Human–computer interaction: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Academic discipline studying the relationship between computer systems and their usersnone}}

{{More citations needed|date=December 2022}}

[[File:ComputerGolden monitorratio screenlogo imagedesign simulatedtechnique.jpg|alt=A close-up photograph of a computer monitor.|thumb|A computer monitor provides a visual interface between the machine and the user.]]

'''Human–computer interaction''' ('''HCI''') is the process through which people operate and engage with [[computer]] systems. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Rapp |first=Amon |date=2023-05-24 |title=Human–Computer Interaction |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.47 |url-status=live |access-date=31 July 2025 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>Research in HCI covers the design and the use of [[Computing|computer technology]], which focuses on the [[Interface (computing)|interface]]sinterfaces between people ([[user (computing)|users]]) and [[computer]]scomputers. HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design technologies that allow humans to interact with computers in novel ways.<ref>{{Cite Abook device|last=Helander that|first=M. allowsG. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vnSAwAAQBAJ&dq=what+is+human+computer+interaction&pg=PP1 between|title=Handbook humanof beingHuman-Computer Interaction |date=2014-06-28 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4832-9513-8 |language=en}}</ref> These include visual, auditory, and atactile computer(haptic) isfeedback knownsystems, which serve as achannels "'''human–computerfor interface'''"interaction in both traditional interfaces and mobile computing contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hampton |first1=W. H. |title=Haptic Rewards: How Mobile Vibrations Shape Reward Response and Consumer Choice |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |year=2025 |doi=10.1093/jcr/ucaf025 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaf025 }}</ref>

A device that allows interaction between human being and a computer is known as a "'''human–computer interface'''".

As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of [[computer science]], [[behaviouralBehavioural sciences|behavioral sciences]], [[design]], [[media studies]], and [[Outline of human–computer interaction#Related fields|several other fields of study]]. The term was popularized by [[Stuart K. Card]], [[Allen Newell]], and [[Thomas P. Moran]] in their 1983 book, ''The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction.'' The first known use was in 1975 by Carlisle.<ref name="Evaluating the impact of office automation on top management communication"/> The term is intended to convey that, unlike other tools with specific and limited uses, computers have many uses which often involve an open-ended dialogue between the user and the computer. The notion of dialogue likens human–computer interaction to human-to-human interaction: an analogy that is crucial to theoretical considerations in the field.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Suchman|first1=Lucy|title=Plans and Situated Action. The Problem of Human-Machine Communication|date=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=New York, Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ_eBJtHxmsC&q=suchman+situated+action&pg=PR7|access-date=7 March 2015|isbn=9780521337397}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Dourish|first1=Paul|title=Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction|date=2001|publisher=MIT Press|___location=Cambridge, MA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCIy2zxrCqcC&q=Dourish+where+the+action+is&pg=PR7|isbn=9780262541787}}</ref>

==Introduction==

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2021}}

Humans interact with computers in many ways, and the interface between the two is crucial to facilitating this interaction. HCI is also sometimes termed ''human–machine interaction'' (HMI), ''man-machine interaction'' (MMI) or ''computer-human interaction'' (CHI). Desktop applications, web browsers, handheld computers, and computer kiosks make use of the prevalent [[graphical user interface]]s (GUI) of today.<ref name="ACM SIGCHI">{{cite web|last1=Hewett|last2=Baecker|last3=Card|last4=Carey|last5=Gasen|last6=Mantei|last7=Perlman|last8=Strong|last9=Verplank|title=ACM SIGCHI Curricula for Human–Computer Interaction|url=http://old.sigchi.org/cdg/cdg2.html#2_1|publisher=ACM SIGCHI|access-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817165957/http://old.sigchi.org/cdg/cdg2.html#2_1|archive-date=17 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Voice user interface]]s (VUIs) are used for [[speech recognition]] and synthesizing systems, and the emerging [[multimodal interaction|multi-modal]] and Graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow humans to engage with [[Embodied agent|embodied character agents]] in a way that cannot be achieved with other interface paradigms.

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Due to the multidisciplinary nature of HCI, people with different backgrounds contribute to its success.

Poorly designed [[human-machine interface]]s can lead to many unexpected problems. A classic example is the [[Three Mile Island accident]], a nuclear meltdown accident, where investigations concluded that the design of the human-machine interface was at least partly responsible for the disaster.<ref name="What is Cognitive Ergonomics?" /><ref name="NRC: Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident" /><ref name="three mile island" /> Similarly, some accidents in aviation have resulted from manufacturers' decisions to use non-standard [[Flight instruments#Layout|flight instruments]] or throttle quadrant layouts: even though the new designs were proposed to be superior in basic human-machine interaction, pilots had already ingrained the "standard" layout. Thus, the conceptually good idea had unintended results.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1994-05-02 |title=Bonanza Safety Review |url=https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/1994/february/pilot/bonanza-safety-review |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=www.aopa.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Human–computer interface==

{{main|User interface}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2021}}

A human–computer interface can be described as the interface of communication between a human user and a computer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartson |first1=H. Rex |last2=Hix |first2=Deborah |date=1989-03-01 |title=Human-computer interface development: concepts and systems for its management |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/62029.62031 |journal=ACM Comput. Surv. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=5–92 |doi=10.1145/62029.62031 |issn=0360-0300}}</ref> The flow of information between the human and computer is defined as the ''loop of interaction''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Costa |first1=Pedro Maurício |last2=Galvão |first2=Teresa |last3=Falcão e Cunha |first3=João |last4=Pitt |first4=Jeremy |chapter=How to support the design and development of interactive pervasive environments |date=June 2015 |title=2015 8th International Conference on Human System Interaction (HSI) |pages=278–284 |doi=10.1109/HSI.2015.7170680|isbn=978-1-4673-6936-7 }}</ref> The loop of interaction has several aspects to it, including:

* '''Visual based''': The visual-based human–computer interaction is probably the most widespread human–computer interaction (HCI) research area.

