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'''Open source''' is [[source code]] that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code,<ref name="Open Source Org., 2007">{{cite web |url=https://opensource.org/docs/osd |title=The Open Source Definition |access-date=2020-01-22 |date=7 July 2006 |website=Open Source Org. |quote=Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611152544/https://opensource.org/docs/osd |archive-date=2007-06-11 }}</ref> design documents,<ref name="Diffingo Solutions Inc., 2008">{{Cite web |title=What is Open Source Software |url=https://diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=Diffingo Solutions Inc. |quote=Open source software <!-- differers --> differs from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged. Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code! |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028104313/http://www.diffingo.com/oss/whyoss |archive-date=2008-10-28 }}</ref> or content of the product. The '''open source model''' is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.<ref name="LevinePrietula2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Levine | first1 = Sheen S. | last2 = Prietula | first2 = M. J. | year = 2013 | title = Open Collaboration for Innovation: Principles and Performance | journal = Organization Science | volume = 25| issue = 5| pages = 1414–1433 | issn = 1047-7039 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.2013.0872 | arxiv = 1406.7541 | ssrn = 1096442 | s2cid = 6583883 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym|url-access=registration|title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary|last=Raymond|first=Eric S.|publisher=OReilly|year=2001|isbn=978-0-596-00108-7|author-link=Eric S. Raymond}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref>
A main principle of [[Open-source software|open source software]] development is peer production, with products such as [[source code]], blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open source eCommerce, open source appropriate technology,<ref name="Pearce2012">{{cite journal |title=The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=14 |issue= 3|pages=425–431 |year=2012 | issn = 1387-585X |doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9 |last1=Pearce |first1=Joshua M |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012EDSus..14..425P |url=https://www.academia.edu/1517361 }}</ref> and open source drug discovery.<ref name="business-standard.com">{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/sreelatha-menon-researchers-sans-borders/00/19/350429/ |title="Science 2.0 is here as CSIR resorts to open source drug research for TB"|first=Sreelatha|last=Menon|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=1 March 2009|via=Business Standard}}</ref><ref name="OpenWetWare" />
Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003">{{cite journal|last1=Lakhani|first1=K.R.|last2=von Hippel|first2=E.|date=June 2003|title=How Open Source Software Works: Free User to User Assistance|journal=Research Policy|volume=32|issue=6|pages=923–943 | issn = 0048-7333 |doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00095-1|hdl=1721.1/70028|ssrn=290305|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="GerberMolefo2010">{{cite book|title=Proceedings of the SAICSIT 2010 Conference — Fountains of Computing Research|last1=Gerbe| first1 = Aurona |last2=Molefo | first2 = Onkgopotse |last3=Van der Merwe | first3 = Alta |publisher=ACM Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-60558-950-3 |editor-last=Kotze|editor-first=P.|pages=75–85|chapter=Documenting open-source migration processes for re-use|doi=10.1145/1899503.1899512|display-editors=3|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Gerber|editor3-first = A. |editor3-last=van der Merwe|editor4-first=N.|editor4-last=Bidwell|citeseerx=10.1.1.1033.7791|s2cid=11970697}}</ref> Before the phrase ''open source'' became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms, such as ''free software'', ''shareware'', and ''public ___domain software''. ''Open source'' gained hold with the rise of the [[Internet]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weber|2004}}{{page needed|date=February 2014}}</ref> The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, ___domain, and consumer issues.
Generally, open source refers to a [[computer program]] in which the source code is available to the general public for usage, modification from its original design, and publication of their version (fork) back to the community. Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the [[Apache Software Foundation]], which supports community projects such as the open-source framework and the open-source [[HTTP]] server Apache HTTP.
==History==
{{main|History of free and open-source software}}
The sharing of technical information predates the Internet and the personal computer considerably. For instance, in the early years of automobile development a group of capital [[monopoly|monopolists]] owned the rights to a [[2 cycle|2-cycle]] gasoline-engine patent originally filed by [[George B. Selden]].<ref name="carculture">{{cite book |first=James J. |last=Flink |title=The Car Culture |publisher=MIT Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-262-56015-3 }}</ref> By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit.
In 1911, independent automaker [[Henry Ford]] won a challenge to [[George B. Selden#The Selden patent|the Selden patent]]. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association) was formed.<ref name="carculture" /> The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among all US automotive manufacturers: although each company would develop technology and file patents, these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money among all the manufacturers.<ref name="carculture" /> By the time the US entered [[World War II]], 92 Ford patents and 515 patents from other companies were being shared among these manufacturers, without any exchange of money (or lawsuits).<ref name="carculture" />
Early instances of the free sharing of source code include [[IBM]]'s source releases of its [[operating system]]s and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the [[SHARE (computing)|SHARE]] user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software.<ref name="autogenerated172">{{cite book|title=IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History|last1=Fisher|first1=Franklin M.|publisher=Praeger|year=1983|isbn=978-0-03-063059-0|pages=172–9|first2=James W.|last2=McKie|first3=Richard B.|last3=Mancke}} IBM unbundled (began charging for) software 23 June 1969.</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">[http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html Dave Pitts' IBM 7090 support] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827134534/http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html |date=27 August 2015 }}{{spaced ndash}}An example of distributed source: Page contains a link to [[IBM 7090/94 IBSYS]] source, including [[COBOL]] and [[FORTRAN]] compilers.</ref> Beginning in the 1960s, [[ARPANET]] researchers used an open "[[Request for Comments]]" (RFC) process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols. This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969.
The sharing of source code on the Internet began when the Internet was relatively primitive, with software distributed via [[UUCP]], [[Usenet]], [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], and [[Gopher (protocol)|Gopher]]. [[BSD]], for example, was first widely distributed by posts to comp.os.linux on the Usenet, which is also where its development was discussed. [[Linux]] followed in this model.
===Open source as a term===
Open source as a term emerged in the late 1990s by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=O'Mahony |first=Siobhan Clare |title=The emergence of a new commercial actor: Community managed software projects |date=2002 |degree=PhD |publisher=Stanford University |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/305527434 |url-access=subscription |pages=34–42 |___location=Stanford, CA |id={{ProQuest|305527434}} }}</ref> In addition, the ambiguity of the term "free software" was seen as discouraging business adoption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |quote=The problem with it is twofold. First, ... the term "free" is very ambiguous ... Second, the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous.|first=Eric S.|last=Raymond|author-link=Eric S. Raymond }}</ref><ref name="infoworld1983">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yy8EAAAAMBAJ&q=us%20government%20public%20domain%20software&pg=PA31 |website=[[InfoWorld]] |date=23 June 1983|title=Free software – Free software is a junkyard of software spare parts |quote=''"In contrast to commercial software is a large and growing body of free software that exists in the public ___domain. Public-___domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists (also known as "hackers") many of whom are professional programmers in their work life. [...] Since everybody has access to source code, many routines have not only been used but dramatically improved by other programmers."'' |first=Tom |last=Shea |access-date= 10 February 2016}}</ref> However, the ambiguity of the word "free" exists primarily in English as it can refer to cost. The group included [[Christine Peterson]], Todd Anderson, [[Larry Augustin]], [[Jon Hall (programmer)|Jon Hall]], [[Sam Ockman]], [[Michael Tiemann]] and [[Eric S. Raymond]]. Peterson suggested "open source" at a meeting<ref name=osihistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensource.org/history |title=History of the OSI |date=19 September 2006 |first=Michael |last=Tiemann |author-link=Michael Tiemann |publisher=[[Open Source Initiative]] |access-date=23 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021001164015/http://www.opensource.org/docs/history.php |archive-date=1 October 2002 }}</ref> held at [[Palo Alto, California]], in reaction to [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]'s announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for [[Netscape Navigator|Navigator]].