Cowboy and Montesquieu: Difference between pages

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[[Image:Charles Montesquieu.jpg|thumb|right|Montesquieu in 1728.]]

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'''Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu''' ([[January 18]], [[1689]] in Bordeaux – [[February 10]], [[1755]]), more commonly known as '''Montesquieu''', was a [[France|French]] social commentator and political thinker who lived during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of [[separation of powers]], taken for granted in modern discussions of [[government]] and implemented in many [[constitution]]s throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms [[feudalism]] and [[Byzantine Empire]].

== Biography ==

[[Image:ARTrussellCfullsize.jpg|300px|thumb|A classic vision of the American cowboy, as portrayed by [[Charles Marion Russell|C.M. Russell]].]]

A '''cowboy''' ([[Spanish Language|Spanish]]: '''''[[vaquero]]''''') tends [[cattle]] and [[horse]]s on cattle [[ranch]]es in [[North America|North]] and [[South America|South]] America. The cowboy is normally an [[animal]] [[herder]] most commonly in charge of the horses and/or cattle, whereas the [[Wrangler (profession)|wrangler]]'s work is more specific to horses. In addition to ranch work, some cowboys work in and participate in [[rodeo]]s, and many cowboys work only in the rodeo.

After having studied at the Catholic [[College of Juilly]], he married Jeanne de Latrigue, a Protestant who brought him a substantial dowry when he was 26. The next year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the title Baron de [[Montesquieu]] and [[Président à Mortier]] in the [[Parlement]] of Bordeaux. By that time, England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its [[Glorious Revolution]] (1688–89), and had joined with [[Scotland]] in the [[Union of 1707]] to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. And in 1715 the long-reigning [[King Louis XIV|Sun King]], Louis XIV died and was succeeded by the weaker and more feeble Louis XV. These national transformations impacted Montesquieu greatly; he would later refer to them repeatedly in his work.

==Origins==

Originally, the word "cowherd" (similar to "shepherd," a sheep herder) was used to describe a cattle herder, and referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent [[boy]], who usually worked on foot (riding required skills and investment in horses and equipment rarely available to or entrusted to a child, though in some cultures boys rode a [[donkey]] while going to and from pasture). This word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year A.D. 1000.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cowherd Definition of "Cowherd"]</ref> Herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of [[minor]]s in [[ancient history|Antiquity]], and still is in various [[third world]] cultures.

Soon afterwards he achieved literary success with the publication of his ''Lettres persanes'' (''[[Persian Letters]]'', 1721), a [[satire]] based on the imaginary correspondence of an [[Oriental]] visitor to [[Paris]], pointing out the absurdities of contemporary society. He next published ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''[[Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans]]'', 1734), considered by some scholars a transition from ''The Persian Letters'' to his master work. ''De l'Esprit des Lois'' (''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'') was originally published anonymously in [[1748]] and quickly rose to a position of enormous influence. In France, it met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Roman Catholic Church banned ''l'Esprit'' – along with many of Montesquieu's other works – in 1751 and included it on the papacy's notorious [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index]]. But from the rest of Europe, especially Britain, it received the highest praise.

The word "cowboy" first appeared in the English language about A.D. 1715–25,<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cowboy Definition of "cowboy"]</ref> and appears to be a direct English translation of ''vaquero.'' ("vaca" meaning "cow") This term thus developed after the [[Hacienda]] system of large land grants to private owners, usually for cattle [[ranch|ranches]], was established by the [[Spain|Spanish]] government, and along with it, the need for ''[[vaquero]]s'' or cowboys.

Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in America as a champion of British liberty (though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America.<ref>"The Relative Influence of European Writers on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought," ''American Political Science Review'' 78,1(March, 1984), 189-197.</ref> And following the American secession, Montesquieu remained a powerful influence on many of the [[United States|American]] Founders, most notably [[James Madison]] of [[Virginia]], the "Father of the Constitution." Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national government required the inclusion of a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.

