Textile testing: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Process of measuring the properties and performance of textiles}}

[[File:Scientists are working in the lab.9.jpg|alt=<nowiki>[[Microscopic]] analysis</nowiki>|thumb|Scientists are working in the lab]]

'''Textile testing''' is the [[process]] of [[Measurement|measuring]] the properties and [[Textile performance|performance]] of [[Textile|textile]] materials—textile testing includes [[Physical test|physical]] and [[Chemical test|chemical]] testing of [[Rawraw material|raw materials]]s to finished products.

Textile testing assists textile production in selecting various types of [[Fiber|fibersfiber]]s and their transformation into [[yarn]], fabric, and finished goods such as clothing. The materials are evaluated at multiple stages of production to qualify, compare, and [[Technical standard|standardize]] to meet the norms of different production stages and [[consumer]] [[Requirement|requirementsrequirement]]s. The testing of [[Textile|textilestextile]]s is carried out in [[Laboratory|laboratories]] and in the field using simple to sophisticated testing methods and equipment. In textile testing, many analytical instruments and online monitoring systems are utilized. Textile testing adds value to different agencies involved in the textile supply chain, from production, distribution and consumption.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Booth |first=John E. |url=http://archive.org/details/principlesoftext0000boot |title=Principles of textile testing; an introduction to physical methods of testing textile fibres, yarns, and fabrics |date=1969 |publisher=New York, Chemical Pub. Co. |others=Internet Archive |pages=1–4}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Jewel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G7i2klz1fEgC&q=textile+testing |title=Textile Testing |date=2005 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7648-748-1 |pages=1–5 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Units of textile measurement|Multiple units]] are utilized to measure textile fibers, threads, yarns, and fabrics.

Textile testing facilitates in-line processing [by preventing complications in subsequent steps] and also recommends [[Laundry symbol|wash and care]] instructions for the final product.

== History ==

Textile testing is the process of evaluating the quality and properties of a textile material through a series of tests at various stages of manufacturing.<ref name=":0" /> Textile testing, like textiles, is a vast subject. The historical evolution of textile measuring, and testing methods is difficult to consolidate as the subject is scattered and has different stage timelines for its starting points.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdrQAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=textile+testing+history+measurement&q=textile+testing+history+measurement&hl=en |title=Ciba Review |date=1959 |publisher=Ciba Limited. |pagespage=6 |language=en}}</ref>

At the end of the 18th century, the first mechanical spinning mills began to operate. However, for more than 150 years, the textile industry relied on subpar testing equipment. The yarns had to be visually checked, either by manually stretching a few yarns or by inspecting them on the blackboard.

* [[Colorimetry]] that objectively evaluates color dates back to the latter half of the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Timar-Balazsy |first=Agnes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtUrBgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA146&dq=textile+testing+history+measurement&hl=en |title=Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation |last2=Eastop |first2=Dinah |date=2012-09-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-00034-8 |pages=146 |language=en}}</ref>

Between 1935 and 1945, the electronics industry made huge strides to produce military equipment. After [[World War II]], new electronic components improved measurement technology. Testing textiles was one area of application among many. After 1950, it was possible to check in an instant what it took 30 minutes to measure [fiber length] with an end-aligned staple diagram apparatus.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Borneman |first=Jim |title=Efficient Yarn Production {{!}} Textile World |date=12 September 2008 |url=https://www.textileworld.com/textile-world/features/2008/09/efficient-yarn-production/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Timeline of the important tests and equipment's ===

* [[Colorimetry]] that objectively evaluates color dates back to the latter half of the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Timar-Balazsy |firstfirst1=Agnes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtUrBgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA146&dq=textile+testing+history+measurement&hlpg=enPA146 |title=Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation |last2=Eastop |first2=Dinah |date=2012-09-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-00034-8 |pagespage=146 |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Uster Technologies|Uster yarn evenness tester]]: In 1944–1948, Uster developed its first evenness tester.<ref name=":3" />

== Objectives ==

Textile testing helps in many ways in the textile manufacturing process, from research, raw material selection, process control, product testing, process development, and testing specifications. It also plays a vital role in the operations of the textile bureau.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Textile testing facilitates in-line processing [by preventing complications in subsequent steps] and also recommends [[Laundry symbol|wash and care]] instructions for the final product.