<ref name="Conflict">{{cite web |last1=Lunduke |first1=Bryan |author1-link=Bryan Lunduke |title=WATCH: Eric Raymond & Lunduke Argue About the Origin of "Open Source" |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuKSD_himSE |website=youtube.com |publisher=[[The Lunduke Journal]] |language=en |format=video |date=Feb 18, 2025}}</ref> [[Linus Torvalds]] gave his support the following day, and Phil Hughes backed the term in ''[[Linux Journal]]''. Richard Stallman, the founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) in 1985, quickly decided against endorsing the term.<ref name=osihistory/><ref name="rmsdissent">{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html |title=Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software |publisher=Free Software Foundation |date=18 May 2012 |first = Richard |last = Stallman}}</ref> The FSF's goal was to promote the development and use of free software, which they defined as software that grants users the freedom to run, study, share, and modify the code. This concept is similar to open source but places a greater emphasis on the ethical and political aspects of software freedom. Netscape released its source code under the Netscape Public License and later under the [[Mozilla Public License]].<ref name="Muffatto000">{{cite book | title = Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach | first = Moreno | last = Muffatto | publisher = Imperial College Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-86094-665-3 }}</ref>
Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.<ref name="raymondCall">{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |publisher=Catb.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> Shortly after, he founded The Open Source Initiative in collaboration with [[Bruce Perens]].<ref name=osihistory/>
The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher [[O'Reilly Media]] . Originally titled the "Freeware Summit" and later known as the "Open Source Summit",<ref name=opensourcesummit>{{cite web|url=http://linuxgazette.net/issue28/rossum.html |title=Open Source Summit |website=Linux Gazette |date=10 April 1998 |access-date=2015-02-07 |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229053622/http://linuxgazette.net/issue28/rossum.html |archive-date=29 December 2013}}</ref> the event was attended by the leaders of many of the most important free and open-source projects, including Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Eric Allman, Guido van Rossum, Michael Tiemann, Paul Vixie, Jamie Zawinski, and Eric Raymond. At that meeting, alternatives to the term "free software" were discussed. Tiemann argued for "sourceware" as a new term, while Raymond argued for "open source." The assembled developers took a vote, and the winner was announced at a press conference the same evening.<ref name=opensourcesummit />
==Economics==
{{main|Open-source economics}}
[[File:Anwendungsgebiete Open Source.svg|thumb|Area of application of open-source software<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.swissict.ch/medien/medienmitteilungen/medienmitteilungen/open-source-studie-schweiz-2015-publiziert-mehr-unabhaengigkeit-und-sicherheit-dank-open-source/|title=Open Source Studie Schweiz 2015 publiziert: Mehr Unabhängigkeit und Sicherheit dank Open Source|website=Der Verband für den Informatiker & für die Informatik|language=de-CH|access-date=2018-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313043750/http://www.swissict.ch/medien/medienmitteilungen/medienmitteilungen/open-source-studie-schweiz-2015-publiziert-mehr-unabhaengigkeit-und-sicherheit-dank-open-source/|archive-date=13 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
[[File:Einsatzgründe Open Source.svg|thumb|Survey on the reasons for using Open Source in 200 Swiss organizations<ref name=":0" />]]
Some economists agree that open-source is an [[information good]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The economics and management of intellectual property : towards intellectual capitalism|last=Granstrand|first=Ove|publisher=E. Elgar|year=1999|isbn=978-1-85898-967-9|___location=Cheltenham, UK}}</ref> or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost{{spaced ndash}}this is referred to as the [[marginal cost]] of a product. [[Copyright]] creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a [[derivative work]]—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a [[remix]] of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so.
Being organized as effectively a "[[consumers' cooperative]]", open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright. Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also more frequent creation of derivative works. Organizations such as [[Creative Commons]] host websites where individuals can file for alternative "licenses", or levels of restriction, for their works.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://creativecommons.org/about/licenses/ |title=About The Licenses |publisher=Creative Commons |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106135603/http://creativecommons.org/about/licenses |archive-date=6 January 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
These self-made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement.
Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the [[pharmaceutical industry]] (which depends largely on patents, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.<ref>J.M. Pearce, ''[[Open-Source Lab (book)|Open-Source Lab]]: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs'', Elsevier, 2014.</ref>
There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.<ref>[http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields $800M Value, Study Finds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209195009/http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ |date=9 February 2015 }}- ''3D Printing Industry'' 2 February 2015.</ref> For example, in the context of [[open-source hardware]] design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. [[RepRap]] 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wittbrodt | first1 = B.T. | last2 = Glover | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Laureto | first3 = J. | last4 = Anzalone | first4 = G.C. | last5 = Oppliger | first5 = D. | last6 = Irwin | first6 = J.L. | last7 = Pearce | first7 = J.M. | year = 2013 | title = Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open-source 3-D printers | url = https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/materials_fp/48| journal = Mechatronics | volume = 23 | issue = 6| pages = 713–726 | issn = 0957-4158 | doi = 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002 | s2cid = 1766321 }}</ref> The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the [[peer production]] community.
Many open-source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open-source projects are:<ref>{{citation|surname1=Joe McCann|periodical=Forbes|title=The Meteoric Rise Of Open Source And Why Investors Should Care|language=de|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/09/22/the-meteoric-rise-of-open-source-and-why-investors-should-care/|access-date=2017-10-10
}}</ref><ref name="techcrunch.com">{{citation|surname1=Dharmesh Thakker|periodical=TechCrunch|title=Tracking the explosive growth of open-source software|date=7 April 2017 |language=de|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/04/07/tracking-the-explosive-growth-of-open-source-software/|access-date=2017-10-10
}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Ranking
!Project
!Leading company
!Market value
|-
!1
|[[Linux]]
|[[Red Hat]]
|$16 billion
|-
!2
|[[Git]]
|[[GitHub]]
|$2 billion
|-
!3
|[[MySQL]]
|[[Oracle (company)|Oracle]]
|$1.87 billion
|-
!4
|[[Node.js]]
|[[NodeSource]]
|{{dunno}}
|-
!5
|[[Docker (software)|Docker]]
|Docker
|$1 billion
|-
!6
|[[Apache Hadoop|Hadoop]]
|[[Cloudera]]
|$3 billion
|-
!7
|[[Elasticsearch]]
|[[Elastic NV]]
|$700 million
|-
!8
|[[Apache Spark|Spark]]
|[[Databricks]]
|$513 million
|-
!9
|[[MongoDB]]
|[[MongoDB Inc.]]
|$1.57 billion
|-
!10
|[[Selenium (software)|Selenium]]
|[[Sauce Labs]]
|$470 million
|}
The rank given is based on the activity regarding projects in online discussions, on GitHub, on search activity in search engines and on the influence on the labour market.
===Licensing alternatives===
{{further|Business models for open-source software}}
Alternative arrangements have also been shown to result in good creation outside of the proprietary license model. Examples include:{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en.svg|thumb|125px|Wikipedia is an example of a global application of the open-source model.]]Creation for its own sake – For example, Wikipedia editors add content for recreation. Artists have a drive to create. Both communities benefit from free starting material.
* Voluntary after-the-fact donations – used by [[shareware]], [[street performer]]s, and [[public broadcasting]] in the United States.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* Patron – For example, [[open-access]] publishing relies on institutional and government funding of research faculty, who also have a professional incentive to publish for reputation and career advancement. Works of the US government are automatically released into the [[public ___domain]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* [[Freemium]] – Give away a limited version for free and charge for a premium version (potentially using a [[dual license]]).
