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[[File:Hyperloop all cutaway.png|thumb|Concept art of hyperloop inner workings|265x265px]]
'''Hyperloop''' is a proposed high-speed [[transport]]ation system for both passengers and freight.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simon |first=Joanna |url=https://wagner.nyu.edu/rudincenter/2017/02/primer-hyperloop-travel-how-far-future |title=A Primer on Hyperloop Travel: How far off is the Future? |publisher=[[Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management]], [[New York University]] |access-date=2024-05-24}}</ref> The concept was published by entrepreneur [[Elon Musk]] in a 2013 [[white paper]], where the hyperloop was described as a transportation system using capsules supported by an [[air bearing|air-bearing surface]] within a low-pressure tube.<ref name="Alpha SpaceX" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Premsagar |first1=Smriti |last2=Kenworthy |first2=Jeffrey |date=2022 |title=A Critical Review of Hyperloop (Ultra-High Speed Rail) Technology: Urban and Transport Planning, Technical, Environmental, Economic, and Human Considerations |journal=[[Frontiers in Sustainable Cities]] |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/frsc.2022.842245 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022FrSC....4.2245P }}</ref> Hyperloop systems have three essential elements: tubes, pods, and terminals. The tube is a large, sealed [[Vacuum#Vacuum-driven machines|low-pressure system]] (typically a long tunnel). The pod is a coach at [[atmospheric pressure]] that experiences low [[Drag (physics)|air resistance]] or friction inside the tube<ref name="mechsite2019092">{{cite web |last1=Opgenoord |first1=Max M. J. |title=How does the aerodynamic design implement in hyperloop concept? |url=https://mechanicalsite.com/446/how-does-the-aerodynamic-design-implement-hyperloop-concept |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003205826/https://mechanicalsite.com/446/how-does-the-aerodynamic-design-implement-hyperloop-concept |archive-date=3 October 2019 |access-date=16 September 2019 |website=Mechanical Engineering |publisher=MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lang |first1=Alex J. |last2=Connolly |first2=David P. |last3=de Boer |first3=Gregory |last4=Shahpar |first4=Shahrokh |last5=Hinchliffe |first5=Benjamin |last6=Gilkeson |first6=Carl A. |date=2024 |title=A review of Hyperloop aerodynamics |journal=Computers & Fluids |volume=273 |pages=106202 |doi=10.1016/j.compfluid.2024.106202}}</ref> using [[Maglev|magnetic propulsion]] (in the initial design, augmented by a [[ducted fan]]). The terminal handles pod arrivals and departures. The hyperloop, in the form proposed by Musk, differs from other [[Vactrain|vactrains]] by relying on residual air pressure inside the tube to provide lift from [[Aerofoil|aerofoils]] and propulsion by fans; however, many subsequent variants using the name "hyperloop" have remained relatively close to the core principles of vactrains.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garfield |first=Leanna |title=15 remarkable images that show the 200-year evolution of the Hyperloop |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/history-hyperloop-pneumatic-tubes-as-transportation-2017-8#in-1799-inventor-george-medhurst-proposed-an-idea-to-move-goods-through-cast-iron-pipes-using-air-pressure-in-1844-he-built-a-railway-station-for-passenger-carriages-in-london-that-relied-on-pneumatics-until-1847-1 |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 25, 2021 |title=Timeline: tracing the evolution of hyperloop rail technology - Rainway-Technology |url=https://rail.nridigital.com/future_rail_mar21/hyperloop_rail_system_timeline}}</ref>
