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{{main|Physiology of decompression}}
[[File:Tissue half times (1).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Graph showing dissolved gas concentration change over time for a step pressure increment in an initially saturated solvent]]
The evidence that decompression sickness is caused by bubble formation and growth within the body tissues resulting from supersaturated dissolved gas is strong, but research results also suggest that the quantity of those bubbles alone is not enough to predict whether someone will experience symptoms of DCS.<ref name="Fogarty 2025" />
[[Breathing gas|Gas]] is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the [[lungs]] (see [[saturation diving]]), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.<ref name="USNDM R6 3-9.3" />
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The function of decompression models has changed with the availability of Doppler ultrasonic bubble detectors, and is no longer merely to limit symptomatic occurrence of decompression sickness, but also to limit asymptomatic post-dive venous gas bubbles.<ref name="Papadopoulou 2013" /> A number of empirical modifications to dissolved phase models have been made since the identification of venous bubbles by Doppler measurement in asymptomatic divers soon after surfacing.<ref name="Huggins 1981"/>
===Efficiency and safety===
Two criteria that have been used in comparing decompression schedules are efficiency and safety, where decompression efficiency is defined as the ability of a schedule to provide acceptable safety from decompression sickness in the shortest time spent decompressing, and decompression safety, or converely, risk, is measured by the probability of decompression sickness incurred by following a given schedule for a given dive profile. Since it is impracticable to eliminate all risk using current knowledge of the effects of several variables, risk is derived by statistical analysis of the outcomes of exposure and decompression profiles, and an acceptable risk is stipulated, which may vary depending on the circumstances of the application.<ref name="Edel 1980" />
=== Tissue compartments ===
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=== Decompression obligation ===
A decompression obligation is the presence in the tissues of sufficient dissolved gas that the risk of symptomatic decompression sickness is unacceptable if a direct ascent to surface pressure is made at the prescribed ascent rate for the decompression model in use. A diver with a decompression ceiling can be said to have a decompression obligation, meaning that time must be spent outgassing during the ascent additional to the time spent ascending at the appropriate ascent rate. This time is nominally and most efficiently spent at decompression stops, though outgassing will occur at any depth where the arterial blood and lung gas have a lower partial pressure of the inert gas than the limiting tissue. When a decompression obligation exists, there will be a theoretical safe minimum depth known as the [[decompression ceiling]]. {{visible anchor|Obligatory decompression stops}} will be indicated at a depth at or below the current ceiling.<ref name="Doolette et al 2015" />
=== Time to surface ===
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* The Copernicus model of Gutvik and Brubakk (2009)<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
The most widely implemented model in dive computers is a simplified modification of the RGBM.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
The models of Yount and Hoffman, and Wienke, assume that bubble formation is due to supersaturation, while Gernhardt, Gerth and Vann, and Gutvik and Brubakk assume pre-existing microscopic bubble nuclei, which grow when concentration of gases in the tissues is high enough. These models are more mathematically complex, and as of 2009 were unsuitable for real-time computation by dive computer.<ref name="Lang and Angelini 2009" />
====Goldman Interconnected Compartment Model====
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Gas switching during decompression on open circuit is done primarily to increase the partial pressure of oxygen to increase the [[oxygen window]] effect, while keeping below [[Oxygen toxicity|acute toxicity]] levels. It is well established both in theory and practice, that a higher oxygen partial pressure facilitates a more rapid and effective elimination of inert gas, both in the dissolved state and as bubbles.