As cattle [[ranch]]ing developed in the [[Iberian peninsula]] and later, in the [[Americas]], where the climate was dry and grass sparse, large herds of cattle required vast amounts of land in order to obtain sufficient [[forage]]. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could manage gave rise to the development of the horseback-mounted cowboy. Because of the time and physical ability needed to develop necessary skills, the cow "boy" was an adolescent or even a young man, (and, rarely, a few women) who began earning wages as soon as they had enough skill to be hired, (often as young as 12 or 13) and who, if not crippled by injury, might handle cattle or horses for the rest of his working life. Though the term became somewhat disassociated from age (the phrase "old cowboy" is not considered an [[oxymoron]]), the low wages and low social status of the job kept the term "boy" in use, though ultimately it became simply a label for the job itself, and even a term of pride.

Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through [[Europe]] including [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], spending a year in [[Italy]] and eighteen months in [[England]] before resettling in [[France]]. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in [[1755]]. He was buried in L'église [[Saint-Sulpice]] in Paris, France.

== Political views ==

On western ranches today, sole responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is not considered a job for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride [[horse]]s and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, usually under careful adult supervision. Such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities on the ranch that require a level of maturity and levelheadedness that is not generally expected of their urban peers.

Montesquieu's most radical work divided French society into three classes (or ''[[trias politica]]'', a term he coined): the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons. Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing: the sovereign and the administrative. The administrative powers were the [[legislative]], the [[executive (government)|executive]], and the [[judiciary]]. These should be separate from and dependent upon each other so that the influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination. This was radical because it completely eliminated the three ''Estates'' structure of the French Monarchy: the [[clergy]], the aristocracy, and the people at large represented by the [[Estates-General]], thereby erasing the last vestige of a [[feudalism|feudalistic]] structure.

Likewise, there were three main forms of government, each supported by a social "principle": [[monarchy|monarchies]] (free governments headed by a hereditary figure, e.g. king, queen, emperor), which rely on the [[Honour|principle of honor]]; [[republic]]s (free governments headed by popularly elected leaders), which rely on the [[Virtue|principle of virtue]]; and [[despot|despotisms]] (enslaved governments headed by [[dictator]]s), which rely on [[fear]]. The free governments are dependent on fragile constitutional arrangements. Montesquieu devotes four chapters of ''The Spirit of the Laws'' to a discussion of England, a contemporary free government, where liberty was sustained by a balance of powers. Montesquieu worried that in France the intermediate powers (i.e., the nobility) which moderated the power of the prince were being eroded.

==History==

[[Image:Cowboy.jpg|250px|thumb|American cowboy circa [[1887]]]]The Spanish invented what we now consider the cowboy tradition, beginning in [[medieval Spain]].

Like many of his generation, Montesquieu held a number of views that might today be judged controversial. While he endorsed the idea that a woman could head a government, he held that she could not be effective as the head of a family. He firmly accepted the role of a hereditary aristocracy and the value of [[primogeniture]]. His views have also been abused by modern [[Revisionism|revisionists]]; for instance, even though Montesquieu was ahead of his time as an ardent opponent of [[slavery]], he has been quoted out of context in attempts to show he supported it.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===Origins of the North American cowboy===

During the [[16th century]], the [[Conquistadors]] and other [[Spanish people|Spanish]] settlers brought their cattle-raising traditions and their horses, the ancestors of the "wild" [[Mustang (horse)|mustang]]s, with them to the [[New World]] through [[New Spain]] (later [[Mexico]]) and [[Florida]]. The mustangs are called "wild" but in reality these are [[feral horse]]s - descendants of domesticated animals.

One of his more exotic ideas, outlined in ''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'' and hinted at in ''Persian Letters'', is the [meteorological] climate theory, which holds that [[climate]] may substantially influence the nature of man and his society. He goes so far as to assert that certain climates are superior to others, the temperate climate of France being ideal. His view is that people living in very warm countries are "too hot-tempered," while those in northern countries are "icy" or "stiff." The climate of middle Europe is therefore optimal. On this point, Montesquieu may well have been influenced by similar statements in ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' by [[Tacitus]], one of Montesquieu's favorite authors.

Though popularly considered as an [[United States|American]] [[icon]], the traditional cowboy comes from a Hispanic tradition, which originated in the Central States of Mexico, [[Jalisco]] and [[Michoacán]], where the Mexican cowboy would eventually be known as a "[[charro]]". Historically, the northern parts of Mexico ([[Santa Fe de Nuevo México|New Mexico]]) originally included most of the territory of the American southwest, including [[Texas]] and [[California]].

