Dynamic torque sensor: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Torque measurement device}}

[[File:Dynamic_torque_sensor.png|thumb|Dynamic torque sensor]]

A '''dynamic torque sensor''' is an [[Electronics|electronic]] measurement device used to measure and record [[torque]] variations in rotating or dynamically moving [[mechanical systems]].<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US8752439B2|title=Dynamic torque sensing system|gdate=2014-06-17|invent1=HYTE|inventor1-first=JEFFREY Alan|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US8752439B2/en}}</ref>. As compared to static torque sensors[[sensor]]s, which measure torque when the object is stationary, dynamic torque sensors specifically measure rapid fluctuations in torque.<ref>{{Cite journalbook |lastlast1=Mateev |firstfirst1=Valentin |last2=Marinova |first2=Iliana |titlechapter=Magnetic Elastomer Sensor for Dynamic Torque |urldate=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9097051/2019 |journaltitle=2019 19th International Symposium on Electromagnetic Fields in Mechatronics, Electrical and Electronic Engineering (ISEF) |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1109/ISEF45929.2019.9097051 |isbn=978-1-7281-1560-3 }}</ref>. Thus,They theyreport providetorque valuablevariations insights intoin real- time mechanical performance.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Karki |firstfirst1=Dipesh |last2=Dura |first2=Hari Bahadur |last3=Poudel |first3=Laxman |date=2023-12-30 |title=Design, construction and performance analysis of dynamic torque transducer |url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/jiee/article/view/43809 |journal=Journal of Innovations in Engineering Education |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=118–123 |doi=10.3126/jiee.v6i1.43809 |issn=2594-343X}}</ref>.

These sensors are crucialused where precise[[Control engineering|control]] and monitoring of torque are required. They, and they play a major role in [[Safety|operational safety]].<ref>{{Cite journalbook |lastlast1=Ahmed |firstfirst1=Rocksana N. |last2=Akram |first2=Muhammad |last3=Iqbal |first3=Sajid |last4=Bilal |first4=Muhammad |title=Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management |chapter=Design and Analysis of Joint Torque Sensor for Safe Human-Robotic Collaboration |date=2021 |url=https://index.ieomsociety.org/index.cfm/article/view/ID/5340 |journal=4th European International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management |language=en |publisher=IEOM Society |volume=11 |doi=10.46254/EU04.20210030 |isbn=978-1-7923-6127-2}}</ref>. Therefore,They aidinghelp engineers and technicians in determiningdetermine the [[efficiency]] of mechanical components such as [[Synchronous motor|motors]], [[Drivedrive shaft|drive shafts]]s, and rotating equipment.<ref name=":10" />.

Dynamic torque sensor uses principles such as [[strain gauge]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journalbook |lastlast1=Wang |firstfirst1=Xuezhu |last2=Cui |first2=Long |last3=Li |first3=Hongyi |last4=Wang |first4=Yuechao |titlechapter=Development and optimization of the build-in torque sensor for harmonic drive |urldate=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7419029/2015 |journaltitle=2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO) |pages=1774–1779 |doi=10.1109/ROBIO.2015.7419029 |isbn=978-1-4673-9675-2 }}</ref> technology, [[Inverse magnetostrictive effect|magnetoelastic effects]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journalbook |lastlast1=Mateev |firstfirst1=Valentin |last2=Marinova |first2=Iliana |titlechapter=Magnetic Elastomer Sensor for Dynamic Torque |urldate=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9097051/2019 |journaltitle=2019 19th International Symposium on Electromagnetic Fields in Mechatronics, Electrical and Electronic Engineering (ISEF) |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1109/ISEF45929.2019.9097051 |isbn=978-1-7281-1560-3 }}</ref>, [[optical sensing]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Adwant |firstfirst1=Mrs A. V. |last2=Singh |first2=Dr Manpreet |last3=Deshmukh |first3=Dr Suhas |last4=Singh |first4=Dr Vijay Kumar |date=2023-08-10 |title=Development Of An Optical Torque Sensor And Examining Torque-Vibration Correspondence |url=https://namibian-studies.com/index.php/JNS/article/view/3952 |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies : History Politics Culture |language=en |volume=35 |pages=2242–2254 |doi=10.59670/jns.v35i.3952 |issn=2197-5523}}</ref>, or [[Piezoelectricity|piezoelectric effects]].<ref name=":3">Hammond, J. M., & Lec, R. M. (1998, May). A non-contact piezoelectric torque sensor. In ''Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium (Cat. No. 98CH36165)'' (pp. 715-723). IEEE.</ref>. These aid in non-contact measurement hence, serving various industrial requirements<ref name=":3" />.

