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{{short description|Country ranking by public sector corruption}}
{{For|the current and historical ranking of countries|List of countries by Corruption Perceptions Index}}▼
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
▲{{For|the current and historical ranking of countries|List of countries by Corruption Perceptions Index}}
{{Corruption Perceptions Index}}
{{Political corruption sidebar}}
The '''Corruption Perceptions Index''' ('''CPI''') is an index that scores and ranks countries by their perceived levels of [[public sector]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Corruption Perception Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi |website=transparency.org |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> [[corruption]], as assessed by experts and business executives.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index: Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/CPI_2023_Methodology.zip|publisher=[[Transparency International]] |access-date=20 July 2024 |year=2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603033004/https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/CPI_2023_Methodology.zip|archive-date=3 June 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> The CPI generally defines corruption as an "abuse of entrusted power for private gain".<ref name="cpilong" />{{rp|2}} The index
Since 2012, the Corruption Perceptions Index has been ranked on a scale from 100 (very clean) to 0 (highly corrupt). Previously, the index was scored on a scale of 10 to 0; it was originally rounded to two decimal spaces from 1995-1997 and to a single decimal space from 1998.
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=== Selection of source data ===
The goal of the data selection is to capture expert and business leader assessments of various public sector corruption practices. This includes [[bribery]], misuse of public funds, abuse of public office for personal gain, [[nepotism]] in civil service, and [[state capture]]. Since 2012 CPI has taken into account 13 different surveys and assessments<ref>{{cite journal|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2022: Full Source Description|page=1|journal=Corruption Perceptions Index|author=Transparency International |issn= }}</ref> from 12 different institutions.<ref name="cpilong" />{{rp|1}} The institutions are:
* [[African Development Bank]] (based in Ivory Coast)
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A study published in 2002 found a "very strong significant correlation" between the Corruption Perceptions Index and two other proxies for corruption: [[black market]] activity and an overabundance of regulation.<ref name=ivcp />
All three metrics also had a highly significant correlation with the [[real gross domestic product]] per capita (RGDP/Cap); the Corruption Perceptions Index correlation with RGDP/Cap was the strongest, explaining over three-quarters of the variance.<ref name=ivcp>{{cite journal | last = Wilhelm | first = Paul G. | title = International Validation of the Corruption Perceptions Index: Implications for Business Ethics and Entrepreneurship Education | journal = Journal of Business Ethics | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 177–189 | publisher = Springer Netherlands | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1023/A:1013882225402 | s2cid = 151245049 | issn=0167-4544 }}<!--| access-date = 21 July 2009--></ref> (Note that a lower rating on this scale reflects greater corruption so that countries with higher RGDPs generally had less corruption.)
Alex Cobham of the [[Center for Global Development]] reported in 2013 that "many of the staff and chapters" at [[Transparency International]], the publisher of the Corruption Perceptions Index, "protest internally" over concerns about the index. The original creator of the index, Johann Graf Lambsdorff, withdrew from work on the index in 2009, stating "In 1995 I invented the Corruption Perceptions Index and have orchestrated it ever since, putting TI on the spotlight of international attention. In August 2009 I have informed Cobus de Swardt, managing director of TI, that I am no longer available for doing the Corruption Perceptions Index."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cgdev.org/blog/corrupting-perceptions-why-transparency-international%E2%80%99s-flagship-corruption-index-falls-short |title=Corrupting Perceptions: Why Transparency International's Flagship Corruption Index Falls Short |date=23 July 2013 |first=Alex |last=Cobham |website=cgdev.org}}</ref>
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=== CPI and economic growth ===
Research papers published in 2007 and 2008 examined the economic consequences of corruption perception, as defined by the CPI. The researchers found a correlation between a higher CPI and higher long-term economic growth,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Shao | first1 = J. | last2 = Ivanov | first2 = P. C. | last3 = Podobnik | first3 = B. | last4 = Stanley | first4 = H. E. | title = Quantitative relations between corruption and economic factors | doi = 10.1140/epjb/e2007-00098-2 | issn=1434-6028 | journal = The European Physical Journal B | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 157 | year = 2007 |arxiv = 0705.0161 |bibcode = 2007EPJB...56..157S | s2cid = 2357298 }}</ref> as well as an increase in GDP growth of 1.7% for every unit increase in a country's CPI score.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Podobnik | first1 = B. | last2 = Shao | first2 = J. | last3 = Njavro | first3 = D. | last4 = Ivanov | first4 = P. C. | last5 = Stanley | first5 = H. E. | title = Influence of corruption on economic growth rate and foreign investment | doi = 10.1140/epjb/e2008-00210-2 | issn=1434-6028 | journal = The European Physical Journal B | volume = 63 | issue = 4 | pages = 547 | year = 2008 |arxiv = 0710.1995 |bibcode = 2008EPJB...63..547P | s2cid = 3038265 }}</ref> Also shown was a [[power-law]] dependence linking higher CPI score to higher rates of foreign investment in a country.