Hyperloop was teased by Elon Musk at a 2012 speaking event, and described as a "fifth mode of transport".<ref name="PandoDaily Hyperloop">{{cite web |title=Pando Monthly presents a fireside chat with Elon Musk |url=https://pando.com/2012/07/12/pandomonthly-presents-a-fireside-chat-with-elon-musk/ |website=pando.com |publisher=PandoDaily |access-date=15 July 2017 |date=13 July 2012 |archive-date=16 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716135721/https://pando.com/2012/07/12/pandomonthly-presents-a-fireside-chat-with-elon-musk/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Musk released details of an alpha-version in a [[white paper]] on 22 August 2013, in which the hyperloop design incorporated reduced-pressure tubes with [[pressurized]] capsules riding on [[air bearing]]s driven by [[linear induction motor]]s and [[axial compressor]]s.<ref name="gm20130822" /> The white paper showed an example hyperloop route running from the [[Los Angeles]] region to the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], roughly following the [[Interstate 5 in California|Interstate 5]] corridor.<ref name="Alpha SpaceX" /> Some transportation analysts challenged the cost estimates in the white paper, with some predicting that a hyperloop would run several billion dollars higher.<ref name="NYT-Bilton" /><ref name="AJE" /><ref name="HuffPoAstronomical" />
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A [[Technical University of Munich]] hyperloop set a speed record of {{cvt|463|km/h|mph|0}} in July 2019<ref name=brde20210521/><ref name=verge20190722/> at the [[Hyperloop pod competition|pod design competition]] hosted by SpaceX in [[Hawthorne, California|Hawthorne]], California.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Etherington |first1=Darrell |title=Here's a first look at the SpaceX Hyperloop test track |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/02/heres-a-first-look-at-the-spacex-hyperloop-test-track/ |publisher=TechCrunch |date=2 September 2016 |access-date=25 November 2016 |archive-date=15 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915205721/https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/02/heres-a-first-look-at-the-spacex-hyperloop-test-track/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Virgin Hyperloop]] conducted the first human trial in November 2020 at its test site in [[Las Vegas]], reaching a top speed of {{cvt|107|mph|km/h|0|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/09/first-passengers-travel-in-virgins-levitating-hyperloop-pod-system |title=First passengers travel in Virgin's levitating hyperloop pod system |work=The Guardian |date=9 November 2020 |access-date=10 November 2020 |archive-date=10 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110032806/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/09/first-passengers-travel-in-virgins-levitating-hyperloop-pod-system |url-status=live}}</ref> Swisspod Technologies unveiled a 1:12 scale testing facility in a circular shape to simulate an "infinite" hyperloop trajectory in July 2021 on the EPFL campus at [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]].<ref name="epfl.ch"/> In 2023, a new European effort to standardize "hyperloop systems" released a draft standard.<ref name=cencenelec202301/>
[[Hyperloop One]], one of the best
==History==
Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the ''Hyperloop'', in July 2012 at a [[Pando Daily]] event in [[Santa Monica, California]]. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations.<ref name="pando_video"/> The name ''Hyperloop'' was chosen because it would go in a loop. In May 2013, Musk likened Hyperloop to a "cross between a [[Concorde]] and a [[railgun]] and an [[air hockey]] table".<ref name="atd20130530"/> By 2016, Musk envisioned that more advanced versions could potentially be able to go at [[hypersonic speed]].<ref name="youtube20160131">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab2VVp1GfmA |title=Elon Musk speaks at the Hyperloop Pod Award Ceremony |publisher=YouTube |date=30 January 2016 |access-date=2 February 2016 |archive-date=26 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026083851/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab2VVp1GfmA |url-status=live}}</ref>
From late 2012 until August 2013, a group of engineers from both [[Tesla Motors|Tesla]] and SpaceX worked on the modeling of Musk's Hyperloop concept.<ref name="gm20130813"/> An early system conceptual model was published on both the Tesla and SpaceX websites<ref name="Alpha SpaceX"/><ref name="Alpha Tesla" /> which describes one potential design, function, pathway, and cost of a hyperloop system.<ref name="Alpha SpaceX" /> In the alpha design, pods were envisioned to accelerate to cruising speeds gradually using [[Linear motor|linear electric motors]] and glide above their track on [[air bearing]]s through tubes above ground on columns or below ground in tunnels to avoid the challenges of [[grade crossing]]s. An ideal hyperloop system was estimated to be more energy-efficient,<ref name="EDS power consumption">{{cite journal |url=https://www.pes-publications.