Strongly regular graph: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|RegularConcept in graph where all linked node pairs have same degree, as do all unlinked node pairstheory}}

[[Image:Paley13.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Paley graph]] of order 13, a strongly regular graph with parameters {{math|srg(13,6,2,3)}}.]]

{{Graph families defined by their automorphisms}}

In [[graph theory]], a '''strongly regular graph''' ('''SRG''') is defineda as[[regular follows. Letgraph]] {{math|1=''G'' = (''V'', ''E'')}} be a [[regular graph]] with {{mvar|v}} vertices and [[Degree (graph theory)|degree]] {{mvar|k}}. such {{mvar|G}}that isfor saidsome togiven beintegers '''strongly<math>\lambda, regular'''\mu if\ge there are also [[integer]]s {{0</math|λ}} and {{math|μ}} such that:>

* Everyevery two [[adjacent vertices]] have {{math|λ}} common neighbours., and

* Everyevery two non-adjacent vertices have {{math|μ}} common neighbours.

TheSuch [[complementa strongly regular graph|complement]] ofis andenoted by {{math|srg(''v'', ''k'', λ, μ)}}. Its [[complement graph]] is also strongly regular.: Itit is aan {{math|srg(''v'', ''v'' − ''k'' − 1, ''v'' − 2 − 2''k'' + μ, ''v'' − 2''k'' + λ)}}.

* Every two [[adjacent vertices]] have {{math|λ}} common neighbours.

* Every two non-adjacent vertices have {{math|μ}} common neighbours.

The [[complement graph|complement]] of an {{math|srg(''v'', ''k'', λ, μ)}} is also strongly regular. It is a {{math|srg(''v'', ''v'' − ''k'' − 1, ''v'' − 2 − 2''k'' + μ, ''v'' − 2''k'' + λ)}}.

A strongly regular graph is a [[distance-regular graph]] with diameter 2 whenever μ is non-zero. It is a [[locally linear graph]] whenever {{math|1=λ = 1}}.

==Etymology==

A strongly regular graph is denoted as an srg(''v'', ''k'', λ, μ) in the literature. By convention, graphs which satisfy the definition trivially are excluded from detailed studies and lists of strongly regular graphs. These include the disjoint union of one or more equal-sized [[complete graph]]s,<ref>[http://homepages.cwi.nl/~aeb/math/ipm.pdf Brouwer, Andries E; Haemers, Willem H. ''Spectra of Graphs''. p. 101] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316102909/http://homepages.cwi.nl/~aeb/math/ipm.pdf |date=2012-03-16 }}</ref><ref>Godsil, Chris; Royle, Gordon. ''Algebraic Graph Theory''. Springer-Verlag New York, 2001, p. 218.</ref> and their [[complement graph|complements]], the complete [[multipartite graph]]s with equal-sized independent sets.

[[Andries Brouwer]] and Hendrik van Maldeghem (see [[#References]]) use an alternate but fully equivalent definition of a strongly regular graph based on [[spectral graph theory]]: a strongly regular graph is a finite regular graph that has exactly three eigenvalues, only one of which is equal to the degree ''k'', of multiplicity 1. This automatically rules out fully connected graphs (which have only two distinct eigenvalues, not three) and disconnected graphs (whosefor which the multiplicity of the degree ''k'' is equal to the number of different connected components, which would therefore exceed one). Much of the literature, including Brouwer, referrefers to the larger eigenvalue as ''r'' (with multiplictymultiplicity ''f'') and the smaller one as ''s'' (with multiplicity ''g'').

==History==

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* The [[Clebsch graph]] is an srg(16, 5, 0, 2).

* The [[Shrikhande graph]] is an srg(16, 6, 2, 2) which is not a [[distance-transitive graph]].

* The ''n''&nbsp;×&nbsp;''n'' square [[rook's graph]], i.e., the line graph of a balanced complete [[bipartite graph]] ''K''_''n'',''n'', is an srg(''n''², 2''n''&nbsp;−&nbsp;2, ''n''&nbsp;−&nbsp;2, 2). The parameters for {{nowrap|''n'' {{=}} 4}} coincide with those of the Shrikhande graph, but the two graphs are not isomorphic. (The vertex neighborhood for the Shrikhande graph is a hexagon, while that for the rook graph is two triangles.)

* The [[line graph]] of a complete graph ''K_n'' is an <math display="inline">\operatorname{srg}\left(\binom{n}{2}, 2(n - 2), n - 2, 4\right)</math>.

* The three [[Chang graphs]] are srg(28, 12, 6, 4), the same as the line graph of ''K''₈, but these four graphs are not isomorphic.

* The [[line graph]] of aEvery [[generalized quadrangle]] GQ(2, 4) is an srg(27, 10, 1, 5). In fact every generalized quadrangle of order (s, t) gives a strongly regular graph in this way: to wit, an srg((s + 1)(st + 1), s(t + 1), s − 1, t + 1) as its [[line graph]]. For example, GQ(2, 4) gives srg(27, 10, 1, 5) as its line graph.