* Give away the product and charge something related – charge for support of open-source [[enterprise software]], give away music but charge for concert admission.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* Give away work to gain market share – used by artists, in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor (for example in the [[browser wars]] and the [[Android operating system]]).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* For own use – Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem, bearing the full cost of initial creation. They will then open source the solution, and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs. Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users; [[free rider problem|free riders]] can also benefit without undermining the creation process. [[Drupal]]'s founder [[Dries Buytaert]] has summarized this as the Maker/Taker problem.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How takers hurt makers in open source |url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/2264089/how-takers-hurt-makers-in-open-source.html |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=InfoWorld |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Blockchain based licensing. Developers register their contributions on a blockchain and when usage licenses are generated the revenue is shared through the blockchain.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Frey |last2=Schmitt |date= |title=Open Compensation Token License |website=[[GitHub]] |url=https://github.com/open-compensation-token-license/octl}}</ref>
== Open collaboration ==
{{main|Open collaboration}}
[[File:Bluesky Logo.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Bluesky]], an open source social media platform]]
The open-source model is a decentralized [[software development]] model that encourages [[open collaboration]],<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Raymond |first=Eric S. |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |year=2001 |title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary |url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym |url-access=registration |publisher=OReilly |isbn=978-0-596-00108-7}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> A main principle of [[open-source software development]] is [[peer production]], with products such as source code, [[blueprint]]s, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in [[open-source appropriate technology]],<ref name="Pearce2012" /> and open-source drug discovery.<ref name="business-standard.com"/><ref name="OpenWetWare">[[OpenWetWare:OSDDMalaria:GSK Arylpyrrole Series:Story so far|"Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium]].</ref>
The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008">Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2008). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220521057_Knowledge_Collaboration_Among_Professionals_Protecting_National_Security_Role_of_Transactive_Memories_in_Ego-Centered_Knowledge_Networks Knowledge Collaboration Among Professionals Protecting National Security: Role of Transactive Memories in Ego-Centered Knowledge Networks]. ''Organization Science'', 19(2), 260–276 {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1070.0315}}. {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> and [[online communities]].<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011">Faraj, S., Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2011). [http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006214955/http://www.adaptivecycle.nl/images/Knowledge_Collaboration_in_Online_Communities.pdf |date=6 October 2021 }}. ''Organization Science'', 22(5), 1224–1239, {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1100.0614}} {{ISSN|1047-7039}}</ref> Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including [[TEDx]] and Wikipedia.<ref name="kurzweilai.net">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kurzweilai.net/open-collaboration-leading-to-novel-organizations|title=Open collaboration leading to novel organizations « Kurzweil}}</ref>
Open collaboration is the principle underlying [[peer production]], [[mass collaboration]], and [[wikinomics]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> It was observed initially in open-source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in [[Internet forum]]s,<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003" /> [[mailing list]]s,<ref name="Jarvenpaa, S. L. 2008"/> Internet communities,<ref name="Faraj, S. 2011"/> and many instances of [[open content]], such as [[Creative Commons license|Creative Commons]]. It also explains some instances of [[crowdsourcing]], [[collaborative consumption]], and [[open innovation]].<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" />
Riehle et al. define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of [[egalitarianism]], [[meritocracy]], and [[self-organization]].<ref name="RiehleEllenberger2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Riehle| first1=D. |last2=Ellenberger |first2=J. |last3=Menahem| first3=T. |last4=Mikhailovski |first4=B. |last5=Natchetoi| first5=Y. |last6=Naveh |first6=B. |last7=Odenwald |first7=T. |date=March 2009 |title=Open Collaboration within Corporations Using Software Forges |journal=IEEE Software |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=52–58 |doi=10.1109/MS.2009.44 | bibcode=2009ISoft..26b..52R |issn=0740-7459 |s2cid=6038418 |url=http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008003536/http://dirkriehle.com/uploads/2009/02/open-collaboration-within-corporations-using-software-forges.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2016 |access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<ref name="LevinePrietula2013" /> This definition captures multiple instances, all joined by similar principles. For example, all of the elements – goods of economic value, open access to contribute and consume, interaction and exchange, purposeful yet loosely coordinated work – are present in an open-source software project, in Wikipedia, or in a user forum or community. They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on [[user-generated content]]. In all of these instances of open collaboration, anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing, which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated.
An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensym.org/about-us/|title=About|work=The International Symposium on Open Collaboration|date=15 June 2010}}</ref> As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes)."<ref name="Opensym">{{cite web |title=Definition of Open Collaboration |work=The Joint International Symposium on Open Collaboration |first=Dirk |last=Riehle |quote=Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes). |access-date=2013-03-26 |url=http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312135554/http://www.wikisym.org/2012/09/28/definition-of-open-collaboration/ |archive-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Open-source license ==
{{main|Open-source license|List of free-content licences}}
Open source promotes universal access via an [[open-source license|open-source]] or [[free license]] to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.<ref name="LakhaniVonHippel2003"/><ref name="GerberMolefo2010"/> Before the phrase ''open source'' became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms. ''Open source'' gained hold in part due to the rise of the Internet.<ref>{{cite book |first=Steve |last=Weber |title=The Success of Open Source |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78SLSiWqy14C |orig-year=2004 |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04499-9}}{{page needed|date=February 2014}}</ref> The [[open-source software movement]] arose to clarify [[copyright]], [[License|licensing]], [[Domain name|___domain]], and consumer issues.
An open-source license is a type of [[License compatibility|license]] for computer software and other products that allows the [[source code]], blueprint or design to be used, modified or shared (with or without modification) under defined terms and conditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brief Definition of Open Source Licenses |url=http://opensource.org/licenses |publisher=Open Source Initiative |access-date=25 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="Popp2">{{cite book |first=Dr. Karl Michael |last=Popp |title=Best Practices for commercial use of open source software |year=2015 |publisher=Books on Demand |___location=Norderstedt, Germany |isbn=978-3738619096}}</ref> This allows end users and commercial companies to review and modify the source code, blueprint or design for their own customization, curiosity or troubleshooting needs. Open-source licensed software is mostly available [[freeware|free]] of charge, though this does not necessarily have to be the case. Licenses which only permit non-commercial redistribution or modification of the source code for personal use only are generally not considered as open-source licenses. However, open-source licenses may have some restrictions, particularly regarding the expression of respect to the origin of software, such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and a copyright statement within the code, or a requirement to redistribute the licensed software only under the same license (as in a [[copyleft]] license). One popular set of [[open-source software]] licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) based on their [[Open Source Definition]] (OSD).
==Applications==
[[File:121212 2 OpenSwissKnife.png|thumb|Open-source model application domains]]
Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But [[Eric Raymond]] and other founders of the [[open-source movement]] have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling. The broader impact of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.
The [[open-source movement]] has inspired increased [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] and liberty in [[biotechnology]] research, for example [[CAMBIA]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |title='Open-Source Practices for Biotechnology' — Cambia — Enabling Innovation |publisher=Cambia |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101235609/http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |archive-date=1 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open-source principles.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Joshua M.|title=Open Source Research in Sustainability|journal=Sustainability: The Journal of Record|date=1 August 2012|volume=5|issue=4|pages=238–243| issn = 1937-0695 |doi=10.1089/sus.2012.9944|url=https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=materials_fp|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It has also given rise to the rapidly-expanding [[open-source hardware]] movement.
===Computer software===
{{main|Free and open-source software}}
{{See also|GitHub}}
[[File:Blender 3.3.0 screenshot.png|right|thumb|[[Blender (software)|Blender]], an open-source 3D graphics editor]]
[[Open-source software]] is software which source code is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lucidimagination.com/solutions/value-of-open-source |title=FAQ | LucidWorks |publisher=Lucidimagination.com |date=8 August 2012 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428103235/http://www.lucidimagination.com/solutions/value-of-open-source |archive-date=28 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[LibreOffice]] and the [[GIMP|GNU Image Manipulation Program]] are examples of open source software. As they do with proprietary software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software—but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses.
Open-source code can evolve through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual programmers as well as large companies. Some of the individual programmers who start an open-source project may end up establishing companies offering products or services incorporating open-source programs.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Examples of open-source software products are:<ref>{{cite web|first=Randolph |last=Metcalfe |url=http://www.oss-watch.ac.uk/resources/softwareexamples.xml |title=Examples of Open Source Software |publisher=OSS Watch |date=31 January 2012 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[Linux]] (that much of world's server parks are running)
* [[MediaWiki]] (that Wikipedia is based upon)
* Many more:
** [[List of free and open-source software packages]]
** [[List of formerly proprietary software]]
The [[Google Summer of Code]], often abbreviated to GSoC, is an international annual program in which Google awards stipends to contributors who successfully complete a free and open-source software coding project during the summer. GSoC is a large scale project with 202 participating organizations in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://opensource.googleblog.com/2021/03/google-summer-of-code-2021-mentoring-orgs-announced.html |title=Google Summer of Code 2021 Mentoring Orgs announced |website=Google Open Source Blog |language=en |access-date=2021-05-24}}</ref> There are similar smaller scale projects such as the Talawa Project<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.palisadoes.org/calico/|title=Calico Challenge|access-date=28 April 2024}}</ref> run by the [[Palisadoes Foundation]] (a non profit based in California, originally to promote the use of information technology in Jamaica, but now also supporting underprivileged communities in the US)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.palisadoes.org/about/|title=About the Palisadoes Foundation|access-date=28 April 2024}}</ref>
===Electronics===
[[File:Open-source-hardware-logo.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open Source Hardware]] logo]]
[[Open-source hardware]] is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open-source hardware initiatives are:
* [[Openmoko]]: a family of open-source mobile phones, including the hardware specification and the [[operating system]].
* [[OpenRISC]]: an open-source microprocessor family, with architecture specification licensed under [[GNU GPL]] and implementation under [[LGPL]].
