Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Model of human memory}}

{{Cognitive}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2024}}

The '''Atkinson–Shiffrin model''' (also known as the '''multi-store model''' or '''modal model''') is a model of [[memory]] proposed in 1968 by [[Richard C. Atkinson|Richard Atkinson]] and [[Richard Shiffrin]].<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 /> The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:

# a ''[[#Sensory register|sensory register]]'', where sensory information enters memory,

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# a ''[[#Long-term store|long-term store]]'', where information which has been rehearsed (explained below) in the short-term store is held indefinitely.

Since its first publication this model has come under much scrutiny and has been criticized for various reasons (described below). However,But it is notable for the significant influence it had in stimulating subsequent memory research.

==Summary==

[[File:Multistore model.png|thumb|327px|right|'''Multi-store model''': Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) original model of memory, consisting of the sensory register, short-term store, and long-term store.]]

The modal model of memories is an explanation of how memory processes work. The three-part, multi-store model was first described, everyone had to run, this didnt cause an uproare in the country however. the people did not seem to worry about the issues of the society. However, atkinson did. by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968,<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 /> though the vague idea of distinct memory stores was by no means a new idea at the time. [[William James]] described a distinction between primary and secondary memory in 1890, where primary memory consisted of thoughts held for a short time in consciousness and secondary memory consisted of a permanent, unconscious store.<ref name=James1890 /> However,But at the time the [[Occam's razor|parsimony]] of separate memory stores was a contested notion. A summary of the evidence given for the distinction between long-term and short-term stores is given [[#Evidence for distinct stores|below]]. Additionally, Atkinson and Shiffrin included a sensory register alongside the previously theorized primary and secondary memory, as well as a variety of control processes which regulate the transfer of memory.

Following its first publication, multiple extensions of the model have been put forth such as a precategorical acoustic store,<ref name=CrowderMorton1969 /> the search of associative memory model,<ref name=RaaijmakersShiffrin1981 /><ref name=ShiffrinRaaijmakers1992/> the perturbation model,<ref name=Estes1972 /><ref name=Lee1992 /> and permastore.<ref name=Bahrick1984 /> Additionally, alternative frameworks have been proposed, such as procedural reinstatement,<ref name=HealyEtAl1992 /> a distinctiveness model,<ref name=NeathCrowder1990 /> and [[Baddeley's model of working memory|Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory]],<ref name=BaddeleyHitch1974 /> among others.

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==Sensory register==

{{Main|Sensory memory}}

When an environmental stimulus is detected by the senses, it is briefly available in what Atkinson and Shiffrin called the ''sensory registers'' (also ''sensory buffers'' or ''[[sensory memory]]''). Though this store is generally referred to as "the sensory register" or "sensory memory", it is actually composed of multiple registers, one for each sense. The sensory registers do not process the information carried by the stimulus, but rather detect and hold that information for usemilliseconds to seconds to be used in short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldstein |first=E. Bruce |title=Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research, and everyday experience |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-337-40827-1 |edition=5E |___location=Boston, MA, USA |oclc=1055681278}}</ref> For this reason Atkinson and Shiffrin also called the registers "buffers", as they prevent immense amounts of information from overwhelming higher-level cognitive processes. Information is only transferred to the short-term memory when attention is given to it, otherwise it decays rapidly and is forgotten.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 />

While it is generally agreed that there is a sensory register for each sense, most of the research in the area has focused on the visual and auditory systems.

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[[Iconic memory]], which is associated with the [[visual system]], is perhaps the most researched of the sensory registers. The original evidence suggesting sensory stores which are separate to short-term and long-term memory was experimentally demonstrated for the visual system using a [[tachistoscope]].<ref name=Sperling1960 />

[[Iconic memory]] is only limited to field of vision. That is, as long as a stimulus has entered the field of vision there is no limit to the amount of visual information iconic memory can hold at any one time. As noted above, sensory registers do not allow for further processing of information, and as such iconic memory only holds information for visual stimuli such as shape, size, color and ___location (but not semantic meaning).<ref name=Sperling1960 /> As the higher-level processes are limited in their capacities, not all information from sensory memory can be conveyed. It has been argued that the momentary mental freezing of visual input allows for the selection of specific aspects which should be passed on for further memory processing.<ref name=ColtheartLeaThompson1974 /> The biggest limitation of iconic memory is the rapid decay of the information stored there; items in iconic memory decay after only 0.5-15–1.0 seconds.<ref name=Sperling1960 />