* The [[Schläfli graph]] is an srg(27, 16, 10, 8) and is the complement of the aforementioned line graph on GQ(2, 4).<ref>{{MathWorld | urlname=SchlaefliGraph | title=Schläfli graph|mode=cs2}}</ref>

* The [[Hoffman–Singleton graph]] is an srg(50, 7, 0, 1).

* The [[Sims-Gewirtz graph]] is an srg(56, 10, 0, 2).

* The [[M22 graph]] aka the [[Mesner graph]] is an srg(77, 16, 0, 4).

* The [[Brouwer–Haemers graph]] is an srg(81, 20, 1, 6).

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* The [[McLaughlin graph]] is an srg(275, 112, 30, 56).

* The [[Paley graph]] of order ''q'' is an srg(''q'', (''q''&nbsp;−&nbsp;1)/2, (''q''&nbsp;−&nbsp;5)/4, (''q''&nbsp;−&nbsp;1)/4). The smallest Paley graph, with {{nowrap|''q'' {{=}} 5}}, is the 5-cycle (above).

* [[Self-complementary graph|selfSelf-complementary]] [[symmetric graph|arc-transitive]] graphs are strongly regular.

A strongly regular graph is called '''primitive''' if both the graph and its complement are connected. All the above graphs are primitive, as otherwise {{nowrap|μ {{=}} 0}} or {{nowrap|''v'' + λ {{=}} 2''k''}}.

[[Conway's 99-graph problem]] asks for the construction of an srg(99, 14, 1, 2). It is unknown whether a graph with these parameters exists, and [[John Horton Conway]] offered a $1000 prize for the solution to this problem.<ref>{{citation

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===Triangle-free graphs===

The strongly regular graphs with λ&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 are [[triangle-free graph|triangle free]]. Apart from the complete graphs on lessfewer than 3 vertices and all regular complete bipartite graphs, the seven listed earlier (pentagon, Petersen, Clebsch, Hoffman-Singleton, Gewirtz, Mesner-M22, and Higman-Sims) are the only known ones.

===Geodetic graphs===

Every strongly regular graph with <math>\mu = 1</math> is a [[geodetic graph]], a graph in which every two vertices have a unique [[Shortest path problem|unweighted shortest path]].<ref name=bb>{{citation

| last1 = Blokhuis | first1 = A.

| last2 = Brouwer | first2 = A. E. | authorlink = Andries Brouwer

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===Basic relationship between parameters===

The four parameters in an srg(''v'', ''k'', λ, μ) are not independent.: TheyIn order for an srg(''v'', ''k'', λ, μ) to exist, the parameters must obey the following relation:

:<math>(v - k - 1)\mu = k(k - \lambda - 1)</math>

The above relation is derived through a counting argument as follows:

# Imagine the vertices of the graph to lie in three levels. Pick any vertex as the root, in Level 0. Then its ''k'' neighbors lie in Level 1, and all other vertices lie in Level 2.

# Vertices in Level 1 are directly connected to the root, hence they must have λ other neighbors in common with the root, and these common neighbors must also be in Level 1. Since each vertex has degree ''k'', there are <math>k - \lambda - 1</math> edges remaining for each Level 1 node to connect to nodesvertices in Level 2. Therefore, there are <math>k (k - \lambda - 1)</math> edges between Level 1 and Level 2.

# Vertices in Level 2 are not directly connected to the root, hence they must have μ common neighbors with the root, and these common neighbors must all be in Level 1. There are <math>(v - k - 1)</math> vertices in Level 2, and each is connected to μ nodesvertices in Level 1. Therefore the number of edges between Level 1 and Level 2 is <math>(v - k - 1)\mu</math>.

# Equating the two expressions for the edges between Level 1 and Level 2, the relation follows.

This relation is a [[necessary condition]] for the existence of a strongly regular graph, but not a [[sufficient condition]]. For instance, the quadruple (21,10,4,5) obeys this relation, but there does not exist a strongly regular graph with these parameters.<ref>{{citation

| last1 = Brouwer | first1 = A. E.

| last2 = van Lint | first2 = J. H.

| contribution = Strongly regular graphs and partial geometries

| contribution-url = https://pure.tue.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/2394798/595248.pdf

| isbn = 0-12-379120-0

| mr = 782310

| pages = 85–122

| publisher = Academic Press, Toronto, ON

| title = Enumeration and design (Waterloo, Ont., 1982)

| year = 1984}}</ref>

===Adjacency matrix equations===

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Since the sum of all the eigenvalues is the [[Trace (linear algebra)|trace of the adjacency matrix]], which is zero in this case, the respective multiplicities ''f'' and ''g'' can be calculated:

* Eigenvalue ''k'' has [[Multiplicity (mathematics)|multiplicity]] 1.

* Eigenvalue <math>r = \frac{1}{2}\left[(\lambda - \mu) + \sqrt{(\lambda - \mu)^2 + 4(k - \mu)}\,\right]</math> has multiplicity <math>f = \frac{1}{2}\left[(v - 1) - \frac{2k + (v - 1)(\lambda - \mu)}{\sqrt{(\lambda - \mu)^2 + 4(k - \mu)}}\right]</math>.