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_ethpublications/22_Scaling_laws_for_electrodynamic_suspension_Flankl_accepted-version.pdf |title=Scaling laws for electrodynamic suspension in high-speed transportation |last1=Flankl |first1=Michael |last2=Weller dieck |first2=Tobias |last3=Tüysüz |first3=Arda |last4=Kolar |first4=Johann W. |journal=IET Electric Power Applications |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=357–364 |date=November 2017 |access-date=2 February 2018 |doi=10.1049/iet-epa.2017.0480 |archive-date=26 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012539/https://www.pes-publications.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_ethpublications/22_Scaling_laws_for_electrodynamic_suspension_Flankl_accepted-version.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ESC Hyperloop">{{cite AV media |url=http://www.esc.ethz.ch/news/archive/2017/11/energy-efficiency-of-an-electrodynamically-levitated-hyperloop-pod.html |title=Energy Efficiency of an Electrodynamically Levitated Hyperloop Pod |publisher=Energy Science Center |date=29 November 2017 |access-date=2 February 2018 |archive-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120065425/https://esc.ethz.ch/news/archive/2017/11/energy-efficiency-of-an-electrodynamically-levitated-hyperloop-pod.html |url-status=live}}</ref> quiet, and [[vehicular automation|autonomous]] than existing modes of mass transit in the 2010s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kassebi |first1=Oussema |last2=Siegfried |first2=Patrick |title=The Hyperloop: The innovative logistic technology |journal=Journal of Road and Traffic Engineering |date=2022 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=11–16 |doi=10.31075/PIS.68.01.02 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Hyperloop Alpha was released as an [[Open-source model|open source]] design. Musk invited feedback to "see if the people can find ways to improve it".<ref name="globemail20130812"/> The trademark "''HYPERLOOP''", applicable to "high-speed transportation of goods in tubes" was issued to SpaceX on 4 April 2017.<ref>{{cite web| title=Word Mark HYPERLOOP|url=http://tmsearch.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&
On 15 June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would build a {{convert|1|mi|km|-long| adj=mid}} [[Hyperloop pod competition#Test track|Hyperloop test track]] located next to SpaceX's [[Hawthorne, California|Hawthorne]] facility.<ref name="CNNmoney-15-6-15"/><ref name="SFchronicle-6-15-15" /> The track was completed and used to test pod designs supplied by third parties in the competition.
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As of 21 December 2023, [[Hyperloop One]], the former, rebranded Virgin Hyperloop, has terminated operations.<ref name=hyperloopOneShutdown20231221>{{cite news|last=McBride |first=Sarah |title=Hyperloop One to Shut Down After Failing to Reinvent Transit |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-12-21/hyperloop-one-to-shut-down-after-raising-millions-to-reinvent-transit|publisher=Bloomberg |date=21 December 2023}}</ref>
==Theory and operation==
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{{undue weight|section|date=January 2024}}
Several routes have been proposed that meet the distance conditions for which a hyperloop is hypothesized to provide improved transport times: under approximately {{Convert|1500|km|miles|abbr=off}}.<ref name=zdnet20200418>{{Cite web|last=Ranger|first=Steve|title=What is Hyperloop? Everything you need to know about the race for super-fast travel|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-hyperloop-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-future-of-transport/|access-date=18 April 2020|website=ZDNet|language=en|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030113256/https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-hyperloop-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-future-of-transport/|url-status=live}}</ref> Route proposals range from speculation described in company releases<!-- and this speculative material is often [[WP:UNDUE]] -->, to [[business case]]s, to signed agreements.