In closed circuit rebreather diving the oxygen partial pressure throughout the dive is maintained at a relatively high but tolerable level to reduce the ongassing as well as to accelerate offgassing of the diluent gas. Changes from helium-based diluents to nitrogen during ascent are desirable for reducing the use of expensive helium, but have other implications. It is unlikely that changes to nitrogen based decompression gas will accelerate decompression in typical technical bounce dive profiles, but there is some evidence that decompressing on helium-oxygen mixtures is more likely to result in neurological DCS, while nitrogen based decompression is more likely to produce other
==== Altitude exposure, altitude diving and flying after diving ====
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* Early decompression stress biomarkers
* The effects of normobaric oxygen on blood and in DCI first aid
{{expand section|<ref name="Fogarty 2025" /> |date=May 2025}}
===Practical effectiveness of models===
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The practical efficacy of gas switches from helium-based diluent to nitrox for accelerating decompression has not been demonstrated convincingly. These switches increase risk of inner ear decompression sickness due to counterdiffusion effects.<ref name="Mitchell 2016" />
Besides the basic dive profile and gas mixes, and the residual gas load from previous dives, three groups of factors are considered likely to have significant influence on decompression stress, the evolution of bubbles in the diver, and development of symptoms. These are exercise, before, during and after the dive, Thermal status, during and after the dive, including the effects on perfusion distribution and changes during the dive, and the set of factors grouped under the label "predisposition", such as the state of hydration, physical fitness, age, biological health, and other characteristics which could affect the uptake and release of gases in the diver. Currently these factors cannot be used to make reproducible predictions about decompression risk, and some cannot be numerically evaluated in real time.<ref name="Fogarty 2025" />
{{expand section|from<ref name="Blömeke 2024" >{{cite magazine |url=https://indepthmag.com/thalmann-algorithm/ |title=Dial In Your DCS Risk with the Thalmann Algorithm |magazine=InDepth |first=Tim |last=Blömeke |date=3 April 2024 }}</ref> |date=April 2024}}▼
▲{{expand section|from<ref name="Blömeke 2024" >{{cite magazine |url=https://indepthmag.com/thalmann-algorithm/ |title=Dial In Your DCS Risk with the Thalmann Algorithm |magazine=InDepth |first=Tim |last=Blömeke |date=3 April 2024 |access-date=15 April 2024 |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416190438/https://indepthmag.com/thalmann-algorithm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |date=April 2024}}
== Teaching of decompression theory ==
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<ref name="About DAN research" >{{cite web |url=https://www.daneurope.org/about-dan-research |title=About DAN Research |last=<!-- not specfied --> |website=daneurope.org |publisher=DAN Europe |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222095529/http://www.daneurope.org/about-dan-research |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="Angelini et al 2022" >{{cite journal |last1=Angelini |first1=S.A. |last2=Tonetto |first2=L. |last3=Lang |first3=M.A.. |title=Ceiling-controlled versus staged decompression: comparison between decompression duration and tissue tensions |journal=Diving Hyperb Med
<ref name="Anttila" >{{cite web |url=http://www.diverite.com/education/rebreather/tips/gradient%20factors/ |title=Gradient Factors |last=Anttila |first=Matti |access-date=2 May 2012 |archive-date=26 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226064146/http://www.diverite.com/education/rebreather/tips/gradient%20factors/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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|url=https://www.diversalertnetwork.org/default.aspx?a=news&id=514 }}</ref>
<ref name="Bookspan" >{{cite web |url=http://www.diversalertnetwork.org/medical/articles/Are_Tissue_Halftimes_Real |title=Are Tissue Halftimes Real? |last=Bookspan |first=Jolie |date=June 2005 |work=DAN Mediucal articles |publisher=Divers Alert Network |access-date=8 March 2016 |archive-date=12 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012235042/https://www.diversalertnetwork.org/medical/articles/Are_Tissue_Halftimes_Real |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Bookspan 2003" >{{Cite journal |last1=Bookspan |first1=J. |title=Detection of endogenous gas phase formation in humans at altitude |journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise |volume=35 |issue=5 |date=May 2003 |page=S164 |url=http://scuba-doc.com/bubbalt.html |access-date=7 May 2012 |doi=10.1097/00005768-200305001-00901 |doi-access=free |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119000233/http://scuba-doc.com/bubbalt.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=Brubakk >{{cite book |title=Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
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|isbn=978-0-387-13308-9 |author-link=Albert A. Bühlmann }}</ref>