TheMechanical machinerysystems ishave increasinglydiversified gettingin complexdesign and theoperating demand for higher accuracy and performance is also increasingconditions. Therefore, thisdynamic hastorque broadenedsensors theare rolenow ofapplied dynamicin torquemore sensorssectors acrossthan various sectorsbefore. This includes [[Automotive industry|automotive]],<ref name=":10">Brusamarello, V., Balbinot, A., Gertz, L. C., & Cerviéri, A. (2010, May). Dynamic torque measurement for automotive application. In ''2010 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings'' (pp. 1358-1362). IEEE.</ref>, [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace]],<ref name=":4">Lee, T. H., Low, T. S., Tseng, K. J., & Lim, H. K. (2004). An intelligent indirect dynamic torque sensor for permanent magnet brushless DC drives. ''IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics'', ''41''(2), 191-200.</ref>, [[renewable energy]],<ref name=":5">Kang, H. S., & Meneveau, C. (2010). Direct mechanical torque sensor for model wind turbines. ''Measurement Science and Technology'', ''21''(10), 105206.</ref><ref name=":6">Zhang, Z., Zhao, Y., Qiao, W., & Qu, L. (2015). A discrete-time direct torque control for direct-drive PMSG-based wind energy conversion systems. ''IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications'', ''51''(4), 3504-3514.</ref>, [[industrial automation]],<ref>Beck, J. (2021, April). Torque sensors for high volume production applications. In ''CTI SYMPOSIUM 2019: 18th International Congress and Expo 9-129–12 December 2019, Berlin, Germany'' (pp. 17-24). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.</ref>, and [[robotics]].<ref>Palli, G. I. A. N. L. U. C. A., & Pirozzi, S. (2013). An optical torque sensor for robotic applications. ''International Journal of Optomechatronics'', ''7''(4), 263-282.</ref><ref name=":7">Tsetserukou, D., & Tachi, S. (2008). Torque sensors for robot joint control. ''Sensors, Focus on Tactile, Force and Stress Sensors'', 15-36.</ref><ref name=":8">Li, Z., Li, X., Lin, J., Pang, Y., Yang, D., Zhong, L., & Guo, J. (2023). Design and application of multidimensional force/torque sensors in surgical robots: A review. ''IEEE Sensors Journal'', ''23''(12), 12441-12454.</ref>. UseIn ofthese sectors, dynamic torque sensors inare theseemployed sectorsto ismonitor improvingsystem efficiency and safety of mechanical systems for manufacturers and usersparameters.<ref name=":9" />.

== Working principle ==

DynamicA dynamic torque sensor uses measurement principles such as strain gauge technology, magnetoelastic effects, optical sensing, and piezoelectric effects.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />.

=== Strain gauge technology ===

[[File:Strain_gauge_deformation.jpg|thumb|Strain gauge deformation under tension (left) and compression (right)]]

This[[Strain principle causes strain gauges togauge]]s [[Deformation (engineering)|deform]] when torque is applied. This results in changeschange in [[Electrical resistance and conductance|electrical resistance]] proportional to the torque, allowing the measurement of strain. These sensors provideclaim highan accuracy, theirof reliability±0.3% andof simplefull integration resultsscale in theirlaboratory widetests usageand are commonly integrated into measurement rigs.<ref name=":0" />.

=== Magnetoelastic effects ===

These sensors use changes in [[Magnetic field|magnetic]] properties when stress by torque is givenapplied. The magnetoelastic principle enables non-contact torque measurement. thusManufacturers sensorreport lifespanthat andmagnetoelastic sensors can performanceoperate in harshhigh-temperature environmentsor arehigh-vibration raisedconditions with minimal maintenance.<ref name=":1" />.

=== Optical sensing ===

Optical torque sensorsensors utilizesutilize light-based techniques, namely [[interferometry]] or [[Phase (waves)|phase shift]] measurements, to detect torque. They provide high sensitivity, immunity to [[electromagnetic interference]], and minimal mechanical interference.<ref name=":2" />.

=== Piezoelectric effects ===

[[File:SchemaPiezo.gif|thumb|Animated schema of the piezoelectric effect]]

WithBy use ofusing [[Piezoelectricity|piezoelectric crystals]], when mechanical stress is applied these sensors create an [[electric charge]], when mechanical stress is applied thus capturing high-[[frequency]] dynamic torque events.<ref name=":3" />.

== Types of dynamic torque sensor ==

DynamicA dynamic torque sensor can be classified according to theirits sensing technology and application.

Firstly, Rotaryrotary torque sensors measure torque on rotating shafts. They use strain gauges or magnetoelastic technology and are used in [[engine]]s, [[gearboxes]], and [[drive shaft]]s.<ref name=":11">Morsy, W. (2024). Fabrication of a rotating shaft torque sensor for power data determination of rotary farm implements. ''Alexandria Journal of Soil and Water Sciences'', ''8''(1), 49-56.</ref> measure torque on rotating shafts. They use strain gauges or magnetoelastic technology and are used in engines, [[gearboxes]], and [[Drive shaft|drive shafts]]<ref name=":11" />.

Secondly, Nonnon-contact torque sensors measure torque without physical contact. They use magnetoelastic or optical techniques thus reducing [[wear]] and maintenance requirements. They are especially helpful in harsh or high-speed environments.<ref name=":12">Zhang, C., Li, Z., Chen, J., Qiu, F., & Na, S. (2021). Design and research of a novel non-contact vertical inductive torque sensor. ''Measurement'', ''177'', 109252.</ref> measure torque without physical contact. They use magnetoelastic or optical techniques thus reducing [[wear]] and maintenance requirements. They are especially helpful in harsh or high-speed environments<ref name=":12" />.