==Notes==

===Development of different traditions in North America===

<references/>

Geography, climate and cultural traditions caused differences to develop in cattle-handling methods and equipment from one part of the continent to another. In the modern world, remnants of two major and distinct cowboy traditions remain, known today as the "[[Texas]]" tradition and the the "Spanish", "Vaquero", or "[[California]]" tradition. Less well-known but equally distinct traditions also developed in [[Hawaii]] and [[Florida]].

====Texas==Further reading==

{{French literature (small)}}

In the early [[1800s]], the Spanish crown, and later, independent [[Mexico]], offered [[empresario|''empresario'' grants]] in what would later be [[Texas]] to non-citizens, such as settlers from the [[United States]]. In [[1821]], [[Stephen F. Austin]] and his East Coast comrades became the first Anglo-Saxon community speaking Spanish. Following [[Texas Revolution|Texas independence]] in [[1836]], even more Americans immigrated into the ''empresario'' ranching areas of Texas. Here the settlers were strongly influenced by the Mexican ''vaquero'' culture, borrowing [[vocabulary]] and [[attire]] from their counterparts, but also retaining some of the livestock-handling traditions and culture of the Eastern [[United States]] and [[Great Britain]]. The Texas cowboy was typically a bachelor who hired on with different outfits from season to season.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vaquero ''from'' The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company:2000. Web site accessed January 19, 2007]</ref>

* Pangle, Thomas, ''Montesquieu’s Philosophy of Liberalism'' (Chicago: 1989 rpt.; 1973).

* Person, James Jr., ed. “Montesquieu” (excerpts from chap. 8) in ''Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800'', (Gale Publishing: 1988), vol. 7, pp. 350-52.

* Shackleton, Robert. ''Montesquieu; a Critical Biography''. (Oxford: 1961).

* Schaub, Diana J. ''Erotic Liberalism: Women and Revolution in Montesquieu's'' 'Persian Letters'. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995).

* Spurlin, Paul M. ''Montesquieu in America, 1760-1801'' (New York: Octagon Books, 1961).

== List of works ==

Following the [[American Civil War]], vaquero [[culture]] diffused eastward and northward, combining with the cow herding traditions of the eastern United States that evolved as settlers moved west. Other influences developed out of Texas as cattle trails were created to meet up with the [[railroad]] lines of [[Kansas]] and [[Nebraska]], in addition to expanding ranching opportunities in the [[Great Plains]] and [[Rocky Mountain Front]], east of the [[Continental Divide]].

* ''Les causes de l'écho'' (''The Causes of an Echo'')

* ''Les glandes rénales'' (''The Renal Glands'')

* ''La cause de la pesanteur des corps'' (''The Cause of Gravity of Bodies'')

* ''La damnation éternelle des païens'' (''The Eternal Damnation of the Pagans'', 1711)

* ''Système des Idées'' (''System of Ideas'', 1716)

* ''[[Lettres persanes]]'' (''Persian Letters'', 1721)

* ''Le Temple de Gnide'' (''The Temple of Gnide'', a novel; 1724)

* ''Arsace et Isménie'' (''(The True History of) Arsace and Isménie'', a novel; 1730)

* ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans'', 1734)

* ''[[De l'esprit des lois]]'' (''(On) The Spirit of the Laws'', 1748)

* ''La défense de «L'Esprit des lois»'' (''In Defence of "The Spirit of the Laws"'', 1748)

* ''Pensées suivies de Spicilège'' (''Thoughts after Spicilège'')

== See also ==

Thus, the Texas cowboy tradition thus arose from a combination of cultural influences, in addition to the need for adaptation to the geography and climate of west Texas and the need to conduct long cattle drives to get animals to market.

{{portalpar|Philosophy|Socrates.png}}

* [[Liberalism]]

* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]

* [[French Government]]

* [[Napoleon]]

== External links ==

====California====

{{wikiquote}}

The '''vaquero''', a type of Spanish or Mexican cowboy who worked with young, untrained horses, had flourished in [([California])] and bordering territories during the Spanish Colonial period. Settlers from the United States did not enter California until after the [[Mexican War]], and most early settlers were miners rather than livestock ranchers, leaving livestock-raising largely to the Spanish and Mexican people who chose to remain in California. The California vaquero or buckaroo, unlike the Texas cowboy, was considered a highly-skilled worker, who usually stayed on the same ranch where he was born or had grown up and raised his own family there. In addition, the geography and climate of much of California was dramatically different from that of Texas, allowing more intensive grazing with less open range, plus cattle in California were marketed primarily at a regional level, without the need (nor, until much later, even the logistical possibility) to be driven hundreds of miles to railroad lines. Thus, a horse- and livestock-handling culture remained in California and the Pacific Northwest that retained a stronger direct Spanish influence than that of Texas.

