite book|title=A Glossary of English Grammar|first=Geoffrey|last=Leech|year=2006|page=79|isbn=978-0-7486-1729-6|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> ''The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language'' defines a particle as a "word that does not change its form through inflection and does not fit easily into the established system of parts of speech".<ref name="Companion Particle">{{Cite book|at=Particle|title=The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|last1=McArthur|first1=Thomas Burns|last2=McArthur|first2=Roshan|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780192806376|date=2005|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxfordcom00mcar}}</ref> The term includes the "adverbial particles" like ''up'' or ''out'' in verbal idioms ([[phrasal verb]]s) such as "look up" or "knock out"; it also includes the "infinitival particle" ''to'', the "negative particle" ''not'', the "imperative particles" ''do'' and ''let'', and sometimes "pragmatic particles" (also called "fillers" or "discourse markers") like ''oh'' and ''well''.<ref name="Companion Particle"/>
== German ==
A [[German modal particle]] serves no necessary syntactical function, but expresses the speaker's attitude towards the utterance. Modal particles include {{lang|de|ja, halt, doch, aber, denn, schon}} and others. Some of these also appear in non-particle forms. {{lang|de|Aber}}, for example, is also the conjunction ''but''. In {{lang|de|Er ist Amerikaner, '''aber''' er spricht gut Deutsch}}, "He is American, '''but''' he speaks German well," {{lang|de|aber}} is a conjunction connecting two sentences. But in {{lang|de|Er spricht '''aber''' gut Deutsch!}}, the {{lang|de|aber}} is a particle, with the sentence perhaps best translated as "What good German he speaks!"<ref>Martin Durrell, ''Using German'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition (2003), p.
== Hindi ==
Line 48 ⟶ 54:
Particles<ref name=":1" />
|
*{{lang|hi|ही}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|भी}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|यूँ}} ({{
|{{lang|hi|ही}} ({{
|
# {{lang|hi|बस '''कॉफ़ी ही''' लेके आये?}} ({{
#* You brought '''just''' coffee?
# {{lang|hi|'''लिख भी''' नहीं सकते?}} ({{
#* You '''can't even''' write?
# {{lang|hi|मैं '''यूँ''' जाऊँगा और '''यूँ''' आऊँगा।}} ({{
#* I'll (instantly) go and (instantly) come back.
|-
Line 63 ⟶ 69:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|मात्र}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|बस}} ({{
|{{lang|hi|मात्र}} ({{
|
# {{lang|hi|नारंगी '''मात्र दो''' हैं अपने पास।}} ({{
#* We have '''merely two''' oranges.
|-
Line 74 ⟶ 80:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|नहीं}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|न / ना}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|मत}} ({{
|{{lang|hi|नहीं}} ({{
|
# {{lang|hi|'''नहीं करना''' चाहिए ऐसा।}} ({{
#* One should'''n't''' do [like] that.
# {{lang|hi|'''ना हो''' ऐसा तो अच्छा हो।}} ({{
#* It'll be good if it '''doesn't''' happen [like that].
# {{lang|hi|'''मत''' कर यार !}} ({{
#* '''Don't''' do it, man!
|-
Line 89 ⟶ 95:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|हाँ}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|जी}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|जी हाँ}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|हाँ तो}} ({{
|
|
# {{lang|hi|'''हाँ''' करता हूँ।}} ({{
#* '''Yes''', I (will) do it.
# {{lang|hi|'''जी''' और आप?}} ({{
#* '''Yes''', and you ('''formal''')?
# {{lang|hi|'''जी हाँ''' करूँगा।}} ({{
#* '''Yes sure''', I will do it.
# {{lang|hi|अरे '''हाँ तो''' ! किया है मैंने।}} ({{
#* ('''I already said''') '''yes'''! I have done it.
|-
Line 107 ⟶ 113:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|जी}} ({{
|It comes after a noun and gives the noun an honorific value.
Compare with the honorific particles in Japanese, e.g. {{Nihongo krt|2=さま|3=sama}} and {{Nihongo krt|2=さん|3=san}}.
|
# {{lang|hi|राहुल '''जी''' कैसे है?}} ({{
#* How is '''Mr.''' Rahul?
|-
Line 121 ⟶ 127:
|{{lang|hi|तो}} is used to mark the topic in the sentence which is often not the same the subject of a sentence. It indicates either presuppositionally shared information or shift in thematic orientation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montaut|first=Annie|date=2015|title=The discourse particle to and word ordering in Hindi: From grammar to discourse|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01287633|language=en|volume=283|pages=263|publisher=Benjamins }}</ref><ref>Case markers and Morphology: Addressing the crux of the fluency problem in English-Hindi SMT: https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P09-1090.pdf</ref> It has a rather flexible position in a sentence; it always goes after the topic of the sentence, even if that topic contains other particles.
|
# {{lang|hi|नेहा '''तो''' अच्छी है।}} ({{
#* ['''Speaking of'''] Neha ['''she'''] is good.