==== South Korea ====
An agreement was signed in June 2017 to co-develop a hyperloop line between [[Seoul]] and [[Busan]], South Korea.<ref name=imeche20170719>{{cite news |url=http://www.imeche.org/news/news-article/investment-in-hyperloop-routes-speeds-up |title=Investment in hyperloop routes speeds up |first=Jørn |last=Madslien |publisher=Institute of Mechanical Engineers |___location=UK |date=19 July 2017 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525055436/https://www.imeche.org/news/news-article/investment-in-hyperloop-routes-speeds-up |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=wired20170620>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/story/hyperloop-south-korea/ |title=South Korea Is Building a Hyperloop |first=Alex |last=Davies |magazine=Wired |___location=US |date=20 June 2017 |access-date=16 March 2019 |archive-date=18 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018220418/https://www.wired.com/story/hyperloop-south-korea/ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{update after|2018}}
In April 2025, the government launched a research project to develop [[maglev]] propulsion technology for the Hypertube, a proposed next-generation high-speed train system, between Seoul and Busan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20250409001800320 |title=S. Korea launches research on maglev propulsion tech for envisioned Hypertube train |first=Dong-woo |last=Chang |work=Yonhap News Agency |date=2025-04-09 |access-date=2025-04-09}}</ref>
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In 2016, Canadian hyperloop firm [[TransPod]] explored the possibility of hyperloop routes which would connect [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]],<ref name="cbc20160916">{{cite news |last=Bambury |first=Brent |date=16 September 2016 |title=Toronto to Montreal in less than 30 minutes? How a Canadian company plans to make it happen |work=[[CBC Radio]] |___location=Canada |url=http://www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/episode-303-charlie-sykes-on-nevertrump-predicting-the-polaris-climate-change-cities-plus-lots-more-1.3764152/toronto-to-montreal-in-less-than-30-minutes-how-a-canadian-company-plans-to-make-it-happen-1.3764201 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509103644/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/episode-303-charlie-sykes-on-nevertrump-predicting-the-polaris-climate-change-cities-plus-lots-more-1.3764152/toronto-to-montreal-in-less-than-30-minutes-how-a-canadian-company-plans-to-make-it-happen-1.3764201 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Rapid Transit">{{cite news |date=18 September 2017 |title=Rapid Transit |publisher=CBC |agency=CBC |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/rapid-transit-1.4296028 |access-date=4 October 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925053929/http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/rapid-transit-1.4296028 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Toronto]] to [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]],<ref name="Daily Hive">{{cite news |last1=Aboelsaud |first1=Yasmin |date=26 July 2017 |title=Toronto tech company proposes Toronto-Windsor hyperloop connection |publisher=Daily Hive |url=http://dailyhive.com/toronto/transpod-hyperloop-study-toronto-windsor-2017 |access-date=4 October 2017 |archive-date=3 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003050619/http://dailyhive.com/toronto/transpod-hyperloop-study-toronto-windsor-2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Calgary]] to [[Edmonton]].<ref name="cbccalgarycorridor">{{cite news |date=7 April 2017 |title=Calgary to Edmonton in 30 minutes? Hyperloop could be the future of transportation in Alberta |publisher=CBC |agency=CBC |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/transpod-hyperloop-calgary-edmonton-corridor-1.4060954 |access-date=4 October 2017 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615010100/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/transpod-hyperloop-calgary-edmonton-corridor-1.4060954 |url-status=live}}</ref> Toronto and Montreal, the largest cities in [[Canada]], are connected by [[Ontario Highway 401]], the busiest highway in North America.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 April 2014 |title=The Busiest Highway in North America |url=http://oppositelock.kinja.com/the-busiest-highway-in-north-america-1559577839 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112035613/https://oppositelock.kinja.com/the-busiest-highway-in-north-america-1559577839 |archive-date=12 November 2019 |access-date=7 November 2016 |work=Opposite Lock |___location=US}}</ref> In March 2019, Transport Canada commissioned a study of hyperloops, so it could be "better informed on the technical, operational, economic, safety, and regulatory aspects of the hyperloop and understand its construction requirements and commercial feasibility."<ref name="dh20190408">{{Cite web |last=Aboelsaud |first=Yasmin |date=4 April 2019 |title=Virgin Hyperloop One: New transit technology could be here in years not decades |url=https://dailyhive.com/toronto/virgin-hyperloop-one-transport-canada-april-2019 |access-date=8 April 2019 |website=Daily Hive |language=en |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411012020/https://dailyhive.com/toronto/virgin-hyperloop-one-transport-canada-april-2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{update after|2020}}