The research article "The Investigation of the Relationship between Corruption Perception Index and GDP in the Case of the Balkans"<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Göktürk|first1=E.|last2=Yalçınkaya|first2=H. S.|year=2020|title=The investigation of relationship between Corruption Perception Index and GDP in the case of the Balkans|journal=International Journal of Management Economics and Business|volume=16|issue=4|doi=10.17130/ijmeb.853535 | issn=2147-9208 }}</ref> from 2020 confirms the positive [[co-integration]] relationship in Balkan countries between CPI and GDP and calculates the affecting rate of CPI GDP as 0.34. Moreover, the direction of causality between CPI and GDP was identified from CPI to GDP and, according to this, the hypothesis that CPI is the cause of GDP was accepted.
The working paper ''Corruption and Economic Growth: New Empirical Evidence''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gründler|first1=Klaus|first2=Niklas|last2=Potrafke|title=Corruption and Economic Growth: New Empirical Evidence|journal=European Journal of Political Economy|volume=60|year=2019|
=== CPI and justice ===
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=== Other phenomena and indices ===
Thesis The Relationship Between Corruption And Income Inequality: A Crossnational Study,<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Mehen|first=M.|year=2013|title=The Relationship between Corruption and Income Inequality: A Crossnational Study|publisher=Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University|url=https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/558570/Mehen_georgetown_0076M_12119.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |hdl= 10822/558570}}</ref> published in 2013, investigates the connection between corruption and income inequality on a global scale. The study's key finding is a robust positive association between income inequality (measured by the [[Gini coefficient]]) and corruption (measured by the CPI).
A study from 2001<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001-01-25 |title="Strongest correlation" between corruption and poor environmental… |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/press/strongest-correlation-between-corruption-and-poor-environmental-performance |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Transparency.org |language=en}}</ref> shows that the more affected by corruption, the worse a country's environmental performance. Measuring national environmental performance according to 67 variables, the closest match is with the 2000 TI Corruption Perceptions Index, which revealed a 0.75 correlation with the ranking of environmental performance.
A 2022 study titled "Statistical Analyses on the Correlation of Corruption Perception Index and Some Other Indices in Nigeria"<ref>{{cite journal|first1=T|last1=Onyeogulu|first2=U.P.|last2=Ogoke|title=Statistical Analyses on the Correlation of Corruption Perception Index and Some Other Indices in Nigeria|journal=Scientia Africana|volume=21|issue=3|date=29 January 2023|pages=37–48|doi=10.4314/sa.v21i3.3 | issn=1118-1931 }}</ref> investigated the relationship between the Corruption Perception Index in Nigeria and other relevant indices. These other indices included the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), [[Global Peace Index]] (GPI), and [[Global Hunger Index]] (GHI). The result from the analysis carried out on the standardized data set shows that a positive linear relationship exists among all the variable considered except for CPI and GPI holding HDI and GHI constant which indicates a negative linear relationship between them.
A study investigating the relationship between public governance and the Corruption Perception Index<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koeswayo|first1=P. S.|last2=Handoyo|first2=S.|last3=Abdul Hasyir|first3=D|year=2024|title=Investigating the Relationship between Public Governance and the Corruption Perception Index|journal=Cogent Social Sciences|volume=10|issue=1|article-number=2342513 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2024.2342513|doi-access=free | issn=2331-1886 }}</ref> found that aspects of public administration like voice and [[accountability]], political stability, and [[rule of law]] significantly influence how corrupt a country is perceived to be. This suggests that strong governance practices can be effective in reducing corruption.