<ref name="burton2004">{{cite web |last=Burton |first=Steve |title=Isobaric Counter Diffusion |publisher=ScubaEngineer |date=December 2004 |url=http://www.scubaengineer.com/isobaric_counter_diffusion.htm |access-date=3 February 2011 |archive-date=10 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310021040/http://www.scubaengineer.com/isobaric_counter_diffusion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Campbell 1997" >{{cite web |url=http://www.scuba-doc.com/dcsprbs.html#DCS:Definition |title=Decompression Illness in Sports Divers: Part I |last=Campbell |first=Ernest S. |year=1997 |work=Medscape Orthopaedics & Sports Medicine eJournal, 1(5) |publisher=Medscape Portals, Inc. |access-date=14 March 2016| ___location=Orange Beach, Ala. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129115052/http://www.scuba-doc.com/dcsprbs.html#DCS:Definition |archive-date=29 January 2010 }}</ref>
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<ref name="CMAS-ISA Tx Manual">{{cite book |last1=Beresford |first1=M. |last2=Southwood |first2=P. |title=CMAS-ISA Normoxic Trimix Manual |edition=4th |year=2006 |publisher=CMAS Instructors South Africa |___location=Pretoria, South Africa }}</ref>
<ref name="DAN data uploads">{{cite web |url=https://www.daneurope.org/send-your-dive-profile |title=Send your Dive Profile |last=<!-- not specified --> |website=daneurope.org |publisher=DAN Europe |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408170051/http://www.daneurope.org/send-your-dive-profile |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="DAN projects">{{cite web |url=https://www.daneurope.org/our-projects |title=Our Projects |last=<!-- not specified --> |work=DAN Europe website |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411164440/https://www.daneurope.org/our-projects |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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<ref name="DecoWeenie">{{cite web |url=http://www.decoweenie.com/DecoWeenie%20Manual%2039.pdf |title=Decoweenie Manual |publisher=decoweenie.com |access-date=26 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906142904/http://www.decoweenie.com/DecoWeenie%20Manual%2039.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2008 }}</ref>
<ref name="Deep stops">{{cite web |url=http://wrobell.it-zone.org/decotengu/_downloads/deepstops.pdf
<ref name="Denoble">{{cite web |url=http://www.alertdiver.com/?articleNo=255 |title=Deep stops |last=Denoble |first=Petar |date=Winter 2010 |work=Alert Diver |publisher=Diver Alert Network |access-date=3 August 2015 |archive-date=4 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004074855/http://www.alertdiver.com/?articleNo=255 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Doboszynski 2012" >{{cite journal |title=Oxygen-driven decompression after air, nitrox, heliox and trimix saturation exposures |last1=Doboszynski |first1=T |last2=Sicko |first2=Z |last3=Kot |first3=J |year=2012 |journal=Journal of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society |publisher=Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine, Inc. }}</ref>
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<ref name="Doolette & Mitchell 2003" >{{cite journal |last1=Doolette |first1=David J. |last2=Mitchell |first2=Simon J. |title=Biophysical basis for inner ear decompression sickness |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=2145–50 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12562679 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.01090.2002 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doolette and Mitchell 2013" >{{cite journal |last1=Doolette
<ref name="Doolette et al 2015" >{{cite report |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD1000575.pdf |publisher=Navy Experimental Diving Unit |___location=Panama City, FL |work=TA 13-04, NEDU TR 15-04 |date=May 2015 |title=Decompression from He-N<sub>2</sub>-O<sub>2</sub> (Trimix) Bounce Dives is not more efficient than from He-O<sub>2</sub> (Heliox) Bounce Dives |first1=David J. |last1=Doolette |first2=Keith A. |last2=Gault |first3=Wayne A. |last3=Gerth }}</ref>
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<ref name="Eckenhoff 1986" >{{cite journal |title=Direct ascent from shallow air saturation exposures |journal=Undersea Biomedical Research |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=305–16 |last1=Eckenhoff |first1=R.G. |last2=Osborne |first2=S.F. |last3=Parker |first3=J.W. |last4=Bondi |first4=K.R. |year=1986 |publisher=Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, Inc. |pmid= 3535200 }}</ref>
<ref name="Edel 1980" >{{cite report |url=https://diving-rov-specialists.com/index_htm_files/scient-b_73-analysis-deco-tables-calculated-by-non-u_s.pdf |title=Analysis of Decompression Tables Calculated by non-U.S. Navy Methods |via=diving-rov-specialists.com |first=Peter O. |last=Edel |date= 31 March 1980 |publisher=Sea-Space Research Company Inc. |___location=Harvey, Louisiana }}</ref>
<ref name="EOW" >{{cite journal |title=The Extended Oxygen Window Concept for Programming Saturation Decompressions Using Air and Nitrox |last1=Kot |first1=Jacek |first2=Zdzislaw |last2=Sicko |first3=Tadeusz |last3=Doboszynski |year=2015 |journal=PLOS ONE |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0130835 |pages=1–20 |pmid=26111113 |pmc=4482426 |volume=10 |issue = 6 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1030835K |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="FAA" >{{cite web |url=http://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/dcs.pdf |publisher=[[Federal Aviation Administration]] |title=Altitude-induced Decompression Sickness |access-date=21 February 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203141302/http://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/dcs.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Flook 2004" >{{cite book |last=Flook |first=Valerie |title=Excursion tables in saturation diving - decompression implications of current UK practice
