Hyperloop: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Hyperloop all cutaway.png|thumb|Concept art of hyperloop inner workings|265x265px]]

'''Hyperloop''' wasis a proposed high-speed [[transport]]ation system for both passengers and freight.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simon |first=Joanna |url=https://wagner.nyu.edu/rudincenter/2017/02/primer-hyperloop-travel-how-far-future |title=A Primer on Hyperloop Travel: How far off is the Future? |publisher=[[Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management]], [[New York University]] |access-date=2024-05-24}}</ref> The concept was published by entrepreneur [[Elon Musk]] in a 2013 [[white paper]], where the hyperloop was described as a transportation system using capsules supported by an [[air bearing|air-bearing surface]] within a low-pressure tube.<ref name="Alpha SpaceX" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Premsagar |first1=Smriti |last2=Kenworthy |first2=Jeffrey |date=2022 |title=A Critical Review of Hyperloop (Ultra-High Speed Rail) Technology: Urban and Transport Planning, Technical, Environmental, Economic, and Human Considerations |journal=[[Frontiers in Sustainable Cities]] |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/frsc.2022.842245 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022FrSC....4.2245P }}</ref> Hyperloop systems have three essential elements: tubes, pods, and terminals. The tube is a large, sealed [[Vacuum#Vacuum-driven machines|low-pressure system]] (typically a long tunnel). The pod is a coach at [[atmospheric pressure]] that experiences low [[Drag (physics)|air resistance]] or friction inside the tube<ref name="mechsite2019092">{{cite web |last1=Opgenoord |first1=Max M. J. |title=How does the aerodynamic design implement in hyperloop concept? |url=https://mechanicalsite.com/446/how-does-the-aerodynamic-design-implement-hyperloop-concept |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003205826/https://mechanicalsite.com/446/how-does-the-aerodynamic-design-implement-hyperloop-concept |archive-date=3 October 2019 |access-date=16 September 2019 |website=Mechanical Engineering |publisher=MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lang |first1=Alex J. |last2=Connolly |first2=David P. |last3=de Boer |first3=Gregory |last4=Shahpar |first4=Shahrokh |last5=Hinchliffe |first5=Benjamin |last6=Gilkeson |first6=Carl A. |date=2024 |title=A review of Hyperloop aerodynamics |journal=Computers & Fluids |volume=273 |pages=106202 |doi=10.1016/j.compfluid.2024.106202}}</ref> using [[Maglev|magnetic propulsion]] (in the initial design, augmented by a [[ducted fan]]). The terminal handles pod arrivals and departures. The hyperloop, in the form proposed by Musk, differs from other [[Vactrain|vactrains]] by relying on residual air pressure inside the tube to provide lift from [[Aerofoil|aerofoils]] and propulsion by fans; however, many subsequent variants using the name "hyperloop" have remained relatively close to the core principles of vactrains.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garfield |first=Leanna |title=15 remarkable images that show the 200-year evolution of the Hyperloop |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/history-hyperloop-pneumatic-tubes-as-transportation-2017-8#in-1799-inventor-george-medhurst-proposed-an-idea-to-move-goods-through-cast-iron-pipes-using-air-pressure-in-1844-he-built-a-railway-station-for-passenger-carriages-in-london-that-relied-on-pneumatics-until-1847-1 |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 25, 2021 |title=Timeline: tracing the evolution of hyperloop rail technology - Rainway-Technology |url=https://rail.nridigital.com/future_rail_mar21/hyperloop_rail_system_timeline}}</ref>