{{wikisource author|Montesquieu}}

* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Montesquieu&amode=words Free full-text works online]

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10536a.htm Montesquieu] in The Catholic Encyclopedia.

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montesquieu/ Montesquieu] in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

* [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/montesquieu.html Timeline of Montesquieu's Life]

<br clear=all>

Cowboys of this tradition were dubbed '''buckaroos''' by English-speaking settlers. The term ''buckaroo'' officially appeared in American English in 1889. It is believed to have originated as an anglicized version of ''vaquero'', dating at least to 1827 which itself originates in the Spanish word for cowherd, derived from ''vaca'' ('cow') (''Latin: vacca''). '''Buckaroo''' also contains derivations from "bucking", which is [[folk etymology]] for a [[horse behavior|behavior]] seen in some young horses. Vaquero itself also has elements of the [[Arabic]] term ''bakhara'', originating with the [[Islamic]] invaders of Spain from the [[8th century]]. The word is still used on occasion in the [[Great Basin]] and parts of California and, less often, in the [[Pacific Northwest]].

{{start box}}{{succession box|

title= [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 2|Seat 2]]<br>[[Académie française]] | years=1728&ndash;1755 |

before= [[Louis de Sacy]] |

after= [[Jean-Baptiste de Vivien de Châteaubrun]]

}}

{{Template:Enlightenment}}

====Florida Cowhunter====

[[Image:Remington A cracker cowboy.jpg|thumb|''A cracker cowboy''<br> artist: Frederick Remington.]]

The Florida "cowhunter" or "[[Florida cracker|cracker]] cowboy" of the 19th and early 20th centuries was distinct from the Texas and California traditions. Florida cowboys did not use [[lasso]]s to herd or capture cattle. Their primary tools were [[bullwhip]]s and dogs. Florida cattle and horses were small. The "cracker cow", also known as the "native cow", or "scrub cow" averaged about 600 pounds, had large horns and large feet.<ref>[http://origin.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/local/16631010.htm?source=rss&channel=miamiherald_local Tasker, Georgia. 2007. "Rancher preserves Florida's Cracker history". ''Miami Herald''. February 06, 2007.] Web site. Retrieved [[February 21]], [[2007]]</ref>

Since the Florida cowhunter didn't need a saddle horn for anchoring a [[lariat]], many did not use [[Western saddle]]s, instead using a [[McClellan saddle]]. While some individuals wore boots that reached above the knees for protection from [[snake]]s, others wore [[Brogan#Clothing|brogans]]. They usually wore inexpensive wool or straw hats, and used [[poncho]]s for protection from rain.<ref>Tinsley, Jim Bob. 1990. ''Florida Cow Hunter''. University of Central Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-0985-5 Pp. 42-3</ref>

Cattle and horses were introduced into Florida late in the [[16th century]]. Throughout the [[17th century]], cattle [[ranch]]es owned by [[Spanish people|Spanish]] officials and [[Mission (station)|missions]] operated in northern Florida to supply the Spanish garrison in [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] and markets in [[Cuba]].<ref>[http://www.prairiefriends.org/aboutPrairie/cultural.html Friends of Payne's Prairie: Spanish Florida] retieved [[February 21]], [[2007]]</ref> These ranches brought in some vaqueros from Spain, but many of the workers were [[Timucua]] Indians.<ref>[http://www.florida-agriculture.com/livestock/cracker_cattle.htm Florida Cracker Cattle and Cracker Horse Program] retrieved [[February 22]], [[2007]]</ref> Diseases and Spanish suppression of rebellions severely reduced the Timucua population, plus raids by soldiers from the [[Province of Carolina]] and their Indian allies reduced the Timucuas to a remnant and ended the Spanish ranching era by the beginning of the 18th century.

