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{{Short description|Computer science technique}}
'''Human-based computation''' ('''HBC'''), '''human-assisted computation''',<ref>{{cite web |
▲'''Human-based computation''' ('''HBC'''), '''human-assisted computation''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://commonsensereasoning.org/2007/papers/shahaf-and-amir.pdf |title=Towards a Theory of AI Completeness |author=Shahaf, Dafna; and Eyal Amir |date=28 March 2007 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> '''ubiquitous human computing''' or '''distributed thinking''' (by analogy to [[distributed computing]]) is a [[computer science]] technique in which a machine performs its function by outsourcing certain steps to humans, usually as [[microwork]]. This approach uses differences in abilities and alternative costs between humans and computer agents to achieve symbiotic human–computer interaction. For computationally difficult tasks such as image recognition, human-based computation plays a central role in training [[Deep Learning]]-based [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence]] systems. In this case, human-based computation has been referred to as '''human-aided artificial intelligence'''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mühlhoff|first=Rainer|date=2019-11-06|title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |journal=New Media & Society |volume=22|issue=10|language=en|pages=1868–1884|doi=10.1177/1461444819885334|s2cid=209363848|issn=1461-4448|url=https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/12510|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In traditional computation, a human employs a computer<ref>the term "computer" is used the modern usage of computer, not the one of [[human computer]]</ref> to solve a problem; a human provides a formalized problem description and an algorithm to a computer, and receives a solution to interpret.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csee.umbc.edu/courses/471/papers/turing.pdf|author=Turing, Alan M.|title=Computer Machinery and Intelligence|date=1950|access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> Human-based computation frequently reverses the roles; the computer asks a person or a large group of people to solve a problem,<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1225961?section=abstract|chapter=Automatic concept evolution|author=Fogarty, Terence C.|title=The Second IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Informatics, 2003. Proceedings. |date=20 August 2003|page=89 |doi=10.1109/COGINF.2003.1225961 |isbn=0-7695-1986-5 |s2cid=30299981 |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> then collects, interprets, and integrates their solutions. This turns hybrid networks of humans and computers into "large scale distributed computing networks".<ref>{{Citation|last=von Ahn|first=Luis|title=Human Computation |date=22 August 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tx082gDwGcM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/tx082gDwGcM |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live |volume=Google Tech Talk July 26, 2006 |access-date=2019-11-22}}{{cbignore}}. Cited after Mühlhoff, Rainer (2019). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444819885334 "Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning".] New Media & Society: 146144481988533. doi:10.1177/1461444819885334. ISSN 1461-4448.</ref><ref>{{cite web |
==Early work==
Human-based computation (apart from the [[Computer (job description)|historical meaning of "computer]]") research has its origins in the early work on [[interactive evolutionary computation]] (EC).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-61723-X_966 |author=Herdy, Michael |title=Evolution strategies with subjective selection. Basic Concepts of Evolutionary Computation. Volumen 1141, pp. 22-31 |date=1996|pages=22–31 |doi=10.1007/3-540-61723-X_966 |isbn=9783540706687 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> The idea behind interactive evolutionary algorithms
A concept of the automatic [[Turing test]] pioneered by [[Moni Naor]] (1996)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~naor/PAPERS/human_abs.html |author=Naor, Moni |title=Verification of a human in the loop or Identification via the Turing Test |access-date=12 May 2021}}</ref> is another precursor of human-based computation. In Naor's test, the machine can control the access of humans and computers to a service by challenging them with a [[natural language processing]] (NLP) or [[computer vision]] (CV) problem to identify humans among them. The set of problems is chosen in a way that they have no algorithmic solution that is both effective and efficient at the moment. If it existed, such an algorithm could be easily performed by a computer, thus defeating the test. In fact, Moni Naor was modest by calling this an automated Turing test. The [[imitation game]] described by [[Alan Turing]] (1950) didn't propose using CV problems. It was only proposing a specific NLP task, while the Naor test identifies and explores a large [[AI-complete|class]] of problems, not necessarily from the ___domain of NLP, that could be used for the same purpose in both automated and non-automated versions of the test.
Finally, [[Human-based genetic algorithm]] (HBGA)<ref>{{cite book
==Classes of human-based computation==
Human-based computation methods combine computers and humans in different roles. Kosorukoff (2000) proposed a way to describe division of labor in computation, that groups human-based methods into three classes. The following table uses the evolutionary computation model to describe four classes of computation, three of which rely on humans in some role. For each class, a representative example is shown. The classification is in terms of the roles (innovation or selection) performed in each case by humans and computational processes. This table is a slice of a three-dimensional table. The third dimension defines if the organizational function is performed by humans or a computer. Here it is assumed to be performed by a computer.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:auto"
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==Methods of human-based computation==
* (HC) [[Darwin (programming game)|Darwin]] (Vyssotsky, Morris, McIlroy, 1961) and [[Core War]] (Jones, Dewdney 1984) These are games where several programs written by people compete in a tournament (computational simulation) in which fittest programs will survive. Authors of the programs copy, modify, and recombine successful strategies to improve their chances of winning.