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==Current research==

{{More citations needed section|date=October 2010}}

Topics in human–computer interaction include the following''':'''

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===Mixed reality (MR)===

{{main|Mixed reality}}

Mixed reality (MR) blends elements of both augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR). It enables real-time interaction with both physical and digital objects. HCI research in MR concentrates on spatial computing, real-world object interaction, and context-aware adaptive interfaces.<ref name=milgram1999>{{citeCite journal book|last1=Milgram |first1=Paul |editor-first1last2=HariTakemura |editor-last1first2=DasHaruo |chapterlast3=Utsumi |first3=Akira |last4=Kishino |first4=Fumio |date=1995 |title=Augmented reality: Aa class of displays on the reality-virtuality continuum |dateurl=1995https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228537162 |title=Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies|journal=SPIE Proceedings on Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies |volume=2351 |pagespage=282–292282 |doi=10.1117/12.197321|bibcode=1995SPIE.2351..282M }}</ref> MR technologies are increasingly applied in education, training simulations, and healthcare, enhancing learning outcomes and user engagement.<ref name=speiginer2015>{{cite journal|last1=Speiginer|first1=Grant|title=Mixed reality in education: A review of current and future trends|journal=Educational Technology Research & Development|year=2015|volume=63|issue=6|pages=855–873|doi=10.1007/s11423-015-9381-7|doi-broken-date=141 AprilJuly 2025 }}</ref>

===Extended reality (XR)===

{{main|Extended reality}}

Extended reality (XR) is an umbrella term encompassing AR, VR, and MR, offering a continuum between real and virtual environments. Research investigates user adaptability, interaction paradigms, and ethical implications of immersive technologies.<ref name=milgram1994>{{cite journal|last1=Milgram|first1=Paul|title=A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays|journal=IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems|year=1994|volume=77|issue=12|pages=1321–1329}}</ref> Recent studies highlight how AI-driven personalization and adaptive interfaces improve the usability of XR applications.<ref name=buhalis2022>{{cite journal|last1=Buhalis|first1=Dimitrios|last2=Karatay|first2=Natali|title=Extended reality (XR) and artificial intelligence (AI) revolutionizing the hospitality industry|journal=Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research|year=2022|volume=46|issue=3|pages=489–508|doi=10.1177/10963480211037322|doi-broken-date=141 AprilJuly 2025 }}</ref>

===Accessibility===

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* their interface designers lacked understanding of related security concepts

* their interface designers were not usability experts (often meaning they were the application developers themselves)

===Feminist HCI===

{{main|Feminist HCI}}

Feminist HCI is a subfield of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) that examines the interaction between people and technology through the lens of [[Feminist theory|feminist]] and [[Critical theory|critical theories]]. This particular research topic consists of many sub-disciplines that examine the role of power, [[Social privilege|privilege]], and other systems of [[oppression]] in the [[design]] and interaction of technology.

==Factors of change==

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* ASSETS: ACM International Conference on Computers and [[Accessibility]]

* CSCW: ACM conference on [[Computer Supported Cooperative Work]]

* CUI: ACM conference on [[Conversational user interface|Conversational User Interfaces]]

* DIS: ACM conference on Designing Interactive Systems

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* HCII: Human–Computer Interaction International

* ICMI: International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces

* ITS: ACM conference on [[Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces]]

* [[MobileHCI]]: International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services

* NIME: International Conference on [[New Interfaces for Musical Expression]]

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* [[CAPTCHA]]

* [[Digital Live Art]]

* [[FeministText-based HCIuser interface]]

* [[HCI Bibliography]], a web-based project to provide a bibliography of Human Computer Interaction literature

* [[Information architecture]]

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<ref name="value sensitive design">Friedman, B., Kahn Jr, P. H., Borning, A., & Kahn, P. H. (2006). Value Sensitive Design and information systems. Human–Computer Interaction and Management Information Systems: Foundations. ME Sharpe, New York, 348–372.</ref>

<ref name="guidelines">Brown, C. Marlin. Human–Computer Interface Design Guidelines. Intellect Books, 1998. 2–3.</ref>

<ref name="interaction-design">Kaptelinin, Victor (2012): ''Activity Theory''. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "Encyclopedia of Human–Computer Interaction". The Interaction-Design.org Foundation. Available online at [http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323212118/http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html |date=2012-03-23 }}</ref>

<ref name="introduction">Wickens, Christopher D., John D. Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie E. Gordon Becker. An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering. Second ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. 185–193.</ref>

<ref name="mit">{{cite web|url=https://www.mit.edu/~jtidwell/common_ground_onefile.html|title=The Case for HCI Design Patterns|access-date=2019-08-26|archive-date=2019-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928001239/http://www.mit.edu/~jtidwell/common_ground_onefile.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

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* {{cite journal |last1= Carroll |first1= John M. |year= 2010 |title= Conceptualizing a possible discipline of human–computer interaction |journal= Interacting with Computers |volume= 22 |issue= 1 |pages= 3–12 |doi= 10.1016/j.intcom.2009.11.008}}

* Sara Candeias, S. and A. Veiga ''The dialogue between man and machine: the role of language theory and technology'', Sandra M. Aluísio & Stella E. O. Tagnin, New Language Technologies, and Linguistic Research, A Two-Way Road: cap. 11. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ({{ISBN|978-1-4438-5377-4}})

<references responsive="0" />

;Social science and HCI