===Echoic memory===

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===Capacity===

There is a limit to the amount of information that can be held in the short-term store: 75 ±- 29 [[Chunking (psychology)|chunks]].<ref name=Miller1956 /> These chunks, which were noted by Miller in his seminal paper ''The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two'', are defined as independent items of information. It is important to note that some chunks are perceived as one unit though they could be broken down into multiple items, for example "1066" can be either the series of four digits "1, 0, 6, 6" or the semantically grouped item "1066" which is the year the [[Battle of Hastings]] was fought. [[Chunking (psychology)|Chunking]] allows for large amounts of information to be held in memory: 149283141066 is twelve individual items, well outside the limit of the short-term store, but it can be grouped semantically into the 4 chunks "[[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]][1492] ate[8] pie[314→3.14→[[pi|{{pi}}]]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]][1066]". Because short-term memory is limited in capacity, it severely limits the amount of information that can be attended to at any one time.

==Long-term store==

{{Main|Long-term memory}}

The ''long-term store'' (also ''[[long-term memory]]'') is a more or less permanent store. Information that is stored here can be "copied" and transferred to the short-term store where it can be attended to and manipulated.

===Transfer from STS===

Information is postulated to enter the long-term store from the short-term store more or less automatically. According Asto Atkinson and Shiffrin model it, transfer from the short-term store to the long-term store is occurring for as long as the information is being attended to in the short-term store. In this way, varying amounts of attention result in varying amounts of time in short-term memory. Ostensibly, the longer an item is held in short-term memory, the stronger its memory trace will be in long-term memory. SomeAtkinson [[Confounding|extraneousand variables]]Shiffrin include:cite participantevidence differencesfor (Personalthis abilitytransfer ofmechanism anin individual,studies theseby differentiateHebb each(1961)<ref name=Hebb1961 participant/> and theirMelton capacity levels(1963),<ref demandname=Melton1963 characteristics/> (Whichwhich isshow thethat participantsrepeated knowledgerote aboutrepetition experimentenhances andlong-term whatmemory. theyOne bringmay also think to the experiment),original experimenterEbbinghaus effectmemory (whichexperiments isshowing thethat effectsforgetting theincreases researchersfor haveitems onwhich participantsare throughstudied theirfewer expectationstimes.<ref andname=Ebbinghaus possibility/> ofFinally, biasthe behaviorauthors fornote self-fulfillmentthat results),there non-standardizedare instructionsstronger andencoding proceduresprocesses (Thethan effectsimple onrote participantsrehearsal, ifnamely theyrelating receivethe differentnew instructions,information andto ifinformation nowhich consistencyhas inalready procedure,made alsoits impactsway frominto variationsthe oflong-term conditions)store.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 />

Atkinson and Shiffrin cite evidence for this transfer mechanism in studies by Hebb (1961)<ref name=Hebb1961 /> and Melton (1963)<ref name=Melton1963 /> which show that repeated rote repetition enhances long-term memory. One may also think to the original [[Hermann Ebbinghaus|Ebbinghaus]] memory experiments showing that forgetting increases for items which are studied fewer times.<ref name=Ebbinghaus /> Finally, the authors note that there are stronger encoding processes than simple rote rehearsal, namely relating the new information to information which has already made its way into the long-term store.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 />

===Capacity and duration===

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===Sensory register as a separate store===

One of the early and central criticisms to the Atkinson-ShiffrinAtkinson–Shiffrin model was the inclusion of the sensory registers as part of memory. Specifically, the original model seemed to describe the sensory registers as both a structure and a control process. Parsimony would suggest that if the sensory registers are actually control processes, there is no need for a tri-partite system. Later revisions to the model addressed these claims and incorporated the sensory registers with the short-term store.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1971 /><ref name=Shiffrin1975 /><ref name=Shiffrin1976 />

===Division and nature of working memory===

Baddeley and Hitch have in turn called tointo question the specific structure of the short-term store, proposing that it is subdivided into multiple components.<ref name=BaddeleyHitch1974 /> While the different components were not specifically addressed in the original Atkinson-Shiffrin model, the authors do note that little research has been done investigating the different ways sensory modalities may be represented in the short-term store.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 /> Thus the model of working memory given by Baddeley and Hitch should be viewed as a refinement of the original model.