* [[Sun Microsystems]]'s [[OpenSPARC]] T1 Multicore processor. Sun has released it under GPL.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensparc.net/ |title=An Open Source Processor used in Sun SPARC Servers |publisher=OpenSPARC |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[Arduino]], a microcontroller platform for hobbyists, artists and designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arduino.cc/ |title=Arduino — HomePage |publisher=Arduino.cc |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[Simputer]], an open hardware [[handheld computer]], designed in India for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Handhelds/Open_Source/Simputer/ |website=Open Directory |title=Computers: Systems: Handhelds: Open Source: Simputer |publisher=Dmoz.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[LEON]]: A family of open-source microprocessors distributed in a library with peripheral [[IP core]]s, open [[SPARC]] V8 specification, implementation available under [[GNU GPL]].
* [[Tinkerforge]]: A system of open-source stackable microcontroller building blocks. Allows control of motors and read out sensors with the programming languages C, C++, C#, Object Pascal, Java, PHP, Python and Ruby over a USB or Wifi connection on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. All of the hardware is licensed under [[CERN Open Hardware License|CERN OHL]] (CERN Open Hardware License).
* [[Open Compute Project]]: designs for computer data center including power supply, Intel motherboard, AMD motherboard, chassis, racks, battery cabinet, and aspects of electrical and mechanical design.<ref name = "OpenComputeProj">{{cite web
| title = Download Specs & Designs
| website = Open Compute Project website
| publisher = Facebook Inc.
| year = 2011
| url = http://opencompute.org/specs/
| access-date = 8 August 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110823093349/http://opencompute.org/specs/
| archive-date = 23 August 2011
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
===Food and beverages===
[[File:Voresol label medium.png|thumb|125px|[[Vores Øl|Vores Øl – An Open Source Beer]]]]
[[File:Barack Obama and Dakota Meyer sharing a beer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Barack Obama]] and [[Dakota Meyer]] drinking [[White House Honey Ale]] in 2011. The recipe is available for free.]]
Some publishers of [[open-access]] journals have argued that [[Open data|data]] from [[food science]] and [[gastronomy]] studies should be freely available to aid [[reproducibility]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcblog/2013/12/02/mega-bites-how-open-data-and-gastronomy-are-proving-a-recipe-for-success/|title = Mega Bites – how open data and gastronomy are proving a recipe for success|work = Research in Progress Blog|date = 2 December 2013|first = Kam |last = Arkinstall|publisher = biomedcentral.com }}</ref> A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.<ref>{{cite web|title=TEXTURE – A hydrocolloid recipe collection|first=Martin|last=Lersch|url=http://blog.khymos.org/wp-content/2009/02/hydrocolloid-recipe-collection-v3.0.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Open-source cola]]s – cola soft drinks, similar to [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]], whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages keep their formulas secret and unknown to the general public.<ref name="octavio1">{{cite web|url=http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf|title=Open Cola Soft Drink Formula, Version 1.1.3 from Tyromaniac|publisher=Alfredo.octavio.net|access-date=2012-10-25|archive-date=23 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723231716/http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Free Beer]] (originally ''Vores Øl'') – is an open-source beer created by students at the [[IT University of Copenhagen|IT-University]] in Copenhagen together with [[Superflex]], an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.<ref>The concept expands upon a statement found in the [[Free Software Definition]]: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer.'"</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Stallman, Richard M.|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=The Gnu Organisation: What is free software?|publisher=Gnu.org |access-date=2012-10-25|author-link=Richard Stallman }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cohn|first=David|title=Free Beer for Geeks|journal=Wired News|date=18 July 2005|url=https://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,68144,00.html?tw=wn_17culthead}}</ref>
===Digital content===
[[File:OK LOGO COLOUR RGB.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open Knowledge Foundation]] logo]]
* Open-content projects organized by the Wikimedia Foundation – Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary have embraced the open-content [[Creative Commons]] content licenses. These licenses were designed to adhere to principles similar to various open-source software development licenses. Many of these licenses ensure that content remains free for re-use, that source documents are made readily available to interested parties, and that changes to content are accepted easily back into the system. Important sites embracing open-source-like ideals are [[Project Gutenberg]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ |title=Project Gutenberg — free ebooks |publisher=Gutenberg.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> and [[Wikisource]], both of which post many books on which the copyright has expired and are thus in the [[public ___domain]], ensuring that anyone has free, unlimited access to that content.
* [[Open ICEcat]] is an open catalog for the IT, CE and Lighting sectors with product data-sheets based on [[Open Content License]] agreement. The digital content are distributed in XML and URL formats.
* [[SketchUp]]'s [[3D Warehouse]] is an open-source design community centered around the use of proprietary software that's distributed free of charge.
* The [[University of Waterloo Stratford Campus]] invites students every year to use its three-storey Christie [[MicroTiles]] wall as a digital canvas for their creative work.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus/research/microtile-wall/ |title=Want to take 3 storeys to tell your story |publisher=uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus |access-date=2013-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418020321/https://uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus/research/microtile-wall |archive-date=18 April 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Medicine===
* Pharmaceuticals – There have been several proposals for open-source pharmaceutical development,<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Munos B
|title=Can open-source R&D reinvigorate drug research?
|journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov
|volume=5
|issue=9
|pages=723–9
|date=September 2006
|pmid=16915233
|doi=10.1038/nrd2131
| issn = 1474-1776
|s2cid=205476443
|doi-access=free
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|vauthors=Maurer SM, Rai A, Sali A |title=Finding cures for tropical diseases: is open source an answer?
|journal=PLOS Med.
|volume=1
|issue=3
|pages=e56
|date=December 2004
|pmid=15630466
|pmc=539047
|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0010056
| issn = 1549-1676
|doi-access=free
}}</ref> which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tropicaldisease.org/ |title=the Tropical Disease Initiative |publisher=Tropicaldisease.org |date=16 July 2009 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium.<ref name="OpenWetWare" />
* Genomics – The term "open-source genomics" refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data (especially raw reads) and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that characterized the analysis of the [[2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak]].<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Rohde H
|title=Open-Source Genomic Analysis of Shiga-Toxin–Producing E. coli O104:H4
|journal=N Engl J Med
|year=2011
|pmid=21793736
|last2=Qin
|first2=J
|last3=Cui
|first3=Y
|last4=Li
|first4=D
|last5=Loman
|first5=NJ
|last6=Hentschke
|first6=M
|last7=Chen
|first7=W
|last8=Pu
|first8=F
|last9=Peng
|first9=Y
|last10=Li
|first10=Junhua
|last11=Xi
|first11=Feng
|last12=Li
|first12=Shenghui
|last13=Li
|first13=Yin
|last14=Zhang
|first14=Zhaoxi
|last15=Yang
|first15=Xianwei
|last16=Zhao
|first16=Meiru
|last17=Wang
|first17=Peng
|last18=Guan
|first18=Yuanlin
|last19=Cen
|first19=Zhong
|last20=Zhao
|first20=Xiangna
|last21=Christner
|first21=Martin
|last22=Kobbe
|first22=Robin
|last23=Loos
|first23=Sebastian
|last24=Oh
|first24=Jun
|last25=Yang
|first25=Liang
|last26=Danchin
|first26=Antoine
|last27=Gao
|first27=George F.
|last28=Song
|first28=Yajun
|last29=Li
|first29=Yingrui
|last30=Yang
|first30=Huanming
|volume=365
|issue=8
|pages=718–24
|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1107643
| issn = 0028-4793
|display-authors=8
|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:270148/UQ270148_OA.pdf
}}</ref>
* [[OpenEMR]] – OpenEMR is an ONC-ATB Ambulatory EHR 2011-2012 certified electronic health records and medical practice management application. It features fully integrated electronic health, records, practice management, scheduling, electronic billing, and is the base for many EHR programs.
===Science and engineering===
{{further|Open research}}
[[File:Open Access logo PLoS white.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open access]] logo]]
* Research – The [[Science Commons]] was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencecommons.org/ |title=Science — Creative Commons |publisher=Sciencecommons.org |date=17 November 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* Research – [[The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field]] (OSOTF)<ref name="osotf">{{cite journal|last1=Pearce|first1=Joshua M.|first2=Adegboyega |last2=Babasola |first3=Rob |last3=Andrews |title=Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization|journal=Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference|year=2012|pages=1–7|url=http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/features/conference/2012/papers/Pearce-Babasola-Andrews-queensu.pdf}}</ref> is a grid-connected [[photovoltaic]] test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.<ref name="osotf" />
* Construction – [[WikiHouse]] is an open-source project for designing and building houses.<ref name=LaBarre>{{cite web|last=LaBarre|first=Suzanne|title=WikiHouse, An Online Building Kit, Shows How To Make A House In 24 Hours|url=http://www.fastcodesign.com/1664873/wikihouse-an-online-building-kit-shows-how-to-make-a-house-in-24-hours|website=Co.Design|publisher=[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company, Inc]]|access-date=17 December 2013|date=25 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=Kingsley>{{cite web|last=Kingsley|first=Jeremy|title=The WikiHouse Revolution|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2012/02/wikihouse_the_diy_movement_and_architectural_innovation_.html|website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|publisher=[[The Slate Group|The Slate Group, LLC]]|access-date=17 December 2013|date=22 February 2012}}</ref>
* Energy research – The [[Open Energy Modelling Initiative]] promotes open-source models and open data in energy research and policy advice.