Lastly, Reactionreaction torque sensors use strain gauge technology and are engineered to measure torque without rotation. They are used in torque [[Test bench|testing benches]] and component validation setups.<ref name=":13">Muftah, M. H., Haris, S. M., Petroczki, K., & Khidir, E. A. (2013). An improved strain gauge-based dynamic torque measurement method. ''International Journal of Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing'', ''7''(1), 66-73.</ref> use strain gauge technology and are engineered to measure torque without rotation. They are used in torque [[Test bench|testing benches]] and component validation setups<ref name=":13" />.

== Applications ==

Dynamic torque sensors are used in various industries due to their precision and reliability. They are used in Automotiveautomotive Industryindustry where [[engine]] and [[Transmission (mechanical device)|transmission]] testing,<ref>Persson, O., & Persson, G. (2015). Torque Sensor for Automotive Applications. ''CODEN: LUTEDX/TEIE''.</ref>, [[vehicle dynamics]] analysis, and development of [[electric vehicle]] (EV) [[Drivetrain|drivetrainsdrivetrain]]s is done.<ref>Albers, A., Fischer, J., Behrendt, M., & Lieske, D. (2015). Methods for measuring, analyzing and predicting the dynamic torque of an electric drive used in an automotive drivetrain. ''SAE International Journal of Alternative Powertrains'', ''4''(2), 363-369.</ref>.

They are further used in Aerospaceaerospace where [[Aircraft engine|aircraft enginesengine]]s, [[Propeller|propellerspropeller]]s, and rotor systems are tested, ensuring safety of aerospace components.<ref name=":4" />.

They are also used in monitoring torque in [[Windwind turbine|wind turbines]]s and [[Tidal power|tidal energy systems]], increasing their efficiency.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

Industrial Automationautomation and Roboticsrobotics uses them in monitoring torque in robotic joints, industrial machinery, and automation systems. Thus,Studies theirhave [[Safety|operationalshown safety]]that andtorque performancemonitoring iscan enhanceddetect abnormal loads in robotic joints, potentially preventing failures.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />.

== Technical specifications and performance criteria ==

Dynamic torque sensors are distinguished by their [[Specification (technical standard)|technical specifications]] and performance criteria. They are then accordingly considered suitable for specific applications:

* [[Sensitivity (electronics)|Sensitivity]]: Smallsmall changes in torque are detected by sensor.

* [[Accuracy and precision|Accuracy]]: Degreedegree to which sensor measurements reflect true torque values.

* [[Resolution of singularities|Resolution]]: Smallestsmallest detectable increase in torque.

* [[Frequency response]]: Rangerange of frequencies over which the sensor accurately measures dynamic torque.

* Temperature stability: Accurateaccurate measurements maintained by sensor across varying temperatures.

* [[Calibration]] Standardsstandards: Adherenceadherence to internationally recognized calibration standards (e.g., ISO, ASTM) ensuring consistent measurement accuracy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Torque Sensors Specifications {{!}} GlobalSpec |url=https://www.globalspec.com/specsearch/searchform/sensors_transducers_detectors/torque_sensing/torque_sensors |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=www.globalspec.com}}</ref>

== Calibration and maintenance ==

Proper [[calibration]] and maintenance of dynamic torque sensors is vital to guarantee their [[Accuracy and precision|accuracy]] over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Klaus |firstfirst1=Leonard |last2=Hamaji |first2=Misaki |date=2025 |title=The State of the Art in Dynamic Torque Calibration |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/sicejl/64/2/64_66/_article/-char/ja/ |journal=計測と制御 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=66–73 |doi=10.11499/sicejl.64.66}}</ref>. Both static and dynamic calibration methods are included to maintain sensor accuracy. Furthermore, compliance to recognized calibration standards, such as [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] and [[ASTM International|ASTM]] would ensure consistency across measurements. Regular [[inspection]], [[cleaning]], recalibration, and proper handling is also crucial to extend the lifespan of the [[sensor]].<ref>Cheng, L., Su, Y., & Wang, L. (2021, December). Research on the Calibration Method of Torque Sensor. In ''Journal of Physics: Conference Series'' (Vol. 2136, No. 1, p. 012004). IOP Publishing.</ref>.

== See also ==

* [[Torque]]

* [[Torque wrench]]

* [[Torque converter]]

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== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

<references />

== External links ==

* [https://handwiki.org/wiki/Engineering:Torque_sensor Engineering: Torque sensor]

* [https://www.ato.com/torque-sensors-for-sale?srsltid=AfmBOooOndEvgU8FoJJcgm7LhwjOjeZJG9N-gTskdX9rwk2YkiqkNkUa What is Torque Sensor?]

* [https://www.hbm.com/it/10716/how-does-a-torque-transducer-actually-work/ How Does a Torque Transducer Actually Work?]<br />

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