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{{About|the activity involving computing machinery|the magazines|Computing (magazine)|and|Compute!}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
[[File:ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Early vacuum tube Turing complete computer|[[ENIAC]], the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer]]▼
[[File:GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif|thumb|right|alt=Computer simulation|[[Data visualization]] and [[computer simulation]] are important computing applications. This is a [[3D visualization]] of a [[Neural network (biology)|neural network]] simulation.]]
'''Computing''' is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating [[computer|computing machinery]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Computing Classification System |url=https://dl.acm.org/ccs |website=Digital Library |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery}}</ref> It includes the study and experimentation of [[algorithm]]ic processes, and the development of both [[computer hardware|hardware]] and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include [[computer engineering]], [[computer science]], [[cybersecurity]], [[data science]], [[information systems]], [[information technology]], and [[software engineering]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2020 |title=Computing Careers & Disciplines: A Quick Guide for Prospective Students and Career Advisors (2nd edition, ©2020) |url=https://ceric.ca/wpdm-package/computing-careers-disciplines-a-quick-guide-for-prospective-students-and-career-advisors/ |access-date=4 July 2022 |website=CERIC |language=en-US}}</ref>
The term ''computing'' is also [[synonymous]] with [[counting]] and [[calculation|calculating]]. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by [[Mechanical computer|mechanical computing machines]], and before that, to [[Computer (occupation)|human computers]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The History of Computing|url=http://mason.gmu.edu/~montecin/computer-hist-web.htm|access-date=12 April 2019|website=mason.gmu.edu}}</ref>
▲[[File:ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Early vacuum tube Turing complete computer|ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer]]
== History ==
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The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by [[C. E. Wynn-Williams]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Wynn-Williams | first = C. E. | author-link = C. E. Wynn-Williams | title = The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]] | volume = 132 | issue = 819 | pages = 295–310 | date = 2 July 1931 | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1931.0102 |bibcode = 1931RSPSA.132..295W | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Claude Shannon]]'s 1938 paper "[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]" then introduced the idea of using electronics for [[Boolean algebra]]ic operations.
The concept of a [[field-effect transistor]] was proposed by [[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]] in 1925. [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]], while working under [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Labs]], built the first working [[transistor]], the [[point-contact transistor]], in 1947.<ref name="Lee">{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Thomas H. |title=The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781139643771 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |access-date=16 September 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209032130/https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Puers">{{cite book |last1=Puers |first1=Robert |last2=Baldi |first2=Livio |last3=Voorde |first3=Marcel Van de |last4=Nooten |first4=Sebastiaan E. van |title=Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes |date=2017 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9783527340538 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref> In 1953, the [[University of Manchester]] built the first [[transistorized computer]], the [[Manchester Baby]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Lavington|first=Simon|title=A History of Manchester Computers|year=1998|edition=2|publisher=The British Computer Society|___location=Swindon|pages=34–35}}</ref> However, early [[junction transistor]]s were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite book |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Sanford L. |title=Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century |date=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9780470508923 |pages=165–167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165}}</ref>
In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working [[MOSFET]] at Bell Labs 1960.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KAHNG |first=D. |date=1961 |title=Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |journal=Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories |pages=583–596 |doi=10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |isbn=978-981-02-0209-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |___location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref> The MOSFET made it possible to build [[very large-scale integration|high-density integrated circuits]],<ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="Hittinger">{{cite journal |last1=Hittinger |first1=William C. |title=Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology |journal=Scientific American |date=1973 |volume=229 |issue=2 |pages=48–59 |issn=0036-8733|jstor=24923169 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 |bibcode=1973SciAm.229b..48H }}</ref> leading to what is known as the [[computer revolution]]<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Jerry G. Fossum |last1=Fossum |first1=Jerry G. |last2=Trivedi |first2=Vishal P. |title=Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs |date=2013 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781107434493 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZJfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7}}</ref> or [[microcomputer revolution]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malmstadt |first1=Howard V. |last2=Enke |first2=Christie G. |last3=Crouch |first3=Stanley R. |title=Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation |date=1994 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |isbn=9780841228610 |page=389 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyJGAQAAIAAJ |quote=The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.}}</ref>
==
{{Main|Computer|Outline of computers|Glossary of computer terms}}
A computer is a machine that manipulates [[Data (computing)|data]] according to a set of instructions called a [[computer program]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of computer |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/computer |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=PCMAG |language=en}}</ref> The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable [[source code]] form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an [[algorithm]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Denny |first=Jory |date=16 October 2020 |title=What is an algorithm? How computers know what to do with data |url=http://theconversation.com/what-is-an-algorithm-how-computers-know-what-to-do-with-data-146665 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to [[Machine code|machine instructions]] according to the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] type.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Butterfield |first1=Andrew|title=computer |date=21 January 2016 |work=A Dictionary of Computer Science |editor-last=Butterfield |editor-first=Andrew |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-936 |access-date=5 February 2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-968897-5 |last2=Ngondi |first2=Gerard Ekembe NgondiGerard Ekembe |last3=Kerr |first3=Anne|editor2-last=Ngondi |editor2-first=Gerard Ekembe |editor3-last=Kerr |editor3-first=Anne|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The execution [[process (computing)|process]] carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the [[Formal semantics of programming languages|semantics]] of the instructions.