====Robotics====
{{Main|Open-source robotics}}
An open-source robot is a [[robot]] whose blueprints, schematics, or source code are released under an open-source model.
===Other===
[[File:VIA OpenBook 1 M.jpg|right|thumb|125px|[[VIA OpenBook]] is an open-source hardware laptop reference design.]]
* Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.
* [[Open-design movement|Open-design]] – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |title=Open collaborative design |publisher=AdCiv |date=29 July 2010 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629170541/http://adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |archive-date=29 June 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]] (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as [[free and open-source software]].<ref name="buitenhuis">A. J. Buitenhuis, I. Zelenika and J. M. Pearce, "[http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf Open Design-Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725131916/http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf |date=25 July 2018 }}", ''Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference : Open'', 25–27 March 2010, pp. 1–12.</ref> These technologies must be "[[appropriate technology]]" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the [[RepRap]] to manufacture appropriate technology.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J.M. Pearce |author2=C. Morris Blair |author3=K.J. Laciak |author4=R. Andrews |author5=A. Nosrat |author6=I. Zelenika-Zovko |title=3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=17–29 |year=2010 | issn = 1913-9063 |doi=10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Open-source learning|Teaching]] – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |title=JEDI: The Open Source {{not a typo|Curricullum}} — Project Kenai |publisher=Kenai.com |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516040735/http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |archive-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other examples include [[Khan Academy]] and [[wikiversity]]. At the university level, the use of [[Open-source appropriate technology|open-source-appropriate technology]] classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:<ref>{{cite journal |author=J.M. Pearce |title=Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects |journal=The Physics Teacher |volume=45 |pages=164–7 |year=2007 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTEAH000045000003000164000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes |doi=10.1119/1.2709675| issn = 0031-921X |issue=3|bibcode=2007PhTea..45..164P }}</ref> This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of [[appropriate technology]]. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving [[service learning]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Joshua M. |last=Pearce |title=Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |year=2009 | issn = 0973-4082 |doi=10.1177/097340820900300112|hdl=1974/5306 |citeseerx=10.1.1.620.246 |s2cid=145118511 | url = http://hdl.handle.net/1974/5306 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference
|last1=Murphy|first1=Sharon|last2=Saleh|first2=Nasser
|title=Information literacy in CEAB's accreditation criteria: the hidden attribute
|conference =Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Innovation and Practices in Engineering Design and Engineering Education
|___location= Hamilton, ON
|date=27–29 July 2009
|url=https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/5171|language=en}}</ref>
* There are few examples of business information (methodologies, advice, guidance, practices) using the open-source model, although this is another case where the potential is enormous. [[ITIL]] is close to open source. It uses the [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar|Cathedral model]] (no mechanism exists for user contribution) and the content must be bought for a fee that is small by business consulting standards (hundreds of British pounds). Various checklists are published by government, banks or accounting firms.
* An open-source group emerged in 2012 that is attempting to design a firearm that may be downloaded from the internet and "printed" on a [[3D printing|3D Printer]].<ref name=f20120823>{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|title='Wiki Weapon Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At Home|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/08/23/wiki-weapon-project-aims-to-create-a-gun-anyone-can-3d-print-at-home/|access-date=2012-08-27|newspaper=Forbes|date=23 August 2012}}</ref> Calling itself [[Defense Distributed]], the group wants to facilitate "a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer".<ref name=pcm20120824>{{cite news|last=Poeter|first=Damon|title=Could a 'Printable Gun' Change the World?|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2408899,00.asp|access-date=2012-08-27|newspaper=PC Magazine|date=24 August 2012}}</ref>
* Agrecol, a German NGO has developed an open-source licence for seeds operating with [[copyleft]] and created OpenSourceSeeds as a respective service provider. Breeders that apply the license to their new invented material prevent it from the threat of privatisation and help to establish a commons-based breeding sector as an alternative to the commercial sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollier.org/blog/new-open-source-license-fights-enclosure-seeds|title=New Open Source License Fights the Enclosure of Seeds {{!}} David Bollier|website=www.bollier.org|language=en|access-date=2017-07-03}}</ref>
* [[Open Source Ecology]], farm equipment and global village construction kit.
== "Open" versus "free" versus "free and open" ==
[[Free and open-source software]] (FOSS) or [[Free and open-source software#Overview|free/libre and open-source software]] (FLOSS) is openly shared source code that is licensed without any restrictions on usage, modification, or distribution.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} Confusion persists about this definition because the "free", also known as "libre", refers to the freedom of the product, not the price, expense, cost, or charge. For example, "being free to speak" is not the same as "free beer".<ref name="rmsdissent" />
Conversely, Richard Stallman argues the "obvious meaning" of term "open source" is that the source code is public/accessible for inspection, without necessarily any other rights granted, although the proponents of the term say the conditions in the [[Open Source Definition]] must be fulfilled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html|first=Richard|last=Stallman|author-link=Richard Stallman|title=Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software|access-date=2019-02-17|publisher=gnu.org|quote=However, the obvious meaning for the expression "open source software"—and the one most people seem to think it means—is "You can look at the source code." [...] the obvious meaning for "open source" is not the meaning that its advocates intend [...]}}</ref>
"Free and open" should not be confused with public ownership ([[state ownership]]), deprivatization ([[nationalization]]), anti-privatization ([[anti-corporate activism]]), or [[Transparency (behavior)|transparent behavior]].{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
* [[GNU]]
** [[GNU Manifesto]]
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== Software ==
{{main|Open-source software}}
Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the [[source code]] is available to the general public for use for any (including commercial) purpose, or modification from its original design. Open-source code is meant to be a collaborative effort, where programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community. Code is released under the terms of a [[software license]]. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community.
:* [[List of free and open-source software packages]]
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* [[Comparison of open-source and closed-source software]]
* [[Diversity in open-source software]]
* [[MapGuide Open Source]], a web-based [[Cartography|map-making]] platform to develop and deploy web mapping applications and geospatial web services (not to be confused with [[OpenStreetMap]] (OSM), a [[virtual community|collaborative project]] to create a [[free content|free]] editable map of the world).
== Hardware ==
* [[RISC-V]]
== Agriculture, economy, manufacturing and production ==
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]] (OSAT), is designed for environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, economic, and community aspects
* [[Open-design movement]], development of physical products, machines and systems via publicly shared design information, including [[free and open-source software]] and [[open-source hardware]], among many others:
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** [[OpenStructures]] (OSP), a [[modular design|modular construction]] model where everyone designs on the basis of one shared geometrical OS grid
* [[Open manufacturing]] or "Open Production" or "Design Global, Manufacture Local", a new [[socioeconomic]] production model to openly and collaboratively produce and distribute physical objects
* [[Open-source architecture]] (OSArc), emerging procedures in imagination and formation of virtual and real spaces within an inclusive universal
* [[Open-source cola]], cola soft drinks made to open-sourced recipes
* [[Open-source hardware]], or open hardware, computer hardware, such as microprocessors, that is designed in the same fashion as open source software
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== Science and medicine ==
* [[Open science]], the movement to make scientific research, data and dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring society, amateur or professional
** [[Open science data]], a type of [[open data]] focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze and reuse
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** [[Open Source Lab (disambiguation)]], several laboratories
** [[Open-Source Lab (book)|''Open-Source Lab'' (book)]], a 2014 book by Joshua M. Pearce
* [[Open-notebook science]], the practice of making the entire primary record of a [[research project]] publicly available online as it is recorded
* [[Open Source Physics]] (OSP), a [[National Science Foundation]] and [[Davidson College]] project to spread the use of open source code libraries that take care of
* [[Open Source Geospatial Foundation]]
* [[NASA Open Source Agreement]] (NOSA), an [[Open Source Initiative|OSI]]-approved [[software license]]
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== Media ==
* [[Open-source film]], open source movies
** [[List of open-source films]]
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* [[Open Source (radio show)|''Open Source'' (radio show)]], a radio show using open content information gathering methods hosted by [[Christopher Lydon]]
* [[Open textbook]], an open copyright licensed textbook made freely available online for students, teachers, and the public
* [[Library (computing)#CAD library|CAD libraries]] - such as [[SketchUp]] [[SketchUp#3D Warehouse|3D Warehouse]] and [[GrabCAD]]
== Organizations ==
* [[Open Source Initiative]] (OSI), an organization dedicated to promote open source
* [[Open Source Software Institute]]
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* [[Open Source Development Labs]] (OSDL), a non-profit corporation that provides space for open-source project
* [[Open Source Drug Discovery]], a collaborative drug discovery platform for [[neglected tropical diseases]]
* [[Geeknet#SourceForge
* [[Open source in Kosovo]]
* [[Open Source University Meetup]]
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== Procedures ==
* [[Open security]], application of open source philosophies to computer security
* [[Open Source Information System]], the former name of an American [[unclassified]] [[
* [[Open-source intelligence]], an intelligence gathering discipline based on information collected from open sources (not to be confused with open-source artificial intelligence such as [[Mycroft (software)]]).