In the [[18th century]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Seminole]], and other Indian people moved into the former Timucua areas and started herding the cattle left from the Spanish ranches. In the [[19th century]], most tribes in the area were dispossessed of their land and cattle and pushed south or west by white settlers and the United States government. By the middle of the 19th century white ranchers were running large herds of cattle on the extensive open range of central and southern Florida. The hides and meat from Florida cattle became such a critical supply item for the [[Confederate States|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War]] that a "Cow Cavalry" was organized to round up and protect the herds from [[United States|Union]] raiders.<ref>[http://www.explorenaples.com/raid_on_gopher_ridge.php Raid on Gopher Ridge] retrieved [[February 21]], [[2007]]</ref> After the Civil War, Florida cattle were periodically driven to ports on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and shipped to market in [[Cuba]].<ref>Tinsley, Jim Bob. 1990. ''Florida Cow Hunter''. University of Central Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-0985-5 Pp. 47-51</ref>

====Hawaiian Paniolo====

The [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiian]] cowboy, the ''paniolo'', is also a direct descendant of the ''vaquero'' of California and Mexico. Experts in Hawaiian etymology believe "Paniolo" is a Hawaiianized pronunciation of ''español.'' (The [[Hawaiian language]] has no /s/ sound, and all [[syllables]] and words must end in a vowel.) Paniolo, like cowboys on the mainland of North America, learned their skills from Mexican ''vaqueros''.

By the early 1800s, Capt. [[George Vancouver|George Vancouver's]] gift of cattle to [[Pai`ea Kamehameha]], monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, had multiplied astonishingly, and were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. About [[1812]], John Parker, a sailor who had jumped ship and settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha to capture the wild cattle and develop a beef industry.

The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by [[hunger]] and [[thirst]], they were hauled out up a steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or [[Ox]]) that knew where the [[paddock]] with food and water was located. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha's son Liholiho ([[Kamehameha II]])

Later, Liholiho's son, Kauikeaouli ([[Kamehameha III]]), visited California, then still a part of Mexico. He was impressed with the skill of the Mexican vaqueros, and invited several to Hawai`i in [[1832]] to teach the Hawaiian people how to work cattle.

Even today, traditional paniolo dress, as well as certain styles of Hawaiian formal attire, reflect the Spanish heritage of the vaquero. The traditional Hawaiian saddle and many other tools of the cowboy's trade have a distinctly Mexican/Spanish look and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the names of the vaqueros who married Hawaiian women and made Hawai`i their home.

===End of the open range===

[[Image:Chinook2.gif|thumb|left|200px|''Waiting for a Chinook,'' by [[Charles Marion Russell|C.M. Russell]]. Overgrazing and harsh winters were factors that brought an end to the age of the Open Range.]]

By the 1890s, railroads had expanded to cover most of the nation, making long cattle drives from Texas to the railheads in [[Kansas]] unnecessary. The invention of [[barbed wire]] allowed cattle to be confined to designated acreage to prevent [[overgrazing]] of the range, which had resulted in widespread starvation, particularly during the harsh winter of 1886-1887. Hence, the age of the open range was gone and large [[Cattle drives in the United States|cattle drives]] were over. Smaller cattle drives continued at least into the 1940s, as ranchers, prior to the development of the modern cattle truck, still needed to herd cattle to local railheads for transport to [[stockyard]]s and packing plants. Meanwhile, ranches multiplied all over the developing West, keeping cowboy employment high, if still low-paid and somewhat more settled.

In the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], [[Western movie]]s popularized the cowboy lifestyle but also formed persistent [[stereotype]]s. In [[pop culture]], the cowboy and the [[gunslinger]] are often associated with one another. In reality, working ranch hands had very little time for anything other than the constant, hard work involved in maintaining a ranch. Likewise, cowboys are often shown fighting with [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]]. However, the reality was that, while cowboys were armed against both predators and human thieves, and often used their guns to run off people of any race who attempted to steal, or ''rustle'' cattle, nearly all actual armed conflicts occurred between Indian people and [[cavalry]] units of the [[U.S. Army]].

===Development of the modern cowboy===

Over time, the cowboys of the [[American West]] developed a personal culture of their own, a blend of [[frontier]] and [[Victorian era|Victorian]] values that even retained vestiges of [[chivalry]]. Such hazardous work in isolated conditions also bred a tradition of self-dependence and [[individualism]], with great value put on personal honesty, exemplified in their [[List of famous Cowboy songs|songs]] and [[cowboy poetry|poetry]].