=== Selection of raw material ===

Variable quality is a characteristic shared by all raw materials. Fibers have different colors, fineness, and length, yarns vary in count, twist, and strength, and fabrics vary with density, [[Units of textile measurement|thread count]], weight, and [[Dimensional stability (fabric)|shrinkage]] levels. The proper selection of raw materials facilitates the smooth operation of subsequent stages. <ref name=":1" />

=== Product testing ===

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== Testing standards ==

Specific organizations have developed testing procedures, such as the [[American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists]] (AATCC) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These testing procedures allow for accurate assessment of textile product properties, such as the relative strength or tenacity of the fibers, etc.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Elsasser |first=Virginia Hencken |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles00virg |title=Textiles : concepts and principles |date=2005 |publisher=New York, NY : Fairchild Publications |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-56367-300-9 |pages=20, 25}}</ref>

Since 1921, the AATCC has been serving the textile industry. During [[World War I]], when the Atlantic blockade prevented European dyes from entering America and the newly formed American dye manufacturers struggled to provide consistent products, the need for American textile testing methods became apparent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.aatcc.org/history/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=AATCC |language=en-US}}</ref> The AATCC has developed over two hundred textile standards, test methods, evaluation procedures, and monographs. These specifications are published annually in the AATCC Technical Manual.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AATCC Testing |url=https://www.aatcc.org/testing/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=AATCC |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[American National Standards Institute]] approves the textile performance standards set by [[ASTM International]].{{sfn|Tortora|Collier|1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingtex00tort 20, 21]}} Other testing agencies or bodies that are recognized or accepted as international standards based on contracts include the following:{{sfn|Wang|2016|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oABKCgAAQBAJ 25, 19]}}

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|}

== Fiber testing ==

Textile testing is conducted at various stages, including raw materials, fibers, yarn, fabric, and finished product.

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Fiber is the fundamental component of textiles. Testing fiber properties is vitally important. Applications of a fibre are determined by its physical, mechanical, chemical, and environmental properties. Physical properties are those that can be assessed with the naked eye or a [[microscope]]. A textile testing laboratory determines the mechanical properties of different fibers.<ref name=":2" />

There are various test methods that help in identifying the fibers, Fiber identification and examination includes microscopic analysis, burning tests, and chemical testing.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=AlMa'adeed |first1=Mariam Al-Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0xECwAAQBAJ&dq=There+are+various+test+methods+that+help+in+identifying+the+fibers,&pg=PA239 |title=Polyolefin Compounds and Materials: Fundamentals and Industrial Applications |last2=Krupa |first2=Igor |date=2015-12-23 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-25982-6 |pagespage=239 |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

|+Fiber identification with a burning test<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kadolph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIzOkQXARpsC&dq=textiles+fiber+identification+burning+test&pg=PA34 |title=Textiles |date=2009 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-81-317-2570-2 |pagespage=35 |language=en}}</ref>

!Fiber type

!Burning test

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==== Cotton classification ====