== Society ==
The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often [[copyright]]ed, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the United States) and penalties, such as those articulated in the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies.<ref name="copyright1998">{{cite web|url=http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf |title=The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 |date = December 1998|author = US Copyright Office |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under [[fair use|fair-use]] doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines create an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a "[[chilling effect]]" among cultural practitioners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chillingeffects.org/ |title=Chilling Effects Clearinghouse |publisher=Chillingeffects.org |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "[[Free Culture movement|Free Culture]]", but is substantively different. ''Free culture'' is a term derived from the [[free software movement]], and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods (as in "the Good life"{{clarify|date=April 2023}}) and ends.
Sites such as [[ccMixter]] offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a [[Creative Commons]] license. The resulting cultural product is then available to download free (generally accessible) to anyone with an Internet connection.<ref>{{cite web|title=Open source software development – Just another case of collective invention?|url=http://ccmixter.org/about|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227171754/http://ccmixter.org/about|url-status=live|archive-date=2011-12-27}}</ref> Older, analog technologies such as the telephone or television have limitations on the kind of interaction users can have.
Through various technologies such as [[peer-to-peer]] networks and [[blogs]], cultural producers can take advantage of vast [[social networks]] to distribute their products. As opposed to traditional media distribution, redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless. Technologies such as [[BitTorrent (protocol)|BitTorrent]] and [[Gnutella]] take advantage of various characteristics of the Internet protocol ([[TCP/IP]]) in an attempt to totally decentralize file distribution.
{{further|Open-source software movement}}
===Government===
* [[Open politics]] (sometimes known as ''Open-source politics'') is a political process that uses Internet technologies such as blogs, email and polling to provide for a rapid feedback mechanism between political organizations and their supporters. There is also an alternative conception of the term ''Open-source politics'' which relates to the development of public policy under a set of rules and processes similar to the open-source software movement.
* [[Open-source governance]] is similar to open-source politics, but it applies more to the democratic process and promotes the freedom of information.
* [[Open-source political campaign]]s refer specifically to political campaigns.
* The [[South Korean government]] wants to increase its use of free and open-source software, to decrease its dependence on proprietary software solutions. It plans to make open standards a requirement, to allow the government to choose between multiple operating systems and web browsers. Korea's Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning is also preparing ten pilots on using open-source software distributions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://joinup.ec.europa.eu/community/osor/news/south-korean-government-switch-open-source|title=South Korean government to sw… | Joinup|date=4 July 2014}}</ref>
===Ethics===
Open-source ethics is split into two strands:
* Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the [[Association of Internet Researchers|AoIR]] Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.<ref>[http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/berry2.pdf Berry (2004) Internet Ethics: Privacy, Ethics and Alienation{{spaced ndash}}An Open Source Approach.] (PDF file)</ref>
* Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |author=El-Emam, K |title=Ethics and Open Source |journal=Empirical Software Engineering |volume=6 |issue=4 |year=2001 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1011962213685 |url=http://springerlink.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=hf0bld3qlk0unn8f8x2m&referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,12;journal,14,33;linkingpublicationresults,1:100262,1#ContactOfAuthor1}}</ref>
===Religion===
{{main|Open-source religion}}
Irish philosopher [[Richard Kearney]] has used the term "open-source [[Hinduism]]" to refer to the way historical figures such as [[Mohandas Gandhi]] and [[Swami Vivekananda]] worked upon this ancient tradition.<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Kearney |author-link=Richard Kearney |title=Anatheism: Returning to God After God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRiTJ_6JFYYC&pg=PR13 |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14789-7 |page=xiii}}</ref>
===Media===
[[Open-source journalism]] formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting ''[[open-source intelligence]]'', a similar term used in military intelligence circles. Now, ''open-source journalism'' commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of [[online journalism]], rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as [[user generated content|user created content]] and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as [[OpenSolaris]] and [[Linux]].
[[Blog|Weblogs]], or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or [[file transfer]] required. While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing. Some, such as [[LiveJournal]] or [[WordPress]], use open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate, the mutability of blogs makes "open sourcing" even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere.
[[Messageboards]] are another platform for open-source culture. Messageboards (also known as discussion boards or forums), are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to. Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning [[spamming|spammers]]. Other common board features are private messages (where users can send messages to one another) as well as chat (a way to have a real time conversation online) and image uploading. Some messageboards use [[phpBB]], which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly. Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas.
[[OpenDocument]] is an [[open format|open]] [[document file format]] for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents (including memos, reports, and books), [[spreadsheet]]s, charts, and presentations. Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being [[Vendor lock-in|locked into]] a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their [[software license|licensing]] terms to something less favorable.
[[Open-source film|Open-source movie production]] is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie [[Elephants Dream]] is said to be the "world's first open movie",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elephantsdream.org/ |title=Elephants Dream |publisher=Elephants Dream |date=13 August 2006 |access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref> created entirely using open-source technology.
An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material [[footage]], and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit ''[[WBCN and the American Revolution]]'', which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.<ref>"Web Power to the People", The Boston Herald, 29 September 2005.</ref><ref>"The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston", Boston Globe, Op-Ed, 18 July 2009.</ref><ref>"'BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors", Boston Herald, 11 August 2009.</ref><ref>"WBCN and The American Revolution", The Huffington Post, 11 August 2009.</ref> The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Center for Independent Documentary. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nfb.ca/ |title=Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online |publisher=NFB.ca |date=27 August 2012 |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701062521/http://www.nfb.ca/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Open-source film|Open-source film-making]] refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.
[[Open-IPTV]] is [[IPTV]] that is not limited to one recording studio, production studio, or cast. Open-IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an [[online community]] that all contributes to a show.
===Education===
[[File:Global Open Educational Resources Logo.svg|thumb|125px|[[Open Educational Resources]] logo]]
Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" (analogous to the [[Creative Commons]]). Proponents of this view have hailed the [[OpenStax CNX|Connexions]] Project at [[Rice University]], [[MIT OpenCourseWare|OpenCourseWare]] project at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], [[Eugene Thacker]]'s article on "open-source DNA", the "Open Source Cultural Database", [[Salman Khan (educator)|Salman Khan]]'s [[Khan Academy]] and Wikipedia as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software.
[[Open-source curriculum|Open-source curricula]] are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified. Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours,<ref name="BesançonPeiffer-Smadja2020">{{cite journal|last1=Besançon|first1=Lonni|last2=Peiffer-Smadja|first2=Nathan|last3=Segalas|first3=Corentin|last4=Jiang|first4=Haiting|last5=Masuzzo|first5=Paola|last6=Smout|first6=Cooper|last7=Billy|first7=Eric|last8=Deforet|first8=Maxime|last9=Leyrat|first9=Clémence|title=Open Science Saves Lives: Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|year=2020|volume=21|issue=1|page=117|doi=10.1186/s12874-021-01304-y|pmid=34090351|pmc=8179078 |doi-access=free | issn=1471-2288}}</ref> there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the [[Jisc|Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)]] has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called [[OSS Watch]] which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software.