Today, the Texas and California [[tradition]]s have merged to some extent, though a few regional differences in equipment and riding style still remain, and some individuals choose to deliberately preserve the more time-consuming but highly skilled techniques of the pure vaquero tradition. The popular "horse whisperer" style of [[natural horsemanship]] was originally developed by practitioners who were predominantly from California and the Northwestern states, clearly combining the attitudes and philosophy of the California vaquero with the equipment and outward look of the Texas cowboy.

==Cowboys in Canada==

Ranching in Canada has traditionally been dominated by one province, [[Alberta]]. The most successful early settlers of the province were the ranchers, who found Alberta's [[foothills]] to be ideal for raising cattle. Most of Alberta's ranchers were [[English Canadian|English]] settlers, but cowboys such as [[John Ware]] - who brought the first cattle into the province in [[1876 in Canada|1876]] — were American.<ref>[http://www.gov.ab.ca/home/index.cfm?Page=27 Government of Alberta - About Alberta - History]</ref> American style open range dryland ranching began to dominate [[southern Alberta]] (and, to a lesser extent, [[Saskatchewan]]) by the 1880s. The nearby city of [[Calgary]] became the centre of the Canadian cattle industry, earning it the nickname "Cowtown". The cattle industry is still extremely important to Alberta, and cattle outnumber people in the province. While cattle ranches defined by barbed wire fences replaced the open range just as they did in the US, the cowboy influence lives on. Canada's first rodeo, the [[Raymond Stampede]], was established in 1902. In 1912, the [[Calgary Stampede]] began, and today it is the world’s richest cash rodeo. Each year, Calgary’s northern rival [[Edmonton]], Alberta stages the [[Canadian Finals Rodeo]], and dozens of regional rodeos are held through the province.

==Cowboys of other nations==

In addition to the original Mexican ''vaquero'', the Mexican ''[[charro]]'', the North American cowboy, and the Hawaiian ''paniolo'', the Spanish also exported their horsemanship and knowledge of cattle ranching to the ''[[gaucho]]'' of [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]] and (with the spelling "gaúcho") southern [[Brazil]], the ''[[llanero]]'' of the ''llano'' (South American prairie-like plains, as in [[Venezuela]]), the ''[[huaso]]'' of [[Chile]], and, indirectly through the Americans, to [[Australia]]. In Australia, which has a large ranch ([[Station (Australian agriculture)|station]]) culture, cowboys are known as [[Stockman|stockmen]] and [[Drover (Australian)|drovers]] (with trainee stockmen referred to as ''jackaroos'' and ''jillaroos'').

The idea of [[equestrianism|horseback riders]] who guard herds of cattle, sheep or horses is common wherever wide, open land for grazing exists. In the French [[Camargue]], riders called "[[gardians]]" herd cattle. In [[Hungary]], the [[csikós]] guard horses. The herders in the region of [[Maremma]], in [[Tuscany]] ([[Italy]]) are called [[buttero]]s.

==Ethnicity of the traditional cowboy==

Much has been written about the racial mix of the cowboys in the West, but because cowboys ranked low in the [[social structure]] of the period, there are no firm figures. ''The Cattle on a Thousand Hills'' by [[John Ambulo]] in the March [[1887]] issue of ''The Overland Monthly'' states that cowboys are ''"... of two classes&mdash;those recruited from Texas and other States on the eastern slope; and Mexicans, from the south-western region. ..."''. [[Census]] records bear that out. The cowboy occupation also appealed to freed slaves following the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. It is estimated that about 15% of all cowboys were of African-American ancestry&mdash;ranging from about 25% on the trail drives out of Texas, to very few in the northwest. Similarly, cowboys of Mexican descent also averaged about 15%, but were more common in Texas and the southwest.

[[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]]s also found employment as cowboys. In fact, many early ''vaqueros'' were Indian people trained to work for the Spanish missions in caring for the mission herds. Later, particularly after 1890, when American policy promoted "assimilation" of Indian people, some Indian boarding schools also taught ranching skills to Indian youth. Today, some Native Americans in the western United States own cattle and small ranches, and many are still employed as cowboys, especially on ranches located near [[Indian Reservation]]s. The "Indian Cowboy" also became a commonplace sight on the [[rodeo]] circuit. [[Image:Indian students branding cattle.png|400px|thumb|Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho youths learning to brand cattle at the Seger Indian School, Oklahoma Territory, ca. 1900.]]