* Eigenvalue <math>s = \frac{1}{2}\left[(\lambda - \mu) - \sqrt{(\lambda - \mu)^2 + 4(k-\mu)}\,\right]</math> has multiplicity <math>g = \frac{1}{2}\left[(v - 1) + \frac{2k + (v - 1)(\lambda - \mu)}{\sqrt{(\lambda - \mu)^2 + 4(k - \mu)}}\right]</math>.

As the multiplicities must be integers, their expressions provide further constraints on the values of ''v'', ''k'', ''μ'', and ''λ''.

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Their eigenvalues are <math>r =\frac{-1 + \sqrt{v}}{2}</math> and <math>s = \frac{-1 - \sqrt{v}}{2}</math>, both of whose multiplicities are equal to <math>\frac{v-1}{2}</math>. Further, in this case, ''v'' must equal the sum of two squares, related to the [[Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem]].

Further properties of the eigenvalues and their multiplicities are:<ref>Brouwer & van Meldeghem, ibid.</ref>

* <math>(A - rI)\times(A - sI) = \mu.J</math>, therefore <math>(k - r).(k - s) = \mu v</math>

* <math>\lambda - \mu = r + s</math>

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* Absolute bound: <math>v \le \frac{f(f+3)}{2}</math> and <math>v \le \frac{g(g+3)}{2}</math>.

* Claw bound: if <math>r + 1 > \frac{s(s+1)(\mu+1)}{2}</math>, then <math>\mu = s^2</math> or <math>\mu = s(s+1)</math>.

If any of the above condition(s)conditions are violated for anya set of parameters, then there exists no strongly regular graph for those parameters. Brouwer has compiled such lists of existence or non-existence [https://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/graphs/srg/srgtab.html here] with reasons for non-existence if any. For example, there exists no srg(28,9,0,4) because that violates one of the Krein conditions and one of the absolute bound conditions.

===The Hoffman–Singleton theorem===

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which must be integers.

In 1960, [[Alan J. Hoffman|Alan Hoffman]] and Robert Singleton examined those expressions when applied on [[Moore graph]]s, which are strongly regular graphs that have ''λ'' = 0 and ''μ'' = 1. Such graphs are free of triangles (otherwise ''λ'' would exceed zero) and quadrilaterals (otherwise ''μ'' would exceed 1), hence they have a girth (smallest cycle length) of 5. Substituting the values of ''λ'' and ''μ'' in the equation <math>(v - k - 1)\mu = k(k - \lambda - 1)</math>, it can be seen that <math>v = k^2 + 1</math>, and the eigenvalue multiplicities reduce to

:<math>M_{\pm} = \frac{1}{2}\left[k^2 \pm \frac{2k - k^2}{\sqrt{4k - 3}}\right]</math>

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If the denominator <math>\sqrt{4k - 3}</math> is an integer ''t'', then <math>4k - 3</math> is a perfect square <math>t^2</math>, so <math>k = \frac{t^2 + 3}{4}</math>. Substituting:

:<math>\begin{align}

:<math>M_{\pm} = \frac{1}{2}\left[\left(\frac{t^2 + 3}{4}\right)^2 \pm \frac{\frac{t^2 + 3}{2} - \left(\frac{t^2 + 3}{4}\right)^2}{t}\right]</math>

:<math>\implies 32 M_{\pm} &= \frac{1}{2} \left[\left(\frac{t^2 + 3}{4}\right)^2 \pm \frac{8(\frac{t^2 + 3)}{2} - \left(\frac{t^2 + 3}{4}\right)^2}{t}</math>\right] \\

:<math>\implies 32 M_{\pm} &= (t^42 + 6t3)^2 + 9 \pm \frac{- 8(t^42 + 2t3) - (t^2 + 153)^2}{t}</math> \\

:<math>\implies 32 M_{\pm} &= t^4 + 6t^2 + 9 \pm \left(frac{- t^34 + 2t^2 + \frac{15}{t} \\right)</math>

&= t^4 + 6t^2 + 9 \pm \left(-t^3 + 2t + \frac{15}{t}\right)

\end{align}</math>

Since both sides are integers, <math>\frac{15}{t}</math> must be an integer, therefore ''t'' is a factor of 15, namely <math>t \in \{\pm 1, \pm 3, \pm 5, \pm 15\}</math>, therefore <math>k \in \{1, 3, 7, 57\}</math>. In turn:

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* ''k'' = 3 and ''v'' = 10 yields the [[Petersen graph]],

* ''k'' = 7 and ''v'' = 50 yields the [[Hoffman–Singleton graph]], discovered by Hoffman and Singleton in the course of this analysis, and

* ''k'' = 57 and ''v'' = 3250 famously predicts a famous graph that has neither been discovered since 1960, nor has its existence been disproven.<ref>{{citation

| last = Dalfó | first = C.

| doi = 10.1016/j.laa.2018.12.035

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}}</ref>

The Hoffman-Singleton theorem states that there are no strongly regular girth-5 Moore graphs except the ones listed above.

==See also==