The province of [[Alberta]] signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to support [[TransPod]] for its [[Calgary]] to [[Edmonton]] hyperloop project. [[TransPod]] plans to move forward and has secured {{USD|550 million|long=yes}} in private capital funding for the first phase, which will create an airport link for [[Edmonton]].{{Clarify|date=May 2025|reason=There are already public transit links to Edmonton International Airport}} However, the company will first need to build and test prototypes on test tracks before the project can begin.<ref name=gnews20221021>{{cite web |title=$550M secured to help finance ultra-high-speed hyperloop between Edmonton and Calgary {{!}} Globalnews.ca |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/8718640/alberta-ultra-high-speed-hyperloop-edmonton-calgary-funding/ |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Global News |language=en-US |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021025704/https://globalnews.ca/news/8718640/alberta-ultra-high-speed-hyperloop-edmonton-calgary-funding/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=cbc20221020>{{cite web |last=Edwardson |first=Lucie |date=2021-06-25 |title=Canadian hyperloop company says ultra-high-speed travel between Calgary and Edmonton is feasible |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/transpod-hyperloop-calgary-edmonton-sebastian-gendro-1.6078775 |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=CBC News |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021025703/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/transpod-hyperloop-calgary-edmonton-sebastian-gendro-1.6078775 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{update after|2023}}
==== Elsewhere in the world ====
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=== Design and safety ===
YouTube creator Adam Kovacs has described Hyperloop as a kind of [[gadgetbahn]] because it would be an expensive, unproven system that is no better than existing technologies such as traditional high-speed rail.<ref>{{
The
=== Costs ===
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|U.S.
|2016
|Defunct (2018)<ref>{{Cite web|last=O'Kane|first=Sean|date=December 14, 2018|title=Hyperloop startup Arrivo is shutting down as workers are laid off|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/14/18128848/hyperloop-arrivo-furloughs-layoffs-money-trouble|url-status=live|website=[[The Verge]]|access-date=25 March 2019|archive-date=25 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325075632/https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/14/18128848/hyperloop-arrivo-furloughs-layoffs-money-trouble}}</ref>
|Ended hyperloop development in November 2017 in favor of [[maglev]] transportation. Shut down in 2018.
|-
|
|India
|2015
|Active
|<ref>{{cite web |title=DGWHyperloop - India's Own Hyperloop |url=https://www.dgwhyperloop.in/ |website=www.dgwhyperloop.in |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-
|Hardt Hyperloop
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|2016
|Active
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Hardt Hyperloop |url=https://www.hardt.global/ |website=Hardt Hyperloop |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-
|Hyperloop Italia
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|2020
|Active
||Subsidiary of [[Hyperloop Transportation Technologies]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperloop Italia - Una nuova frontiera per la mobilità |url=https://hyperloopitalia.com/ |website=Hyperloop Italia |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-style="background-color:#CCC;
|[[Hyperloop One]]
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|2014
|Shut down (2023)
|Ended development of passenger travel in February 2022 to focus on freight.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-hyperloop-layoffs-passenger-travel-cargo-transport-2022-2 |title=Virgin Hyperloop lays off half of its employees as it pivots away from passenger travel |first=Yoonji |last=Han |work=Business Insider |___location=US |date=22 February 2022 |access-date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520091152/https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-hyperloop-layoffs-passenger-travel-cargo-transport-2022-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Shut down in December 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Kane |first=Sean |date=21 December 2023 |title=Hyperloop One is reportedly shutting down |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/12/21/hyperloop-one-shutting-down/ |access-date=14 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
|[[Hyperloop Transportation Technologies]]
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|2013
|Active