:{{further|Baddeley's model of working memory}}

===Rehearsal as the sole transfer mechanism===

The model has been further criticized as suggesting that rehearsal is the key process whichthat initiates and facilitates transfer of information into LTM. There is very little evidence supporting this hypothesis, and long-term recall can in fact be better predicted by a [[Levels-of-processing effect|levels-of-processing framework]]. In this framework, items which are encoded at a deeper, more semantic level are shown to have stronger traces in long-term memory.<ref name=CraikLockhart1972 /> This criticism is somewhat unfounded as Atkinson and Shiffrin clearly state a difference between rehearsal and coding, where coding is akin to elaborative processes which levels-of-processing would call deep-processing.<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968 /> In this light, the levels-of-processing framework could be seen as more of an extension of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model rather than a refutation.<ref name=Raaijmakers1993 />

:{{further|Levels-of-processing effect}}

===Division of long-term memory===

In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different types of information, such as the motor skills to ride a bike, memory for vocabulary, and memory for personal life events are stored in the same fashion. [[Endel Tulving]] notes the importance of encoding specificity in long-term memory. To clarify, there are definite differences in the way information is stored depending on whether it is episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things), or semantic (general knowledge).<ref name=TulvingThompson1973 /> A short (non-inclusive) example comes from the study of [[Henry Molaison]] (H.M.): learning a simple motor task (tracing a star pattern in a mirror), which involves implicit and procedural long-term storage, is unaffected by bilateral lesioning of the hippocampal regions while other forms of long-term memory, like vocabulary learning (semantic) and memories for events, are severely impaired.<ref name=Milner1962 />

:{{further|Encoding specificity principle}}

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For more thorough and technical reviews of the main criticisms please refer to the following resources:

*{{cite book |first=Jeroen G. W. |last=Raaijmakers |chapter=The story of the two-store model of memory: past criticisms, current status, and future directions |title=Attention and performance |volume=XIV (silver jubilee volume) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/attentionperform0000atte_x7w3/page/467 467–488] |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, MA |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-262-13284-28 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/attentionperform0000atte_x7w3/page/467 }}

* {{cite journal |last=Baddeley |first=Alan |title=The magical number seven: still magic after all these years? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=353–356 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022967 |doi= 10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.353}}

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Memories stored in long-term store are retrieved through a logical process involving the assembly of cues, sampling, recovery, and evaluation of recovery. According to the model, when an item needs to be recalled from memory the individual assembles the various cues for the item in the short-term store. In this case, the cues would be any cues surrounding the pair ''blanket – ocean'', like the words that preceded and followed it, what the participant was feeling at the time, how far into the list the words were, etc.

Using these cues the individual determines which area of the long-term store to search and then samples any items with associations to the cues. This search is automatic and unconscious, which is how the authors would explain how an answer "pops" into one's head. The items which are eventually recovered, or recalled, are those with the strongest associations to the cue item, here ''blanket''. Once an item has been recovered it is evaluated, here the participant would decide whether ''blanket -– [recovered word]'' matches ''blanket – ocean''. If there is a match, or if the participant believes there is a match, the recovered word is output. Otherwise the search starts from the beginning using different cues or weighting cues differently if possible.<ref name=RaaijmakersShiffrin1981 />

===Recency effects===

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===Problems for the SAM model===

The SAM model faces serious problems in accounting for long-term recency data<ref name=BjorkWhitten1974 /> and long-range contiguity data.<ref name=HowardKahana1999 /> While both of these effects are observed, the short-term store cannot account for the effects. Since a distracting task after the presentation of word pairs or large interpresentation intervals filled with distractors would be expected to displace the last few studied items from the short-term store, recency effects are still observed. According to the rules of the short-term store, recency and contiguity effects should be eliminated with these distractors as the most recently studied items would no longer be present in the short-term memory. Currently, the SAM model competes with single-store free recall models of memory, such as the Temporal Context Model.<ref name=HowardKahana2002/> In this study the impact of age and level of maturation on participants ability to recall images from STM was investigated. It was hypothesised that students who fell in the age bracket of sixteen and 18 years would have greater recall ability and perform better on the STM recall imagery test than, eleven to thirteen year old.