Cotton classification, or classing, is the process of classifying cotton based on its grade, [[Staple (textiles)|staple length]], and micronaire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cotton Properties |url=https://www.cottoninc.com/quality-products/nonwovens/cotton-fiber-tech-guide/cotton-properties/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.cottoninc.com}}</ref> Micronaire is a measure of [[cotton maturity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.2.1-Cotton Value Addition-Micronaire |url=https://www.cottonguide.org/cotton-guide/cotton-value-addition/micronaire/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.cottonguide.org }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Maturity of cotton fibers is measured with single fiber measurement test or by double compression air flow test. It is expressed in percentage or maturity ratio.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Centre |first=International Trade |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHL-DwAAQBAJ&q=the+relative+wall+thickness+(i.e.+the+area+of+the+cell+wall+to+that+of+a+circle+with+the+same+perimeter+as+the+fibre,+or+the+ratio+of+the+cell+wall+thickness+to+the+overall+%E2%80%98diameter%E2%80%99+of+the+fibre) |title=Cotton Exporter's Guide |date=2007-12-31 |publisher=United Nations |isbn=978-92-1-361490-7 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Micronaire ====

Cotton's simple Micronaire value is determined by both the fineness of the fibres as well as their maturity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Micronaire - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/micronaire |access-date=2021-08-29 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Micronaire values or reading represents the fineness of the cotton fiber. For example, a preferred micronaire range is 3.7 to 4.2. [[Gossypium hirsutum|Upland cotton]] is coarser than [[Gossypium barbadense]] (Pima cotton).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fang |first1=David D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=amDMDwAAQBAJ&dq=micronaire+value+of+cotton&pg=PA708 |title=Cotton |last2=Percy |first2=Richard G. |date=2020-01-22 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-89118-625-0 |pagespage=708 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Further|Units of textile measurement}}

== Yarn testing ==

The yarn undergoes different tests. [[Uster Technologies]], commonly referred to as "Uster" in the yarn-spinning industry, is a Swiss manufacturer of analytical instruments and online monitoring systems for yarn. Most typical yarn tests include evaluating the uniformity of yarns. [Yarn evenness] that infers the yarn's evenness index.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Zhang |firstfirst1=Dairong |last2=Cheng |first2=Ling |date=2010-02-13 |title=Comparison of Two Different Yarn Evenness Test Methods |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/mas.v4n3p71 |journal=Modern Applied Science |volume=4 |issue=3 |doi=10.5539/mas.v4n3p71 |issn=1913-1852|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Fabric testing ==

GPT stands for "Garment Package Test" and FPT stands for "Fabric Package Test" in garment and textile testing. Each buyer provides guidance for which tests are required at the fabric and subsequent garment stages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Prasanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYBZDwAAQBAJ&dq=fabric+package+test&pg=PA31 |title=Garment Manufacturing: Processes,Practices and Technology |publisher=Online Clothing Study |isbn=978-93-83701-75-9 |page=31 |language=en}}</ref>

Fabric testing includes measurements such as [[Units of textile measurement#Grams per square metre (GSM)|fabric weight]], fabric width, [[Dimensional stability (fabric)|shrinkage]] testing, [[colour fastness|colour fastness to washing]], [[Lightfastness|fastness to light,]] [[Pill (textile)|pilling]], tearing and bursting strength, etc.

The testing of fabrics offers a comprehensive review of the various tests that can be performed on fabrics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Jinlian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybekAgAAQBAJ&q=fabric+package+test |title=Fabric Testing |date=2008-09-09 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-506-4 |language=en}}</ref> Fabric testing includes measurements such as [[Units of textile measurement#Grams per square metre (GSM)|fabric weight]], fabric width, [[Dimensional stability (fabric)|shrinkage]] testing, [[colour fastness|colour fastness to washing]], [[Lightfastness|fastness to light,]], [[Pill (textile)|pilling]], tearing and bursting strength, etc.