Hyperloop was teased by Elon Musk at a 2012 speaking event, and described as a "fifth mode of transport".<ref name="PandoDaily Hyperloop">{{cite web |title=Pando Monthly presents a fireside chat with Elon Musk |url=https://pando.com/2012/07/12/pandomonthly-presents-a-fireside-chat-with-elon-musk/ |website=pando.com |publisher=PandoDaily |access-date=15 July 2017 |date=13 July 2012 |archive-date=16 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716135721/https://pando.com/2012/07/12/pandomonthly-presents-a-fireside-chat-with-elon-musk/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Musk released details of an alpha-version in a [[white paper]] on 22 August 2013, in which the hyperloop design incorporated reduced-pressure tubes with [[pressurized]] capsules riding on [[air bearing]]s driven by [[linear induction motor]]s and [[axial compressor]]s.<ref name="gm20130822" /> The white paper showed an example hyperloop route running from the [[Los Angeles]] region to the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], roughly following the [[Interstate 5 in California|Interstate 5]] corridor.<ref name="Alpha SpaceX" /> Some transportation analysts challenged the cost estimates in the white paper, with some predicting that a hyperloop would run several billion dollars higher.<ref name="NYT-Bilton" /><ref name="AJE" /><ref name="HuffPoAstronomical" />

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A [[Technical University of Munich]] hyperloop set a speed record of {{cvt|463|km/h|mph|0}} in July 2019<ref name=brde20210521/><ref name=verge20190722/> at the [[Hyperloop pod competition|pod design competition]] hosted by SpaceX in [[Hawthorne, California|Hawthorne]], California.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Etherington |first1=Darrell |title=Here's a first look at the SpaceX Hyperloop test track |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/02/heres-a-first-look-at-the-spacex-hyperloop-test-track/ |publisher=TechCrunch |date=2 September 2016 |access-date=25 November 2016 |archive-date=15 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915205721/https://techcrunch.com/2016/09/02/heres-a-first-look-at-the-spacex-hyperloop-test-track/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Virgin Hyperloop]] conducted the first human trial in November 2020 at its test site in [[Las Vegas]], reaching a top speed of {{cvt|107|mph|km/h|0|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/09/first-passengers-travel-in-virgins-levitating-hyperloop-pod-system |title=First passengers travel in Virgin's levitating hyperloop pod system |work=The Guardian |date=9 November 2020 |access-date=10 November 2020 |archive-date=10 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110032806/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/09/first-passengers-travel-in-virgins-levitating-hyperloop-pod-system |url-status=live}}</ref> Swisspod Technologies unveiled a 1:12 scale testing facility in a circular shape to simulate an "infinite" hyperloop trajectory in July 2021 on the EPFL campus at [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]].<ref name="epfl.ch"/> In 2023, a new European effort to standardize "hyperloop systems" released a draft standard.<ref name=cencenelec202301/>

[[Hyperloop One]], one of the best well-known and well-funded players in the hyperloop space, declared bankruptcy and ceased operations on 31 December 2023. Other companies continue to pursue hyperloop technology development.<ref name=hyperloopOneShutdown20231221/>

==History==

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|U.S.

|2016

|Defunct (2018)<ref>{{Cite web|last=O'Kane|first=Sean|date=December 14, 2018|title=Hyperloop startup Arrivo is shutting down as workers are laid off|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/14/18128848/hyperloop-arrivo-furloughs-layoffs-money-trouble|url-status=live|website=[[The Verge]]|access-date=25 March 2019|archive-date=25 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325075632/https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/14/18128848/hyperloop-arrivo-furloughs-layoffs-money-trouble}}</ref>

|Ended hyperloop development in November 2017 in favor of [[maglev]] transportation. Shut down in 2018.

|-

|[[DGWHyperloop]]

|India

|2015

|Active

|<ref>{{cite web |title=DGWHyperloop - India's Own Hyperloop |url=https://www.dgwhyperloop.in/ |website=www.dgwhyperloop.in |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-

|Hardt Hyperloop

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|2016

|Active

|<ref>{{cite web |title=Hardt Hyperloop |url=https://www.hardt.global/ |website=Hardt Hyperloop |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-

|Hyperloop Italia

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|2020

|Active

||Subsidiary of [[Hyperloop Transportation Technologies]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperloop Italia - Una nuova frontiera per la mobilità |url=https://hyperloopitalia.com/ |website=Hyperloop Italia |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-style="background-color:#CCC;

|[[Hyperloop One]]