<ref name="Fogarty 2025" >{{cite web |url=https://indepthmag.com/d-word-dilemmas-the-push-for-personalized-decompression-modeling/ |title=Deco Dilemmas: The Push for Personalized Decompression Modeling |date=30 April 2025 |work=InDEPTH |first=Reilly |last=Fogarty |access-date=20 May 2025 }}</ref>
▲<ref name="Flook 2004" >{{cite book |last=Flook |first=Valerie |title=Excursion tables in saturation diving - decompression implications of current UK practice RESEARCH REPORT 244 |url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrpdf/rr244.pdf |access-date=27 November 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Prepared by Unimed Scientific Limited for the Health and Safety Executive |___location=Aberdeen, U.K. |isbn=0-7176-2869-8 }}</ref>
<ref name=gernhardt >{{cite journal |last=Gernhardt |first=M.L. |title=Biomedical and Operational Considerations for Surface-Supplied Mixed-Gas Diving to 300 FSW. |editor1-last=Lang |editor1-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=N.E. |journal=Proceedings of Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |place=Washington, DC |year=2006 }}</ref>
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<ref name="Gurr 2019" >{{cite web |url=https://gue.com/blog/create-more-efficient-decompressions-using-gradient-factors/ |title=Variable Gradient Model: An Approach To Create More Efficient Decompressions |date=2 July 2019 |last=Gurr |first=Kevin |website=In Depth |access-date=11 February 2021 }}</ref>
<ref name="Goldman" >{{cite journal |url=http://moderndecompression.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/ARTICLE-TEXT-AND-FIGS.pdf |title=To stop or not to stop and why? |last1=Goldman |first1=Saul |last2=Goldman |first2=Ethel |publisher=DAN South Africa |journal=Alert Diver |issn=2071-7628 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=34–37 |year=2014 |access-date=10 September 2014 |archive-date=11 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911001728/http://moderndecompression.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/ARTICLE-TEXT-AND-FIGS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Goldman 2007" >{{cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Saul |date=19 April 2007 |title=A new class of biophysical models for predicting the probability of decompression sickness in scuba diving |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=484–493 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00315.2006 |pmid=17446410 }}</ref>
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<ref name="Goldman 2010" >{{cite journal |last1=Goldman |first1=Saul |last2=Goldman |first2=Ethel |year=2010 |title=Coming soon to a Dive Computer near you |journal=Alert Diver (European Edition) |publisher=DAN Europe |___location=Roseto degli Abruzzi, Italy |issue=4th quarter, 2010 |pages=4–8 |url=http://moderndecompression.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/published-article-comprss-1.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name="Goldman 2013" >{{cite web |url=http://moderndecompression.com/?p=294 |title=How SAUL relates to the PADI dive tables |last=Goldman |first=Saul |date=23 September 2013 |work=Modern decompression |access-date=10 September 2014 |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403222353/http://moderndecompression.com/?p=294 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Gorman" >{{cite web |title=Decompression theory
<ref name="Gorman1988" >{{cite journal |last1=Gorman |first1=Desmond F. |last2=Pearce |first2=A. |last3=Webb |first3=R.K. |title=Dysbaric illness treated at the Royal Adelaide Hospital 1987, a factorial analysis |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |year=1988 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=95–101 }}</ref>
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<!--<ref name="Imbert 2006">{{cite journal |last=Imbert |first=Jean Pierre |title=Commercial Diving: 90m Operational Aspects |journal=Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |editor=Lang |editor2=Smith |date=February 2006 |url=http://www.plongeesout.com/articles%20publication/decompression/imbert/imbert%2090m.pdf |access-date=30 June 2012 }}</ref>-->
<ref name="Imbert 2004">{{cite conference |first1=J.P. |last1=Imbert |first2=D. |last2=Paris |first3=J. |last3=Hugon |publisher=Divetech |___location=France |date=2004 |title=The Arterial Bubble Model for Decompression Tables Calculations |conference=EUBS 2004 |url=http://gtuem.praesentiert-ihnen.de/tools/literaturdb/project2/pdf/Imbert%20JP.%20-%20EUBS%202004.pdf |access-date=14 March 2013 |archive-date=4 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155219/http://gtuem.praesentiert-ihnen.de/tools/literaturdb/project2/pdf/Imbert%20JP.%20-%20EUBS%202004.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="IMCAD022">{{cite book |last=Staff |editor=Paul Williams |title=The Diving Supervisor's Manual |url=http://www.imca-int.com/diving |edition=IMCA D 022 May 2000, incorporating the May 2002 erratum |year=2002 |publisher=International Marine Contractors' Association |___location=London |isbn=978-1-903513-00-2 |archive-date=12 August 2001 |access-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010812220108/http://www.imca-int.com/diving/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Kasture" >{{cite book |last=Kasture |first=A.V.