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications. <ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Betty F. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesinperspe0002smit |title=Textiles in perspective |date=1982 |publisher=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-13-912808-0 |pages=3, 10, 17, 49}}</ref>{{Rp|page=18}}

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications. <ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Betty F. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesinperspe0002smit |title=Textiles in perspective |date=1982 |publisher=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-13-912808-0 |pages=3, 10, 17, 49}}</ref>{{Rp|page=18}}

Fabric weight or GSM is an important parameter while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300 GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM. Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct weights.<ref name=":17" />{{Rp|page=18}}

{| class="wikitable"

|+Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products<ref>{{Cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mary |url=http://archive.org/details/fabricreference0000hump |title=Fabric reference |date=1996 |publisher=Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-13-349671-0 |pagespage=4}}</ref>

!GSM (grams per square meter) range

!Categorization

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|[[Sheer fabric]]

|

|Sheer curtains, [[Lingerie]] items, [[Wedding dress|Wedding dresses]]es,

|-

|50-150

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|Medium weight

|Bottom weight

|[[Skirt]], [[Trousers]], Kind of [[Denim|denimsdenim]]s, and [[Suit|Suits]]s

|-

|300-600

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==== Sweating guarded hot plate test ====

The test method evaluates the thermal resistance and water vapor permeability of fabrics, which bear on the garment's comfort.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LINGAAAAYAAJ&q=Sweating+guarded+hot+plate+test+method|title=Occupational Health and Safety ; Protective Clothing|date=2007|publisher=ASTM|isbn=978-0-8031-4412-5|page=346|access-date=2021-07-03|archive-date=2021-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811104619/https://books.google.com/books?id=LINGAAAAYAAJ&q=Sweating+guarded+hot+plate+test+method|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2006-08-01|title=Sweating guarded hot plate test method|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142941806000523|journal=Polymer Testing|volume=25|issue=5|pages=709–716|doi=10.1016/j.polymertesting.2006.03.002|issn=0142-9418|last1=Huang|first1=Jianhua|access-date=2021-07-03|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184404/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142941806000523|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

* ISO 11092:2014 (the test for physiological effects — Test for measuring thermal resistance and water-vapor resistance)<ref>{{cite web|title=ISO 11092:2014 |url=https://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/standard/06/59/65962.html|access-date=2021-07-03|website=ISO|archive-date=2021-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811104649/https://www.iso.org/standard/65962.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

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==== Breathability test ====

Water vapor transmission rate, also called [[moisture vapor transmission rate]] (MVTR) is a method of testing or measuring the [[Permeation|permeability]] for [[Vaporvapor barrier|vapor barriers]]s.

* ASTM F2298 – 03 (test for clothing materials such as protective clothing, laminates, and membranes) a similar test by [[Japanese Standards Association]] is JSA – JIS L 1099.<ref>{{cite web|title=JSA – JIS L 1099 – Testing methods for water vapor permeability of textiles {{!}} Engineering360|url=https://standards.globalspec.com/std/1592586/JIS%20L%201099|access-date=2021-07-03|website=standards.globalspec.com|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182434/https://standards.globalspec.com/std/1592586/JIS%20L%201099|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Air permeability ====

Air permeability refers to the fabric's porosity or its ability to allow air to pass through it. A standardised testing procedure is crucial for various fabrics as it uncovers fundamental qualities such as warmth in blankets and air resistance in parachute cloth.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=Stephan S. Marks |url=http://archive.org/details/fairchildsdictio0000unse |url-access=registration |title=Fairchild's dictionary of textiles |date=1959 |___location=New York |publisher=Fairchild Publications |page=11}}</ref>

The air permeability test method is for measuring the ability of air to pass through textile materials.<ref>{{cite web|title=Standard Test Method for Air Permeability of Textile Fabrics|url=https://csbs.uni.edu/sites/default/files/Air_Permeability.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-03|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183255/https://csbs.uni.edu/sites/default/files/Air_Permeability.pdf}}</ref>

* ASTM D737-96 alternative test method is

* ISO 9237:1995

==== Moisture management test ====

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[[File:Military helmet (3633205430).jpg|thumb|A thermal manikin being used to test helmet padding]]

A [[thermal manikin]] is a device for analysing the thermal interface of the human body and its environment. It assesses the [[thermal comfort]] and [[Clothing insulation|insulation]] properties of clothing, such as protective gear for the military.{{sfn|Parsons|2002|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4oxA6W_Os50C&q=thermal+manikin&pg=PA182 182]}}{{sfn|Yarborough|Nelson|2005|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pbnN_SL4H9AC&q=thermal+manikin&pg=PA27 27]}}