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|2014

|Shut down (2023)

|Ended development of passenger travel in February 2022 to focus on freight.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-hyperloop-layoffs-passenger-travel-cargo-transport-2022-2 |title=Virgin Hyperloop lays off half of its employees as it pivots away from passenger travel |first=Yoonji |last=Han |work=Business Insider |___location=US |date=22 February 2022 |access-date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520091152/https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-hyperloop-layoffs-passenger-travel-cargo-transport-2022-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Shut down in December 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Kane |first=Sean |date=21 December 2023-12-21 |title=Hyperloop One is reportedly shutting down |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/12/21/hyperloop-one-shutting-down/ |access-date=2025-8-14 August 2025}}</ref>

|-

|[[Hyperloop Transportation Technologies]]

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|2013

|Active

|<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperloop Transportation Technologies |url=https://www.hyperlooptt.com/ |website=HyperloopTT |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-style="background-color:#CCC;

|[[Nevomo]]

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|2019

|Active

||<ref>{{cite web |title=Swisspod Our Story |url=https://www.swisspod.com/our-journey |website=www.swisspod.com |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-

|[[TransPod]]

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|2015

|Active

|<ref>{{cite web |title=Homepage |url=https://www.transpod.com/ |website=TransPod |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-

|Zeleros

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|2016

|Active

||<ref>{{cite web |title=Zeleros Hyperloop - Welcome to the future of transportation |url=https://zeleros.com/ |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|-

|TuTr Hyperloop

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|2022

|Active

||<ref>{{cite web |title=TuTr Hyperloop - Welcome to the TuTr Hyperloop |url=https://tutr.tech/ |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=August 2025}}

|}

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* [[Swissmetro]] was a proposal to run a maglev train in a low-pressure environment. Concessions were granted to Swissmetro in the early 2000s to connect the Swiss cities of St. Gallen, Zurich, Basel, and Geneva. Studies of commercial feasibility reached differing conclusions and the vactrain was never built.<ref name="swissmetro"/>

* [[ET3 Global Alliance]] (ET3) was founded by Daryl Oster in 1997 with the goal of establishing a global transportation system using passenger capsules in frictionless [[magnetic levitation|maglev]] full-vacuum tubes. Oster received interest from Elon Musk potentially investing in a {{convert|3|mi|km|0|adj=on}} prototype of ET3's proposed design.<ref name="denver20130809"/><ref name="futurist20131030"/>{{update after|2015|6|17}}

* In 2003 [[Franco Cotana]] led the development of Pipenet, with a {{convert|100|m|yd|abbr=on}}|adj=mid|-long}} {{convert|1.25|m|yd|abbr=on|adj=mid|-diameter}} diameter prototype system constructed in Italy in 2005, with a vision to use an evacuated tube for moving freight at up to {{convert|2000|kph|mph|abbr=on}} using linear synchronous motors and magnetic levitation. However development stopped after funding ceased.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hyperloop that never was |date=5 May 2021 |url=https://sifted.eu/articles/italy-deeptech-pipenet/ |publisher=Sifted |access-date=2021-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505172003/https://sifted.eu/articles/italy-deeptech-pipenet/ |archive-date=2021-05-05}}</ref>

* In August 2010, a vacuum-based maglev train able to move at {{convert|1000|km/h|mph|abbr=on|order=flip|round=50}} was proposed for China, projected to cost {{CNY|10–20 million|link=yes}} ({{US$|2.95 million}} at the August 2010 exchange rate) more per kilometer than regular high-speed rail.<ref name="engadgetsumohurd20100804"/> In 2018, a short {{convert|45|m|yd|abbr=on}} loop test track was completed to test some parts of the technology.<ref>{{cite news |title=China testing super-maglev train that runs at 1,000 km/h |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0311/c90000-9435653.html |access-date=2021-08-26 |publisher=People's Daily Online |date=11 March 2018 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024003226/http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0311/c90000-9435653.html |url-status=live}}</ref>