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<ref name="LeMessurier and Hills" >{{cite journal |last1=LeMessurier |first1=H. |last2=Hills |first2=B.A. |year=1965 |title=Decompression Sickness. A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques |journal=Hvalradets Skrifter |volume=48 |pages=54–84 }}</ref>
<ref name=logodiving >{{cite web |url=
<ref name="Maiken" >{{cite web |url=http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Bubble_Decompression_Strategies.htm |title=Part I: background and theory. Bubble physics |last=Maiken |first=Eric |year=1995 |work=Bubble Decompression Strategies |access-date=11 March 2016 |archive-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412210256/http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Bubble_Decompression_Strategies.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Masurel et al 1987" >{{cite report |title=Hydrogen dive and decompression. |last1=Masurel |first1=G. |last2=Gutierrez |first2=N. |last3=Giacomoni |first3=L. |year=1987|work=Abstract of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, Inc. Annual Scientific Meeting held May 26–30, 1987. The Hyatt Regency Hotel, Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, Inc. }}</ref>
<ref name="Medscape" >{{cite web
<ref name="Mitchell 2016" >{{cite conference |url=https://www.omao.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Rebreathers%20and%20Scientific%20Diving%20Proceedings%202016.pdf |title=Decompression Science: Critical Gas Exchange |first1=Simon J. |last1=Mitchell |editor1-last=Pollock |editor1-first=NW |editor2-last=Sellers |editor2-first=SH |editor3-last=Godfrey |editor3-first=JM |work=Rebreathers and Scientific Diving. Proceedings of NPS/NOAA/DAN/AAUS June 16–19, 2015 Workshop |___location=Wrigley Marine Science Center, Catalina Island, CA |year=2016 |pages=163–174 |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811200013/https://www.omao.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Rebreathers%20and%20Scientific%20Diving%20Proceedings%202016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Mitchell 2020" >{{cite web |title=What is optimal decompression?<!-- Dr Simon Mitchell - Wats is optimal decompression? --> |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIO9qI5XODw |via=YouTube |publisher=#NurkowiePomagajmySobie |date=16 May 2020 |last=Mitchell |first=Simon |access-date=
<!-- <ref name="Mitchell 2021-1" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dYIux8KbUKo |title=Deco theory with Prof. Simon Mitchell, part 1/3: Contributing factors to decompression stress |publisher=UTD Diving |date=23 March 2021 |first=Simon |last=Mitchell |via=YouTube }}</ref>
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<ref name="Mitchell 2021-2" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AicUyu4WGA0 |title=Deco theory with Prof. Simon Mitchell, part 2/3: Gas density and CO<sub>2</sub> retention |publisher=UTD Diving |date=23 March 2021 |first=Simon |last=Mitchell |via=YouTube }}</ref>-->
<ref name="Mitchell 2021-3" >{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28_wM9CXXQ8 |title=Deco theory with Prof. Simon Mitchell, part 3/3: Deep Stops, the good the bad and the how we changed |publisher=UTD Diving |date=23 March 2021 |first=Simon |last=Mitchell |via=YouTube |access-date=8 October 2021 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008095041/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28_wM9CXXQ8 |url-status=live }}</ref>
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<ref name="NOAA" >{{cite book |title=The NOAA Diving Manual: Diving for Science and Technology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWI8e8rVbJ0C&q=helium+%28He%29+is+the+other+inert+gas+commonly+used+in+breathing+mixtures+for+divers |access-date=8 March 2016 |edition=illustrated |year=1992 |publisher=DIANE Publishing |isbn=978-1-56806-231-0 |pages=15.1 |chapter=15: Mixed gas and oxygen diving }}</ref>
<ref name="NORSOK U100" >{{cite book |last=Staff |title=NORSOK Standard U-100: Manned underwater operations |url=http://www.standard.no/en/sectors/energi-og-klima/Petroleum/NORSOK-Standard-Categories/U-Underwater-Op/U-100-Edition-2-July-2008/
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