* (CH) [[Interactive genetic algorithm|Interactive EC]] (Dawkins, 1986; Caldwell and Johnston, 1991; Sims, 1991) IEC enables the user to create an abstract drawing only by selecting his/her favorite images, so the human only performs fitness computation and software performs the innovative role. [Unemi 1998] Simulated breeding style introduces no explicit fitness, just selection, which is easier for humans.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/CFKO199811920543230.page |author=Unemi, Tastsuo |title=A Design of Multi-Field User Interface for Simulated Breeding, pp. 489-494 |journal=Proceedings of the Korean Institute of Intelligent Systems Conference |year=1998 |pages=489–494 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
* (HH<sub>2</sub>) [[Wiki]] ([[Ward Cunningham|Cunningham]], 1995) enabled editing the web content by multiple users, i.e. supported two types of human-based innovation (contributing new page and its incremental edits). However, the selection mechanism was absent until 2002, when wiki has been augmented with a revision history allowing for reversing of unhelpful changes. This provided means for selection among several versions of the same page and turned wiki into a [[The Wiki Way|tool]] supporting collaborative content evolution (would be classified as human-based evolution strategy in EC terms).
* (HH<sub>3</sub>) [[Human-based genetic algorithm]] (Kosorukoff, 1998) uses both human-based selection and three types of human-based innovation (contributing new content, mutation, and recombination). Thus, all operators of a typical [[genetic algorithm]] are outsourced to humans (hence the origin of '''human-based'''). This idea is extended to integrating crowds with genetic algorithm to study creativity in 2011.<ref>{{cite book |author=Yu |first1=Lixiu |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1978942.1979147 |title=Cooks or cobblers?: Crowd creativity through combination |
* (HH<sub>1</sub>) [[Social search]] applications accept contributions from users and attempt to use human evaluation to select the fittest contributions that get to the top of the list. These use one type of human-based innovation. Early work was done in the context of HBGA. [[Digg]] and [[Reddit]] are recently popular examples. See also [[Collaborative filtering]].
* (HC) Computerized tests. A computer generates a problem and presents it to evaluate a user. For example, [[CAPTCHA]] tells human users from computer programs by presenting a problem that is supposedly easy for a human and difficult for a computer. While CAPTCHAs are effective security measures for preventing automated abuse of online services, the human effort spent solving them is otherwise wasted. The [[reCAPTCHA]] system makes use of these human cycles to help digitize books by presenting words from scanned old books that optical character recognition cannot decipher.<ref>{{cite web |
* (HC) Interactive online games: These are programs that extract knowledge from people in an entertaining way.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.20q.net/index.html |author=Burgener, Robin |title=20Q . net. Twenty Questions. The neural-net on the Internet. Play Twenty Questions |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229091147/http://www.20q.net/index.html |archive-date=29 February 2000 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=von Ahn |first1=Luis |last2=Dabbish |first2=Laura |title=Labeling Images with a Computer Game |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~biglou/ESP.pdf
* (HC) "Human Swarming" or "Social Swarming". The UNU platform for human swarming establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified [[collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite web |
* (NHC) Natural Human Computation involves leveraging existing human behavior to extract computationally significant work without disturbing that behavior.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/1306.6376 Estrada, Daniel, and Jonathan Lawhead, "Gaming the Attention Economy" in ''The Springer Handbook of Human Computation'', Pietro Michelucci (ed.), (Springer, 2014)]</ref> NHC is distinguished from other forms of human-based computation in that rather than involving outsourcing computational work to human activity by asking humans to perform novel computational tasks, it involves taking advantage of previously unnoticed computational significance in existing behavior.