On 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years to fund the [[TAACCCT|TAACCCT program]], which is described as "the largest OER (open education resources) initiative in the world and uniquely focused on creating curricula in partnership with industry for credentials in vocational industry sectors like manufacturing, health, energy, transportation, and IT".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://openeducation2013.sched.org/event/23553161b01967fd7ff58eea22ce24b2#.U_qxw2Mpft8 |title=Open Education 2013: Large Scale OER – A TAACCCT Case Study |publisher=Openeducation2013.sched.org |date= |access-date=2022-02-16}}</ref>
===Innovation communities===
The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century. Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist [[Robert K. Merton]] described the four basic elements of the community—universalism (an international perspective), communalism (sharing information), objectivity (removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry) and organized skepticism (requirements of proof and review) that describe the (idealised) scientific community.
These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been [[Open access (publishing)|open access]]—the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public. There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee (either to users or libraries for access). The [[Budapest Open Access Initiative]] is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.
The [[National Institutes of Health]] has recently proposed a policy on "Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information". This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered—the balancing of profit vs. public access, and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access.
[[Benjamin Franklin]] was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the [[Franklin stove]], [[bifocals]], and the [[lightning rod]] to the public ___domain. New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.isca-web.org/english/youth/yource/thenetwork|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319051530/http://www.isca-web.org/english/youth/yource/thenetwork|archive-date=19 March 2007|title = Yource network| website = International Sport and Culture Association}}</ref> [[Open innovation]] is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R&D in a common pool. The [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eclipse.org/org/foundation/membersminutes/20070920MembersMeeting/07.09.12-Eclipse-Open-Innovation.pdf |title=Eclipse|publisher=Eclipse.org|access-date=2012-10-25}}</ref>
===Arts and recreation===
Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities. Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yogaunity.org |title=Open Source Yoga Unity — Home |publisher=Yogaunity.org |access-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303095630/http://www.yogaunity.org/ |archive-date=3 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 2012, Russian music composer, scientist and [[Russian Pirate Party]] member [[:ru:Complex Numbers (музыкальная группа)|Victor Argonov]] presented detailed raw files of his electronic opera "2032"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://argonov.ru/2032.html |title=Техно-опера "2032: Легенда о несбывшемся грядущем" |publisher=Argonov.ru |access-date=2013-06-07}}</ref> under free license [[CC BY-NC|CC BY-NC 3.0]] (later relicensed under [[CC BY-SA|CC BY-SA 4.0]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://complexnumbers.ru/2032.html |title=Техно-опера "2032: Легенда о несбывшемся грядущем" |publisher=Complexnumbers.ru |access-date=2021-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313160904/http://complexnumbers.ru/2032.html |archive-date=13 March 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>). This opera was originally composed and published in 2007 by Russian label [[MC Entertainment]] as a commercial product, but then the author changed its status to free. In his blog<ref>{{cite web|last=Argonovwrote|first=2012-01-18 18:14:00 Argonov Argonov 18 January 2012 18:14:00|title=2032 – первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками?|url=https://argonov.livejournal.com/95693.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=argonov.livejournal.com|language=en-us}}</ref> he said that he decided to open raw files (including wav, midi and other used formats) to the public to support worldwide pirate actions against [[SOPA]] and [[Personal Information Protection Act|PIPA]]. Several Internet resources called "2032" the first open-source musical opera in history.<ref>{{cite web|title=CjClub – 2032 – первая в мире техно-опера с открытыми исходниками.|url=http://www.cjclub.ru/articles/6421|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.cjclub.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://muznews.rockzvuk.com/news/pervaja_v_mire_muzykalnaja_opera_s_otkrytymi_iskhodnikami/2012-01-25-202 |title=Первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками — 25 Января 2012 — Новости музыки и шоубизнеса |publisher=Muznews.rockzvuk.com |access-date=2013-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328055611/http://muznews.rockzvuk.com/news/pervaja_v_mire_muzykalnaja_opera_s_otkrytymi_iskhodnikami/2012-01-25-202 |archive-date=28 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linux.org.ru/forum/talks/7294092 |title=Музыкальная опера "2032" становится opensource — Talks — Форум|date=19 January 2012 |publisher=Linux.org.ru |access-date=2013-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками|url=http://netskop.ru/kulmztura/news_2012-01-19-16-40-02-974.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329165524/https://www.netskop.ru/kulmztura/news_2012-01-19-16-40-02-974.html|archive-date=2019-03-29|access-date=2013-06-07|publisher=Netskop.ru}}</ref>
===Other related movements===
{{cleanup split|Open-source software movement|date=November 2016}}
Notable events and applications that have been developed via the [[Open-source community|open source community]], and echo the ideologies of the open source movement,<ref name="ref_e_TnL">{{cite journal|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ757139&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ757139|title=The case for open source: Open source has made significant leaps in recent years. what does it have to offer education?|year=2007|journal= Technology & Learning|volume= 27|issue=7|page= 16}}</ref> include the [[Open Education Consortium]], [[Project Gutenberg]], Synthethic Biology, and Wikipedia. The Open Education Consortium is an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online. This organization, headed by [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials. Wikipedia is a user-generated [[Internet encyclopedia project|online encyclopedia]] with sister projects in academic areas, such as [[Wikiversity]]—a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials.<ref name="ref_e_Warger">Warger, T.
(2002). [http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eqm0233.pdf The Open Source Movement] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717100415/http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eqm0233.pdf|date=17 July 2011}}. Retrieved 22 November 2009, from Education Resources Information Center</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}
Prior to the existence of [[Google Scholar]] Beta, Project Gutenberg was the first supplier of [[E-book|electronic books]] and the first free library project.<ref name="ref_e_Warger" />{{failed verification|date=March 2016}} Synthetic Biology is a new technology that promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs, as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem. Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its lab stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. To industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it.<ref>Wilson Center. (2009). [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ondemand/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.play&mediaid=09AE937D-D3F4-4501-4BBEF8D8F8EED0CD Synthetic Biology: Feasibility of the Open Source Movement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324170602/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ondemand/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.play&mediaid=09AE937D-D3F4-4501-4BBEF8D8F8EED0CD |date=24 March 2010 }}. Wislson On Demand Center.</ref>
===Ideologically-related movements===
The [[open-access movement]] is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement. Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with "future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes." The open-access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials.<ref name="ref_a4">Harnad, S. (14 November 2009). [http://www.e-zine-articles.com/access-movement-implications-future-aca Zine & Articles: Open Access Movement and Its Implications for the Future of Academic Writing]. Retrieved 22 November 2009.</ref> The [[free-culture movement]] is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas, and promotion of citizen liberties.<ref name="FreeCulture">{{Cite web
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122165758/http://freeculture.org/
|archive-date=22 November 2010
|url-status=dead
|title=Students for free culture
|url=http://freeculture.org/|access-date=2023-03-16|website=freeculture.org}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} [[Creative Commons]] is an organization that "develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation." It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of "all rights reserved" properties.<ref name="Creative Commons">{{cite web|url=https://creativecommons.org/|title=Creative Commons Organization|publisher=Creative Commons|access-date=2011-10-20}}</ref> The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to "all rights reserved" copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material.<ref>{{cite web|title=How to find Creative Commons images on Flickr|url=http://www.newmediarights.org/open_source/licensing/creative_commons/how_find_creative_commons_images_flickr|website=New Media Rights|access-date=2011-10-20}}</ref>
[[The Zeitgeist Movement]] (TZM) is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a [[sustainability|sustainable]] "resource-based economy" based on [[collaboration]] in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons-based ones with everyone [[sharing economy|having access]] to everything (from code to products) as in "open source everything".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dostaler|first1=Kim|title=The Zeitgeist Movement: Getting to the Root of the Problem|url=http://truththeory.com/2012/07/19/the-zeitgeist-movement-getting-to-the-root-of-the-problem/|access-date=10 June 2015|date=19 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Dobson|first1=Stuart|title=Forget the Class War, How to Win the Fight Against the Elite|url=http://blog.thezeitgeistmovement.com/blog/stuart-dobson/forget-class-war-how-win-fight-against-elite|access-date=10 June 2015|date=27 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611154722/http://blog.thezeitgeistmovement.com/blog/stuart-dobson/forget-class-war-how-win-fight-against-elite|archive-date=11 June 2015}}</ref> While its activism and events are typically focused on media and education, TZM is a major supporter of open source projects worldwide since they allow for uninhibited advancement of science and technology, independent of constraints posed by institutions of patenting and capitalist investment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Open Source Ecology – Zeitgeist movement|url=http://opensourceecology.org/wiki/Zeitgeist_movement|publisher=[[Open Source Ecology]]}}</ref> P2P Foundation is an "international organization focused on studying, researching, documenting and promoting [[Social peer-to-peer processes|peer to peer practices]] in a very broad sense." Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement, whose principles are integrated in a larger socio-economic model.<ref name="P2P Foundation">{{cite web|url=http://p2pfoundation.net/P2P_Foundation:About/|title=P2P Foundation:About|publisher=P2P Foundation|access-date=2015-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604235707/http://p2pfoundation.net/P2P_Foundation:About|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
{{Meta|Open-source}}
{{Scholia|topic}}
{{Wikispecies|Open-source}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[
* [[Open publishing]]
* [[Open research]]
* [[Open-source curriculum]] (OSC)
* [[Open-source governance]]
** [[Open politics]]
* [[Open-source religion]]
* [[Open-source software movement]]
* [[Open-source unionism]]
* [[Open standard]]
* [[Paywall]]
* [[
{{div col end}}
===Terms based on open source===
* [[Open implementation]]
* [[Open security]]
* [[Open-source record label]]
* [[Open standard]]
* [[Shared Source]]
* [[Source-available software]]
===Other===
* ''[[Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution]]'' (book)
* [[Commons-based peer production]]
* [[Digital rights]]
* [[Diseconomies of scale]]
* [[Free content]]
* [[Gift economy]]
* [[:wikt:Appendix:Glossary of legal terms in technology|Glossary of legal terms in technology]]
* [[Mass collaboration]]
* [[Network effect]]
* [[Open Source Initiative]]
* [[Openness]]
* [[Proprietary software]]
* [[Digital public goods]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title= The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom |first=Yochai |last=Benkler |year=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |url=http://www.benkler.org/Benkler_Wealth_Of_Networks.pdf}}
* {{cite book |title= Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source |first=David M. |last=Berry |year=2008 |publisher=London:Pluto Press |isbn=978-0745324142}}
* Karl Fogel. [http://producingoss.com Producing Open Source Software] (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.