# {{lang|hi|तुम अच्छी '''तो''' हो पर उतनी नहीं।}} ({{
#* You '''"sure are"''' good but not that much.
|-
Line 129 ⟶ 135:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|क्या}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|ना}} ({{
|The [[Yes–no question|question-marker]] {{lang|hi|क्या}} can come at the beginning or the end of a sentence as its default position but can also appear in between the sentence if it cannot also be interpreted as its non-particle meaning of "what" at a mid position in the sentence.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Bhatt|first1=Rajesh|last2=Dayal|first2=Veneeta|date=2020-01-31|title=Polar question particles: Hindi-Urdu kya|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-020-09464-0|journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory|volume=38|issue=4|pages=1115–1144|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11049-020-09464-0|s2cid=213719773|issn=1573-0859|url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{lang|hi|ना}} can only come at the end of a sentence and nowhere else. It conveys that the asker is in doubt or is seeking for a confirmation.<ref>Negation in modern Hindi-Urdu: the development of nahII: https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/g158bh795?locale=en</ref>
|
# {{lang|hi|वो गाता है '''क्या'''?}} ({{
#* '''Does''' he sing?
# {{lang|hi|ऐसा करना होता है '''ना'''?}} ({{
#* It should be done like this, '''no'''?
# {{lang|hi|ऐसा करें '''ना'''?}} ({{
#* [Are you sure that] we do this? / we are doing this?
|-
Line 143 ⟶ 149:
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|को}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|से}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|ने}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|का}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|में}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|पे / पर}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|तक}} ({{
*{{lang|hi|सा}} ({{
|The case marking particles require the noun to be declined to be in their oblique case forms. However, these markers themselves (except for one){{Clarify|reason=which one?|date=February 2023}} can inflect and change forms depending on the gender of the noun they modify.<ref>{{Citation|last1=de Hoop|first1=Helen|title=Chapter 12 - Differential Case-Marking in Hindi|date=2005-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008044651650015X|work=Competition and Variation in Natural Languages|pages=321–345|editor-last=Amberber|editor-first=Mengistu|series=Perspectives on Cognitive Science|place=Oxford|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|access-date=2020-11-16|last2=Narasimhan|first2=Bhuvana|doi=10.1016/B978-008044651-6/50015-X |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1748-5 |isbn=9780080446516 |editor2-last=De Hoop|editor2-first=Helen|hdl-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=CASE IN HINDI|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267724707|access-date=2020-11-16|website=ResearchGate|language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
Line 158 ⟶ 164:
|-
|ergative
| {{lang|hi|ने}} ({{
|-
|accusative
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|hi|को}} ({{
|-
|dative
|-
|instrumental
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|hi|से}} ({{
|-
|ablative
|-
|genitive
|{{lang|hi|का}} ({{
|-
|inessive
|{{lang|hi|में}} ({{
|-
|adessive
|{{lang|hi|पे}} ({{
|-
|terminative
|{{lang|hi|तक}} ({{
|-
|semblative
|{{lang|hi|सा}} ({{
|}
|
# {{lang|hi|उस'''ने''' उस'''को''' उस'''से''' मारा।}} ({{
#* '''He/she''' hit '''him/her''' with '''it'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''का''' है?}} ({{
#* Is it '''his'''?
# {{lang|hi|उस'''से''' निकालो और इस'''पे''' रखो।}} ({{
#* Take it out '''from that''' a keep it '''on this'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''में''' होगा।}} ({{
#* It must be '''inside it'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''पे''' ढालना।}} ({{
#* Pour it '''on that'''.
# {{lang|hi|कोई मुझ'''सा''' नहीं।}} ({{
#* No one's '''like''' me.
# {{lang|hi|चार बजे '''तक''' करना।}} ({{
#* Do it '''until''' four o'clock.
|}
Line 204 ⟶ 210:
== Japanese and Korean ==
{{See also|Japanese particles|Korean particles}}
The term ''particle'' is often used in descriptions of [[Japanese language|Japanese]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://japanese.about.com/blparticles.htm |title=All About the Japanese Particles Wa and Ga |access-date=2009-10-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303200426/http://japanese.about.com/blparticles.htm |archive-date=2009-03-03 }} List of Japanese particles</ref> and [[Korean language|Korean]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/portnerp/nsfsite/KoreanParticlesMiokPak.pdf |title=Paul H. Portner – Paul Portner's academic homepage |access-date=2008-04-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306201122/http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/portnerp/nsfsite/KoreanParticlesMiokPak.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-06 }} List of Korean particles</ref> where they are used to mark [[noun]]s according to their [[grammatical case]] or [[thematic relation]] in a sentence or clause.<ref>{{cite web|url=
== Polynesian languages ==
Line 213 ⟶ 219:
== Russian ==
In [[Russian language|Russian]], particles
== Turkish ==
{{Columns-start|num=3}}
* {{lang|tr|ancak}}<ref group="note">used with {{lang|tr|ama, fakat, lakin}} ('but').</ref>
| |||