Additionally, the original model assumes that items in a particular list the only significant associations between items are those formed during the study portion of an experiment. In other words, it does not account for the effects of prior knowledge about to-be-studied items. A more recent extension of the model incorporates various features which allow the model to account for memory store for the effects of prior semantic knowledge and prior episodic knowledge. For years there has been investigation regarding the level and capacity of STM. past research that has influenced the experiment is Atkinson - Shiffrin memory model. The model asserts. The experiment is focusing on the 'short term store', which holds information for the duration of twelve seconds and has a capacity of 7 ± 2 items. this has influenced the researches amount of images presented and how long they are viewed for. The extension proposes a store for preexisting semantic associations; a contextual drift mechanism allowing for decontextualisation of knowledge, e.g. if you first learned a banana was a fruit because you put it in the same class as apple, you do not always have to think of apples to know bananas are fruits; a memory search mechanism that uses both episodic and semantic associations, as opposed to a unitary mechanism; and a large lexicon including both words from prior lists and unpresented words.<ref name=SirotinKimballKahana2005 />

==References==

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<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1968>{{cite book |last1=Atkinson | first1=R.C.| last2=Shiffrin| first2=R.M.| editor-first=K.W.| editor-last=Spence| editor2-first=J.T.| editor2-last=Spence |title=The psychology of learning and motivation|volume=2| publisher= New York: Academic Press|year=1968 |pages=89–195 |chapter=Chapter: Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes}}</ref>

<ref name=AtkinsonShiffrin1971>{{cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=Richard C. |last2=Shiffrin |first2=Richard M. |title=The control of short-term memory |journal=Scientific American |volume= 225|issue=2 |pages=82–90 |date=August 1971 |PMIDpmid=5089457 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0871-82|bibcode=1971SciAm.225b..82A |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/25m708jq }}</ref>

<ref name=BaddeleyHitch1974>{{cite book |last1=Baddeley |first1=Alan D. |last2=Hitch |first2=Graham J. |chapter=Working memory |editor-last=Bower |editor-first=Gordon H. |title=The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory |volume=8 |pages=47–90 |___location=New York |publisher=Academic Press}}</ref>

<ref name=Bahrick1984>{{cite journal |last=Bahrick |first=Harry P. |title=Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=113 |issue=1 |date=March 1984 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.113.1.1|pmid=6242406 }}</ref>

<ref name=BjorkWhitten1974>{{cite journal |last1=Bjork |first1=Robert A. |authorlink1author-link1=Robert A. Bjork |last2=Whitten |first2=William B. |title=Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall |journal=Cognitive Psychology |year=1974 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=173–189 |doi=10.1016/0010-0285(74)90009-7|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/22374/1/0000823.pdf |hdl=2027.42/22374 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=ColtheartLeaThompson1974>{{cite journal |last1=Coltheart |first1=Max |last2=Lea |first2=C David |last3=Thompson |first3=Keith |title=In defence of iconic memory |journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=26 |issue=4 |year=1974 |pages=633–641 |doi=10.1080/14640747408400456|s2cid=143392196 }}</ref>

<ref name=CraikLockhart1972>{{cite journal |last1=Craik |first1=Fergus I. M. |last2=Lockhart |first2=Robert S. |title=Levels of processing: A framework for memory research |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior |volume=11 |issue=6 |date=December 1972 |pages=671–684 |issn=0022-5371 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X|s2cid=14153362 }}</ref>

<ref name=CrowderMorton1969>{{cite journal |last1=Crowder |first1=Robert G. |last2=Morton |first2=John |title=Precategorical acoustic storage (PAS) |journal=Perception & Psychophysics |date=November 1969 |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=365–373 |doi=10.3758/BF03210660|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=DarwinTurveyCrowder1972>{{cite journal |last1=Darwin |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Turvey |first2=Michael T. |last3=Crowder |first3=Robert G. |title=An auditory analogue of the sperling partial report procedure: Evidence for brief auditory storage |year=1972 |journal=Cognitive Psychology |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=255–267 |doi=10.1016/0010-0285(72)90007-2 |url=http://www.haskins.yale.edu/Reprints/HL0119.pdf |accessdateaccess-date=24 November 24, 2013 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225510/http://www.haskins.yale.edu/Reprints/HL0119.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Ebbinghaus>{{cite book |last=Ebbinghaus |first=Hermann |title=Über das Gedächtnis |trans-title=Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology |orig-year=1885

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|translator2=Clara E. Bussenius|date=1913|___location=New York |publisher=Teachers College, Columbia University |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/}}</ref>

<ref name=Estes1972>{{cite book |last=Estes |first=William K. |chapter=An associative basis for coding and organization in memory |title=Coding Processes in Human Memory |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=Arthur W. |editor2-last=Martin |editor2-first=Edwin |pages=[https://archive.org/details/codingprocessesi0000unse/page/161 161–90] |___location=Washington, DC |publisher=Winston |isbn=978-0-470-59335-6 |year=1972 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/codingprocessesi0000unse |url=https://archive.org/details/codingprocessesi0000unse/page/161 }}</ref>