* {{cite book |title=Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy |first1=Ron |last1=Goldman |first2=Richard P. |last2=Gabriel |year=2005 |publisher=Richard P. Gabriel |url=http://dreamsongs.com/IHE/IHE.html |isbn=978-1-55860-889-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals |first=Isaac Hunter |last=Dunlap |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford: Chandos |url=http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php?ID=98 |isbn=978-1-84334-161-1 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204175446/http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php%3FID%3D98 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/nettingsmeier_dont_hack.html ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* {{cite book |title=Free Software Free Society: Selected essays of Richard M. Stallman |first=Richard M. |last=Stallman | url=http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Schrape |first=Jan-Felix
|year=2019
|title=Open-source projects as incubators of innovation. From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry
|journal=[[Convergence (journal)|Convergence]]
|volume= 25|issue=3
|pages=409–427
|doi=10.1177/1354856517735795
| issn = 1354-8565
|s2cid=149165772
}}
* Various authors. [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3 ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* Various authors. "[http://cecpublic.pbworks.com/OpenSource Open Source Travel Guide <nowiki>[</nowiki>wiki<nowiki>]</nowiki>]". [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3 ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* {{cite book |first=Steve |last=Weber |title=The Success of Open Source |url=https://archive.org/details/successofopensou00webe |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01292-9 }}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Hardware: An Introductory Approach |first1=Partha Pratim |last1=Ray |first2=Rebika |last2=Rai |year=2013 |publisher=Lap Lambert Publishing House |isbn=978-3-659-46591-8}}
===Literature on legal and economic aspects===
* {{cite journal |last=Benkler |first=Y. |title=Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm |journal=Yale Law Journal |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=369–446 |date=December 2002 |jstor=1562247 |url=http://www.benkler.org/CoasesPenguin.PDF |doi=10.2307/1562247 | issn = 0044-0094 |arxiv=cs/0109077 |hdl=10535/2974 |s2cid=16684329 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Berry |first1=D.M. |last2=Moss |first2=G. |title=Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture |date=2008 |publisher=Pygmalion Books |___location=Canada |url=https://archive.org/details/LibreCultureMeditationsOnFreeCulture |format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bitzer |first1=J. |last2=Schröder |first2=P.J.H. |title=The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity |date=2005 |journal=Industrial Organization |publisher=EconWPA |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpio/0512001.html |format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal |last=v. Engelhardt |first=S. |title=The Economic Properties of Software |journal=Jena Economic Research Papers |volume=2 |pages=2008–045 |year=2008 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-045.html |format=PDF}}
* v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF)
* v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF)
* {{cite journal |last1=v. Engelhardt |first1=S. |last2=Swaminathan |first2=S. |title=Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights |date=2008 |journal=Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/diw/diwwpp/dp799.html |format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal |last1=v. Engelhardt |first1=S. |last2=Swaminathan |first2=S. |title=Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights |date=2008 |journal=Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/diw/diwwpp/dp799.html |format=PDF}}
* European Commission. (2006). Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU. Brussels.
* {{cite journal |author1=v. Hippel, E. |author2=v. Krogh, G. |title=Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science |journal=Organization Science |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=209–223 |year=2003 |doi= 10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992 | issn = 1047-7039 |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/66145/1/SSRN-id1410789.pdf|hdl=1721.1/66145 |s2cid=11947692 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. |title=The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors |journal=American Economic Review |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=114–8 |year=2006 |doi=10.1257/000282806777211874 |issn=0002-8282 |url=http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3023 |citeseerx=10.1.1.510.9948 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104174431/http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3023 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner, J., Tirole, J. |title=Some simple economics on open source |journal=Journal of Industrial Economics |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=197–234 |year=2002 |doi= 10.1111/1467-6451.00174 | issn = 0022-1821 |citeseerx=10.1.1.461.3373 |s2cid=219722756 }} [http://www.people.hbs.edu/jlerner/simple.pdf earlier revision (PDF)]
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Scope of Open Source Licensing |journal=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization |volume=21 |pages=20–56 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jleo/ewi002| issn = 8756-6222 |citeseerx=10.1.1.72.465 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–120 |year=2005 |doi=10.1257/0895330054048678 | issn = 0895-3309 |s2cid=17968894 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10956.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |author=Maurer, S.M. |title=Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several) |journal=UMKC Law Review |volume=76 |issue=2 |year=2008 |ssrn=1114371 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1114371 |s2cid=54046895 |url=https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/1516 | issn = 1556-5068 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Osterloh |first1=M. |last2=Rota |first2=S. |title=Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention? |journal=Research Policy |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=157–171 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004 | issn = 0048-7333 |hdl=10419/214322 |url=http://www.crema-research.ch/papers/2005-08.pdf |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Riehle |first=D. |title=The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives |journal=IEEE Computer |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=25–32 |date=April 2007 |url=http://www.riehle.org/computer-science/research/2007/computer-2007-article.html | issn = 0018-9162 |doi=10.1109/MC.2007.147|s2cid=168544 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Rossi |first=M.A. |chapter=Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions |chapter-url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/usi/wpaper/424.html |chapter-format=PDF |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Bitzer |editor2-first=P. |editor2-last=Schröder |title=The Economics of Open Source Software Development |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-444-52769-1 |pages=15–55 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Schiff |first=A. |title=The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature |journal=Review of Network Economics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=66–74 |year=2002 |url=http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030507164146/http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-date=7 May 2003 | issn = 2194-5993 |doi=10.2202/1446-9022.1004|s2cid=201280221 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Schwarz, M. |author2=Takhteyev, Y. |title=Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem |journal=Journal of Public Economic Theory |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=609–639 |year=2010 | issn = 1097-3923 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x |citeseerx=10.1.1.625.2368 |s2cid=154317482 }} [http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946 earlier revision]
* {{cite journal |last1=Spagnoletti |first1=P. |last2=Federici |first2=T. |title=Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation |journal=Communications of the Association for Information Systems |volume=29 |issue=15 |pages=279–298 |year=2011 |doi=10.17705/1CAIS.02915 |url=http://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol29/iss1/15/}}
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Bruce |title=Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalphoenixwh00abra |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51196-4}}
* {{cite book |first=K.S. |last=Sampathkumar |title=Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JwU71HSkikC |isbn=978-8-184-65469-1}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=no|n=no|v=Open source|b=Subject:Open source|s=no|d=y|c=Category:Open source}}
{{Wikibooks|Open Source}}
{{Wikibooks|Use the Source}}
{{Open navbox}}
{{Intellectual property activism}}
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{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:Open access (publishing)]]
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[[Category:Open educational resources]]
[[Category:Open formats]]
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