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Application software applies the power of a particular [[computing platform]] or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as [[Microsoft Office]], are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a ''[[Geographic information system|geography]] application for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]'' or an ''[[Android (operating system)|Android]] application for [[Educational software|education]]'' or ''[[Linux gaming]]''. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as [[killer application]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Fibreculture Journal : 25 {{!}} FCJ-181 There's a History for That: Apps and Mundane Software as Commodity |journal=The Fibreculture Journal |issue=FCJ-181 |url=https://twentyfive.fibreculturejournal.org/fcj-181-theres-a-history-for-that-apps-and-mundane-software-as-commodity/ |access-date=5 February 2024 |language=en-US |last1=Morris (Aff1) |first1=Jeremy Wade |last2=Elkins (Aff1) |first2=Evan }}</ref>
=== Computer
{{Main|Computer network}}
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers [[Computer network|interconnected]] by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=6555 |title=Computer network definition |access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121061919/http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=6555 |archive-date=21 January 2012 }}</ref> When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, [[communications protocol]] used, scale, [[Network topology|topology]], and organizational scope.
[[Communications protocol]]s define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for [[computer network programming|network programming]]. One well-known communications protocol is [[Ethernet]], a hardware and [[link layer]] standard that is ubiquitous in [[local area network]]s. Another common protocol is the [[Internet Protocol Suite]], which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for [[data communication]] between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TCP/IP: What is TCP/IP and How Does it Work? |url=https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/TCP-IP |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Networking |language=en}}</ref>
Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of [[electrical engineering]], telecommunications, [[computer science]], information technology, or [[computer engineering]], since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.<ref>Dhavaleswarapu, Ratna. (2019). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338211242_The_Pallid_Image_of_Globalization_in_Kiran_Desai's_The_Inheritance_of_Loss The Pallid Image of Globalization in Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss]. Retrieved 19 April 2024.</ref>
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{{Main|Programmer|Software engineer|Software developer}}
A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term ''computer programmer'' can refer to a specialist in one area of [[computer programming]] or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.<ref>{{
=== Computer industry ===
{{Main|Computer Industry|Software industry}}
The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and [[computer networking]] infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including [[System administrator|system administration]] and maintenance.<ref>{{
The software industry includes businesses engaged in [[software development|development]], [[software maintenance|maintenance]], and [[software publisher|publication]] of software. The industry also includes software [[Service (economics)|service]]s, such as [[training]], [[software documentation|documentation]], and consulting.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}
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Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the [[science|scientific]] and practical approach to [[computation]] and its applications. A [[computer scientist]] specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist |title=WordNet Search – 3.1 |publisher=Wordnetweb.princeton.edu |access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref>
Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in [[computer system]]s, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as [[computational complexity theory]], which studies fundamental properties of [[computational problem]]s, are highly abstract, while others, such as [[Computer graphics (computer science)|computer graphics]], emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of [[computer programming]] investigates the use of [[programming language]]s and [[complex systems]]. The field of [[human–computer interaction]] focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
=== Cybersecurity ===
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=== Data science ===
{{Main|Data science}}
Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dhar |first=Vasant |date=2013 |title=Data science and prediction |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2500499 |journal=Communications of the ACM |language=en |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1145/2500499 |issn=0001-0782|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Data mining]], [[big data]], statistics, [[machine learning]] and [[deep learning]] are all interwoven with data science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cao |first=Longbing |date=31 May 2018 |title=Data Science: A Comprehensive Overview |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1145/3076253 |s2cid=207595944 |issn=0360-0300|doi-access=free |arxiv=2007.03606 }}</ref>
=== Information systems ===
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{{further|List of unsolved problems in computer science}}
[[DNA computing|DNA-based computing]] and [[quantum computing]] are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of [[quantum algorithm]]s. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes [[DNA origami]] on photolithography<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kershner | first1 = Ryan J. | last2 = Bozano | first2 = Luisa D. | last3 = Micheel | first3 = Christine M. | last4 = Hung | first4 = Albert M. | last5 = Fornof | first5 = Ann R. | last6 = Cha | first6 = Jennifer N. | last7 = Rettner | first7 = Charles T. | last8 = Bersani | first8 = Marco | last9 = Frommer | first9 = Jane | last10 = Rothemund | first10 = Paul W. K. | last11 = Wallraff | first11 = Gregory M. | year = 2009 | title = Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces | journal = [[Nature Nanotechnology]] | volume = 4| issue = 9| pages = 557–561| doi = 10.1038/nnano.2009.220 | pmid = 19734926 | bibcode = 2009NatNa...4..557K | citeseerx = 10.1.1.212.9767 }} [http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/extref/nnano.2009.220-s1.pdf supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography]</ref> and [[quantum antenna]]e for transferring information between ion traps.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature09800 | volume=471 | title=Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information | year=2011 | journal=Nature | pages=200–203 | last1 = Harlander | first1 = M.| issue = 7337 | pmid = 21346764 | arxiv = 1011.3639 | bibcode = 2011Natur.471..200H | s2cid = 4388493 }}
*{{cite press release |date=26 February 2011 |title=Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110223133444.htm}}</ref> By 2011, researchers had [[Qubit#Quantum entanglement|entangled]] 14 [[qubit]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506 | volume=106 | title=14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence | year=2011 | journal=Physical Review Letters | last1 = Monz | first1 = Thomas| issue=13 | pmid=21517367 | arxiv=1009.6126 | bibcode=2011PhRvL.106m0506M |
</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=20823.php|title=World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits|website=www.nanowerk.com}}</ref> Fast [[digital circuit]]s, including those based on [[Josephson junction]]s and [[rapid single flux quantum]] technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of [[nanoscale superconductor]]s.<ref>Saw-Wai Hla et al., ''Nature Nanotechnology'' 31 March 2010 [http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ "World's smallest superconductor discovered"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528133148/http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ |date=28 May 2010 }}. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87 [[nanometer]]s. Access date 31 March 2010</ref>
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Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of [[Software as a service|Software as a Service]], [[Platform as a service|Platforms as a Service]], and [[Infrastructure as a service|Infrastructure as a Service]], depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing|date=September 2011|work=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref> It allows individual users or small business to benefit from [[economies of scale]].
One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berl|first1=A.|last2=Gelenbe|first2=E.|last3=Girolamo|first3=M. Di|last4=Giuliani|first4=G.|last5=Meer|first5=H. De|last6=Dang|first6=M. Q.|last7=Pentikousis|first7=K.|date=September 2010|title=Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8130358|journal=The Computer Journal|volume=53|issue=7|pages=1045–1051|doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxp080|issn=1460-2067|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=L. M.|date=July 2009|title=Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing|journal=IEEE Security & Privacy|volume=7|issue=4|pages=61–64|doi=10.1109/MSP.2009.87|bibcode=2009ISPri...7d..61H |s2cid=16233643|issn=1558-4046}}</ref>
=== Quantum computing ===
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* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Computing/Index of history of computing articles|Index of history of computing articles]]
* [[Instruction set architecture]]
* [[Internet of things]]
* [[Lehmer sieve]]
* [[Liquid computing]]
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