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* Direct monetary compensation (e.g. in [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]], [[ChaCha (search engine)|ChaCha]] Search guide, [[Mahalo.com]] Answers members)
* Opportunity to participate in the global information economy<ref>{{cite journal | date=2014 |title=No Really, (Crowd) Work is the Silver Bullet |journal=Procedia Engineering |volume=78 |issue=2014 |pages=224–228 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2014.07.060 |last1=Schriner |first1=Andrew |last2=Oerther |first2=Daniel |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Desire to diversify their activity (e.g. "people aren't asked in their daily lives to be creative"<ref>[https://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/news/2007/07/crowd_captain (Q&A) Your Assignment: Art]</ref>
* Esthetic satisfaction
* Curiosity, desire to test if it works
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* Desire to share a user innovation to see if someone else can improve on it
* Desire to [[game the system]] and influence the final result
* Enjoyment
* Increasing online reputation/recognition
Many projects had explored various combinations of these incentives. See more information about motivation of participants in these projects in Kosorukoff,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.3form.com/alex/pub/classtre.pdf |title=Social classification structures. Optimal decision making in an organization |author=Kosorukoff, Alexander |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707063544/http://research.3form.com/alex/pub/classtre.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and Von Hippel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/democ1.htm |title=Democratizing Innovation |author=Von Hippel, Eric |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref name="j625">{{cite book |last=von Hippel |first=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvCvxqxYAuAC |title=Democratizing Innovation |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-262-00274-5 |series=Book collections on Project MUSE |page= |access-date=17 June 2024}}</ref>
==Human-based computation as a form of social organization==
Viewed as a form of social organization, human-based computation often surprisingly turns out to be more robust and productive than traditional organizations.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kosorukoff |first1=Alexander |last2=Goldberg |first2=David |date=2002 |title=Evolutionary Computation as a Form of Organization |url=http://research.3form.com/alex/pub/gecco-2002-18.pdf |
The algorithmic outsourcing techniques used in human-based computation are much more scalable than the manual or automated techniques used to manage outsourcing traditionally. It is this scalability that allows to easily distribute the effort among thousands (or more) of participants. It was suggested recently that this mass outsourcing is sufficiently different from traditional small-scale outsourcing to merit a new name: [[crowdsourcing]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2006/06/crowds/ |title=The Rise of Crowdsourcing |author=Howe, Jeff |magazine=Wired |date=June 2006|access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> However, others have argued that crowdsourcing ought to be distinguished from true human-based computation.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9781461488057 |title=Handbook of Human Computation |author=Michelucci, Pietro |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> Crowdsourcing does indeed involve the distribution of computation tasks across a number of human agents, but Michelucci argues that this is not sufficient for it to be considered human computation. Human computation requires not just that a task be distributed across different agents, but also that the set of agents across which the task is distributed be ''mixed:'' some of them must be humans, but others must be traditional computers. It is this mixture of different types of agents in a computational system that gives human-based computation its distinctive character. Some instances of crowdsourcing do indeed meet this criterion, but not all of them do.
Human Computation organizes workers through a task market with APIs, task prices, and software-as-a-service protocols that allow employers / requesters to receive data produced by workers directly in to IT systems. As a result, many employers attempt to manage worker automatically through algorithms rather than responding to workers on a case-by-case basis or addressing their concerns. Responding to workers is difficult to scale to the employment levels enabled by human computation microwork platforms.<ref name="mw-cw">{{cite journal | last1 = Irani | first1 = Lilly|author1-link=Lilly Irani | year = 2015 | title = The Cultural Work of Microwork | journal = New Media & Society | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 720–739 | doi = 10.1177/1461444813511926| s2cid = 377594 }}</ref> Workers in the system Mechanical Turk, for example, have reported that human computation employers can be unresponsive to their concerns and needs<ref name="to-acm">{{cite book | last1= Irani|first1=Lilly|last2 = Silberman | first2 = Six |title=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Turkopticon | year=2013|series=Chi '13|pages=611–620|chapter-url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2470742|doi=10.1145/2470654.2470742|isbn=9781450318990|s2cid=207203679|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/10c125z3 }}</ref>
==Applications==
{{Further|List of crowdsourcing projects}}▼
Human assistance can be helpful in solving any [[AI-complete]] problem, which by definition is a task which is infeasible for computers to do but feasible for humans. Specific practical applications include:
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** [[Zooniverse (citizen science project)]]
** [[Berkeley Open System for Skill Aggregation]], by analogy with the [[distributed computing]] project [[Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing]]
▲{{Further|List of crowdsourcing projects}}
==Criticism==
Human-based computation has been criticized as exploitative and deceptive with the potential to undermine collective action.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cyber.harvard.edu/events/2010/02/zittrain |title=Minds for Sale |author=Zittrain, Jonathan |date=July 20, 2019 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2132176.2132186 |title=Exploring the character of participation in social media: the case of Google Image Labeler |author=Jafarinaimi, Nassim |date=February 7, 2012 |pages=72–79 |doi=10.1145/2132176.2132186 |isbn=9781450307826 |s2cid=7094199 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
In [[social philosophy]] it has been argued that human-based computation is an implicit form of online labour.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |author=Mühlhoff, Rainer |journal=New Media & Society |year=2020 |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1868–1884 |doi=10.1177/1461444819885334 |s2cid=209363848 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The philosopher [[Rainer Mühlhoff]] distinguishes five different types of "machinic capture" of human microwork in "hybrid human-computer networks": (1) gamification, (2) "trapping and tracking" (e.g. CAPTCHAs or click-tracking in Google search), (3) social exploitation (e.g. tagging faces on Facebook), (4) information mining and (5) click-work (such as on [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mühlhoff|first=Rainer|date=2019-11-06|title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning|journal=New Media & Society|volume=22|issue=10|language=en|pages=1868–1884|doi=10.1177/1461444819885334|s2cid=209363848|issn=1461-4448|url=https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/12510|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://philpapers.org/archive/MHLHAI-2.pdf |title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |author=Mühlhoff, Rainer |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> Mühlhoff argues that human-based computation often feeds into [[Deep learning|Deep Learning]]-based [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence]] systems, a phenomenon he analyzes as "human-aided artificial intelligence".
==See also==
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* [[Human computer]]
* [[Human Computer Information Retrieval]]
* [[Social software]]
* [[Social computing]]
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