== Assessments ==
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In a 2013 article in ''[[Foreign Policy (magazine)|Foreign Policy]]'', Alex Cobham suggested that CPI should be dropped for the good of Transparency International. It argues that the CPI embeds a powerful and misleading elite bias in popular perceptions of corruption, potentially contributing to a vicious cycle and at the same time incentivizing inappropriate policy responses. Cobham writes, "the index corrupts perceptions to the extent that it's hard to see a justification for its continuing publication."<ref name="Cobham, Alex">{{cite journal |last=Cobham |first=Alex |date=22 July 2013 |title=Corrupting Perceptions |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/07/22/corrupting_perceptions |journal=[[Foreign Policy]] |access-date=6 March 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204010800/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/07/22/corrupting_perceptions |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Recent econometric analyses that have exploited the existence of [[natural experiment]]s on the level of corruption and compared the CPI with other subjective indicators have found that, while not perfect, the CPI is argued to be broadly consistent with one-dimensional measures of corruption.<ref>{{
In the United States, many lawyers advise international businesses to consult the CPI when attempting to measure the risk of [[Foreign Corrupt Practices Act]] violations in different nations. This practice has been criticized by the ''Minnesota Journal of International Law'', which wrote that since the CPI may be subject to perceptual biases it therefore should not be considered by lawyers to be a measure of actual national corruption risk.<ref name="ssrn.com">{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Stuart |date= 2013 |title=Perception is Not Reality: The FCPA, Brazil, and the Mismeasurement of Corruption |url=https://
Transparency International also publishes the [[Global Corruption Barometer]], which ranks countries by corruption levels using direct surveys instead of perceived expert opinions, which has been under criticism for substantial bias from the powerful elite.<ref name="Cobham, Alex" />
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The advanced economies of Northern and Western Europe, North America, and Asia and the Pacific tend to top the rankings over the long term. This means that these countries are perceived as having a low level of corruption in the public sector. These nations also generally have well-functioning judicial systems, a strong rule of law, and political stability – all factors that contribute to perceptions of clean governance. However, while these top-ranked countries have strong domestic institutions, their commitment to fighting corruption appears to be weak when it comes to their own financial systems and regulations affecting the international environment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-30 |title=CPI 2023: Trouble at the top - News |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi-2023-trouble-at-the-top |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Transparency.org |language=en}}</ref> The CPI doesn't capture transnational corruption, so corrupt foreign business practices by companies from these countries don't affect their CPI scores. The example of the Netherlands highlights this issue. Despite a high CPI score, the Netherlands has a poor record of prosecuting companies that bribe foreign officials to win contracts, as seen in the Nigerian oil bribery case.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-22 |title=Nigeria oil bribery case: Netherlands and US must reopen… |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/press/nigeria-oil-bribery-netherlands-us-reopen-investigations-eni-shells-opl245 |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Transparency.org |language=en}}</ref>
The report ''Exporting Corruption 2022'',<ref>Dell, G., & McDevitt, A. (2022). Exporting Corruption 2022: Assessing Enforcement of the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention. In ''www.transparency.org'' (No. 978-3-96076-228–7). Transparency International.</ref> which assesses foreign bribery enforcement in 43 of the 44 signatories to the [[OECD Anti-Bribery Convention]], as well as China, ZAO Hong Kong, India and Singapore, reinforces this concern. It found a significant decline in foreign bribery enforcement. Only two out of 47 countries are now in active enforcement category. Other key findings were that no country is exempt from bribery by its nationals and related money laundering. Moreover, according to the report, weaknesses remain in legal frameworks and enforcement systems are not adequately disclosed by most countries information on enforcement, victim compensation is rare and international cooperation is increasing but still faces significant obstacles. This calls for a more comprehensive approach to tackling corruption, addressing both domestic and international aspects.
== See also ==
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