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperloop Transportation Technologies |url=https://www.hyperlooptt.com/ |website=HyperloopTT |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-style="background-color:#CCC;
|[[Nevomo]]
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|2019
|Active
||<ref>{{cite web |title=Swisspod Our Story |url=https://www.swisspod.com/our-journey |website=www.swisspod.com |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-
|[[TransPod]]
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|2015
|Active
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Homepage |url=https://www.transpod.com/ |website=TransPod |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-
|Zeleros
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|2016
|Active
||<ref>{{cite web |title=Zeleros Hyperloop - Welcome to the future of transportation |url=https://zeleros.com/ |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|-
|TuTr Hyperloop
|India
|2022
|Active
||<ref>{{cite web |title=TuTr Hyperloop - Welcome to the TuTr Hyperloop |url=https://tutr.tech/ |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}
|}
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* [[Swissmetro]] was a proposal to run a maglev train in a low-pressure environment. Concessions were granted to Swissmetro in the early 2000s to connect the Swiss cities of St. Gallen, Zurich, Basel, and Geneva. Studies of commercial feasibility reached differing conclusions and the vactrain was never built.<ref name="swissmetro"/>
* [[ET3 Global Alliance]] (ET3) was founded by Daryl Oster in 1997 with the goal of establishing a global transportation system using passenger capsules in frictionless [[magnetic levitation|maglev]] full-vacuum tubes. Oster received interest from Elon Musk potentially investing in a {{convert|3|mi|km|0|adj=on}} prototype of ET3's proposed design.<ref name="denver20130809"/><ref name="futurist20131030"/>{{update after|2015|6|17}}
* In 2003 [[Franco Cotana]] led the development of Pipenet, with a {{convert|100|m|yd|abbr=on
* In August 2010, a vacuum-based maglev train able to move at {{convert|1000|km/h|mph|abbr=on|order=flip|round=50}} was proposed for China, projected to cost {{CNY|10–20 million|link=yes}} ({{US$|2.95 million}} at the August 2010 exchange rate) more per kilometer than regular high-speed rail.<ref name="engadgetsumohurd20100804"/> In 2018, a short {{convert|45|m|yd|abbr=on}} loop test track was completed to test some parts of the technology.<ref>{{cite news |title=China testing super-maglev train that runs at 1,000 km/h |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0311/c90000-9435653.html |access-date=2021-08-26 |publisher=People's Daily Online |date=11 March 2018 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024003226/http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0311/c90000-9435653.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
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* [[Gravity train]]
* [[Gravity-vacuum transit]]
* [[Ground
* [[High-speed rail]]
* [[Kantrowitz limit]]
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<!--<ref name="gizmag 201502">{{cite news |url=http://www.gizmag.com/agreement-reached-to-build-first-passenger-hyperloop/36285 |title=California is getting a Hyperloop, but not where you think |work=Gizmag |first=Eric |last=Mack |date=26 February 2015 |access-date=2 March 2015}}</ref>-->
<ref name="nova20130813">{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
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<ref name="WaPoWonkBlog">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/08/13/there-is-no-redeeming-feature-of-the-hyperloop/ |title=There is no redeeming feature of the Hyperloop |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |first=Brad |last=Plumer |date=13 August 2013 |access-date=31 August 2017 |archive-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112063604/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/08/13/there-is-no-redeeming-feature-of-the-hyperloop/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="economist20130817">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21583588-elon-musk-electric-car-entrepreneur-and-proponent-private-colonies-mars |title=The Future of Transport: No loopy idea |newspaper=The Economist |volume=Print edition |date=17 August 2013 |access-date=16 August 2013 |url-access=limited |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305004626/http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21583588-elon-musk-electric-car-entrepreneur-and-proponent-private-colonies-mars |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="business20130715">{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musks-hyperloop-science-fiction-2013-7 |title=If Elon Musk's Hyperloop Sounds Like Something Out Of Science Fiction, That's Because It Is |work=[[Business Insider]] |first=Chris C. |last=Anderson |date=15 July 2013 |access-date=14 August 2013 |archive-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809060249/http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musks-hyperloop-science-fiction-2013-7 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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