==== Kawabata evaluation system ====

[[Kawabata evaluation system]] measures the mechanical properties of the textiles, such as [[Tension (physics)| tensile strength]], [[Shear stress| shear strength]], surface friction, and roughness, The Kawabata evaluation system predicts human responses and understands the perception of softness. It can also be used to figure out the short-term heat transfer properties that are responsible for the feeling of coolness when fabrics touch the skin while being worn.{{sfn|Allerkamp|2010|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RNlfJ1CFKoQC&q=kawabata+evaluation+system&pg=PA53 53]}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harwood |first1=R. J. |last2=Weedall |first2=P. J. |last3=Carr |first3=C. |date=1990 |title=The use of the Kawabata Evaluation System for product development and quality control |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-4408.1990.tb01244.x |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=64–68 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-4408.1990.tb01244.x |issn=1478-4408 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182901/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-4408.1990.tb01244.x |archive-date=2021-07-09 |access-date=2021-07-03|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Mechanical testing ==

A variety of mechanical testing can be conducted on textile fibers, yarns and finished products. Factors such as the chemical structure of the fibers, twist of yarns and weaving structure can affect the mechanical properties.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Dolez |first1=Patricia I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCxHDgAAQBAJ&dq=mechanical+testing+of+textiles&pg=PP1 |title=Advanced Characterization and Testing of Textiles |last2=Vermeersch |first2=Olivier |last3=Izquierdo |first3=Valério |date=2017-09-19 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-100454-8 |language=en}}</ref> Some of these are discussed here in more depth:

=== Tensile Strength ===

For individual fibers, the following testing standard is employed: ISO 5079 (2020).<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO 5079:2020 |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/76604.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=International Organization for Standardization |language=en}}</ref> In this, fibers are clamped at ends and extended at a constant rate until rupture. Separate ISO standards are also defined for testing of yarns and fabrics that work on similar principles.

=== Burst Strength ===

Hydraulic or pneumatic methods can be employed to test the burst strength of textiles.<ref name=":4" /> In this test, a material is stressed in all directions at the same time by use of water (hydraulic) or air (pneumatic).<ref>{{Cite web |title=NPTEL :: Textile Engineering - Textile Testing |url=https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/116/102/116102029/ |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=archive.nptel.ac.in}}</ref> This is especially useful for applications such as parachutes, filters etc., as it provides more information compared to the uniaxial results obtained from the tensile strength measurements.

=== Bending Length Measurements ===

For nonwovens, ISO 9073-7 (1995)<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO 9073-7:1995 |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/16657.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=International Organization for Standardization |language=en}}</ref> can be employed to gauge both bending length and flexural rigidity. In this, one end of a rectangular strip of fabric is supported with a ruler, while the other end hangs freely. Length of the material that will bend under its own weight to a specific extent is expressed as bending length. It provides a measure of the drapability of the fabric, whereas, flexural rigidity provides a measure of the stiffness of the fabric.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1959 |title=Tentative Textile Standard No. 60. Method of Test for the Determination of Stiffness of Cloth |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19447015908664338 |journal=Journal of the Textile Institute Proceedings |language=en |volume=50 |issue=12 |pages=P772–P775 |doi=10.1080/19447015908664338 |issn=1944-7019|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Tear Strength ===

ISO provides four different tests to measure tear strength of fabrics. ISO 13937-1 (2000) defines tear strength as "the force required to propagate a tear initiated under the specified conditions"<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO 13937-1:2000 |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/23369.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=International Organization for Standardization |language=en}}</ref> This test is useful for analyzing a material's behavior when subjected to a cut.

== See also ==

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* [[Pick glass]]

* [[Quality management system]]

* [[Barré (fabric)]]

== References ==

<references />