<ref name=HealyEtAl1992>{{cite book |last1=Healy |first1=Alice F. |last2=Fendrich |first2=David W. |last3=Crutcher |first3=Robert J. |last4=Wittman |first4=William T. |last5=Gesi |first5=Antoinette T. |last6=Ericsson| first6=K. Anders |last7=Bourne |first7=Lyle E. Jr. |chapter=The long-term retention of skills |editor1-last=Healy |editor1-first=Alice F. |editor2-last=Kosslyn |editor2-first=Stephen M. |editor3-last=Shiffrin |editor3-first=Richard M. |title=From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes |volume=2 |year=1992| ___location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |pages=87–118 |isbn=978-0-8058-0760-8}}</ref>

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<ref name=Hebb1961>{{cite book |last=Hebb |first=Donald O. |chapter=Distinctive features of learning in the higher animal |editor-last=Delafresnaye |editor-first=Jean Francisque |title=Brain mechanisms and learning |___location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=1961 |pages=37–46}}</ref>

<ref name=HowardKahana1999>{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=Marc W. |last2=Kahana |first2=Michael J. |title=Contextual variability and serial position effects in free recall |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |year=1999 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=923–941 |doi=10.1016/j.jml.2010.11.003|pmid=21379369 |pmc=3046415 }}</ref>

<ref name=HowardKahana2002>{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=Marc W. |last2=Kahana |first2=Michael J. |s2cid=2942357 |title=A distributed representation of temporal context |journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology |date=June 2002 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=269–299 |doi=10.1006/jmps.2001.1388}}</ref>

<ref name=James1890>{{cite book |last=James |first=William |title=The Principles of Psychology |year=1890 |___location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/index.htm |accessdateaccess-date=23 November 23, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name=Lee1992>{{cite book |last=Lee |first=Catherine L. |chapter=The perturbation model of short-term memory: a review and some further developments |editor1-last=Healy |editor1-first=Alice F. |editor2-last=Kosslyn |editor2-first=Stephen M. |editor3-last=Shiffrin |editor3-first=Richard M. |title=From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes |volume=2 |year=1992| ___location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |pages=119–141 |isbn=978-0-8058-0760-8}}</ref>

<ref name=Melton1963>{{cite journal |last=Melton |first=Arthur W. | author-link=Arthur Melton |title=Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory |journal=DTIC Document |date=October 1963 |url=http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422425 |accessdateaccess-date=24 November 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173656/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422425 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Miller1956>{{cite journal |author last=Miller G| first=George A. | title=The magical number seven., plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information | journal=Psychological Review |volume publisher=American Psychological Association | volume=63 |pages issue=81–972 | year=1956 | issn=1939-1471 | doi=10.1037/h0043158 | pages=81–97 | pmid=13310704 | citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071| s2cid=15654531 }}</ref>

<ref name=Milner1962>{{cite book |last=Milner, B.|first=Brenda |author-link=Brenda Milner (|year=1962). |title=Physiologie de l'hippocampe, P.|trans-title=Physiology of the hippocampus |editor-last=Passouant, ed.|editor-first=Pierre (|place=Paris: |publisher=[[French National Centre for Scientific Research|Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), pp.]] |pages=257–272. |language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name=Milner1966>{{cite book |last=Milner |first=Brenda |author-link=Brenda Milner |chapter=Amnesia following operation on the temporal lobes |editor1-last=Whitty |editor1-first=C.Charles W. M. |editor2-last=Zangwill |editor2-first=O.Oliver L. |title=Amnesia |___location=London |publisher=Butterworths |year=1966 |pages=109–133}}</ref>

<ref name=Neisser1967>{{cite journalbook |last1 last=Neisser |first1 first=Ulric | author-link=Ulric Neisser | title=Cognitive Psychologypsychology |year publisher=1967Appleton-Century-Crofts |___location publication-place=New York |publisher year=Appleton1967 | isbn=978-Century0-Crofts390-66509-6 | oclc=192730}}</ref>

<ref name=NeathCrowder1990>{{cite journal |last1=Neath |first1=Ian |last2=Crowder |first2=Robert G. |title=Schedules of presentation and temporal distinctiveness in human memory |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=16 |issue=2 |date=March 1990 |pages=316–327 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.16.2.316|pmid=2137870 }}</ref>

<ref name=Norman1969>{{cite journal |last=Norman |first=Donald A. |title=Memory while shadowing |journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=1969 |pages=85–93 |doi=10.1080/14640746908400200|pmid=5777987 |s2cid=21352464 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=PetersonPeterson1959>{{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Lloyd |last2=Peterson |first2=Margaret Jean |title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=58 |issue=3 |date=September 1959 |pages=193–198 |doi=10.1037/h0049234 |pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807 }}</ref>

<ref name=PhillipsShiffrinAtkinson1967>{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=James L. |last2=Shiffrin |first2=Richard J. |last3=Atkinson |first3=Richard C. |title=The effects of list length on short-term memory |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior |year=1967 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=303–311 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80117-8|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/741429sd }}</ref>

<ref name=Posner1966>{{cite journal |last=Posner |first=Michael I. |title=Components of skilled performance |journal=Science |date=24 June 24, 1966

|volume=152 |issue=3730 |pages=1712–1718 |doi=10.1126/science.152.3730.1712|pmid=5328119 |bibcode=1966Sci...152.1712P }}</ref>

<ref name=Postman1964>{{cite book |last=Postman |first=Leo |chapter=Short-term memory and incidental learning |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=Arthur W. |title=Categories of human learning |year=1964 |pages=145–201}}</ref>

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<ref name=RaaijmakersShiffrin1981>{{cite journal |last1=Raaijmakers |first1=Jeroen G. W. |last2=Shiffrin |first2=Richard M. |title=Search of associative memory |journal=Psychological Review |year=1981 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=93–134 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.88.2.93}}</ref>

<ref name=Raaijmakers1993>{{cite book |first=Jeroen G. W. |last=Raaijmakers |chapter=The story of the two-store model of memory: past criticisms, current status, and future directions |title=Attention and performance |volume=XIV (silver jubilee volume) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/attentionperform0000atte_x7w3/page/467 467–488] |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, MA |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-262-13284-28 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/attentionperform0000atte_x7w3/page/467 }}</ref>

<ref name=Shiffrin1975>{{cite book |last=Shiffrin |first=Richard M. |chapter=Short-term store: The basis for a memory system |year=1975 |editor1-last=Restle |editor1-first=F. |editor2-last=Shiffrin |editor2-first=Richard M. |editor3-last=Castellan |editor3-first=N. J. |editor4-last=Lindman |editor4-first=H. |editor5-last=Pisoni |editor5-first=D. B. |title=Cognitive theory |volume=1 |pages=193–218 |___location=Hillsdale, New Jersey |publisher=Erlbaum}}</ref>

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<ref name=ShiffrinRaaijmakers1992>{{cite book|last1=Shiffrin|first1=Robert M.|last2=Raaijmakers|first2=Jeroen |chapter=The SAM retrieval model: a retrospective and prospective |editor1-last=Healy |editor1-first=Alice F. |editor2-last=Kosslyn |editor2-first=Stephen M. |editor3-last=Shiffrin |editor3-first=Richard M. |title=From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes |volume=2 |year=1992| ___location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |pages=119–141 |isbn=978-0-8058-0760-8}}</ref>

<ref name=SirotinKimballKahana2005>{{cite journal |last1=Sirotin |first1=Yevgeniy B. |last2=Kimball |first2=Daniel R. |last3=Kahana |first3=Michael J. |title=Going beyond a single list: Modeling the effects of prior experience on episodic free recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin and Review |year=2005 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=787–805 |doi=10.3758/BF03196773|pmid=16523998 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Sperling1960>{{cite journal |last=Sperling |first=George |title=The information available in brief visual presentations |journal=Psychological Monographs: General and Applied |volume=74 |issue=11 |year=1960 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1037/h0093759|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.7272 }}</ref>

<ref name=Treisman1964>{{cite journal |last=Treisman |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Treisman |title=Monitoring and storage of irrelevant messages in selective attention |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior |volume=3 |issue=6 |date=December 1964 |pages=449–459 |issn=0022-5371 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(64)80015-3}}</ref>

<ref name=TulvingThompson1973>{{cite journal |last1=Tulving |first1=Endel |last2=Thompson |first2=Donald M. |s2cid=14879511 |date=September 1973 |title=Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=352–373 |doi=10.1037/h0020071}}</ref>

}}

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[[Category:Psychological theories]]

[[Category:Memory]]

[[Category:Memory processes]]