==Modern working cowboys==

[[Image:CattleDrive ColoradoUSA.jpg|thumb|200px|Cattle drive in [[Colorado]], USA]]

On the ranch, the cowboy is responsible for feeding the livestock, [[livestock branding|branding]] (marking) cattle and horses, and tending to injuries or other needs. They also move the livestock to different pasture locations, or herd them into corrals and onto trucks for transport. In addition, cowboys repair fences, maintain ranch equipment, and perform other odd jobs around the ranch. These jobs vary depending on the size of the ranch, the [[terrain]], and the number of livestock. On larger ranches, or on those with lots of cattle, a cowboy may specialize in one task or another. On smaller ranches with fewer cowboys&mdash;often just family members&mdash;the cowboy tends to be a generalist who can do almost any job. Cowboys who [[horse training|train horses]] often specialize in this task, and may [[horse breaking|"Break"]] or train horses for more than one ranch.

The [[Bureau of Labor Statistics|United States Bureau of Labor Statistic]]s collects no figures for cowboys, so the exact number of working cowboys is unknown. Cowboys are included in the [[2003]] category, ''Support activities for animal production'', which totals 9,730 workers averaging $19,340 per annum. In addition to cowboys working on ranches, in [[stockyard]]s, and as staff or competitors at [[rodeo]]s, the category includes farmhands working with other types of livestock ([[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[hog]]s, [[chicken]]s, etc.). Of those 9,730 workers, 3,290 are listed in the subcategory of ''Spectator sports'' which includes rodeos, [[circus]]es, and theaters needing livestock handlers.

===Attire===

Most cowboy attire, sometimes termed ''[[Western wear]]'', grew out of practical need and the environment in which the cowboy worked. Most items were adapted from the Mexican ''vaqueros''.

*[[Cowboy hat]]; a hat with a wide brim to protect from sun and vegetation, the sun and the elements; there are many styles, initially influenced by John B. [[Stetson]]'s "Boss of the Plains", a design blending elements of the Mexican [[sombrero]] and both Union and Confederate [[Cavalry]] hats of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] period.

*[[Cowboy boot]]s; a boot with a high top to protect the lower legs, pointed toes to help guide the foot into the [[stirrup]], and high heels to keep the foot from slipping through the stirrup while working in the saddle; with or without detachable [[spur]]s.

*[[Chaps]] protect the rider's legs while on horseback, especially riding through heavy brush or during rough work with livestock.

*[[Jeans]] or other sturdy, close-fitting trousers made of canvas or denim, designed to protect the legs and prevent the trouser legs from snagging on brush, equipment or other hazards. Properly made cowboy jeans also have a smooth inside seam to prevent blistering the inner thigh and knee while on horseback.

*[[Gloves]], usually of [[deerskin]] or other leather that is soft and flexible for working purposes, yet provides protection when handling barbed wire, assorted tools or clearing native brush and vegetation.

Many of these items show marked regional variations. Parameters such as hat brim width, or chap length and material were adjusted to accommodate the various environmental conditions encountered by working cowboys.

===Tools===

[[Image:Texascowboys2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Modern Texas cowboys. Note that their clothes are similar to those of the [[19th century]] cowboy above]]

*[[Lasso|Lariat]]; from the Spanish "la riata," meaning "the rope," a tightly twisted stiff rope with a loop at one end enabling it to be thrown to catch animals (sometimes called a ''lasso'', especially in the East, or simply, a "rope").

*[[Spur]]s; metal devices attached to the heel of the boot, featuring a small metal shank, usually with a small serrated wheel attached, used to allow the rider to provide a stronger (or sometimes, more precise) leg cue to the horse.

*[[Rifle]]; a firearm used to protect the livestock from predation by wild animals. A [[pistol]] might also be carried, especially when not physically working cattle. The modern American cowboy came to existence after the invention of [[gunpowder]], but cattle herders of earlier times were equipped with long sticks, [[bow (weapon)|bow]]s and sometimes [[lance]]s.

===Horses & equipment===

The traditional means of transport for the cowboy, even in the modern era, is on [[equestrianism|horseback]]. [[Horse]]s can traverse terrain vehicles cannot. Horses, along with [[mule]]s and [[burro]]s, also serve as pack animals. The most important horse on the ranch is the everyday working ranch horse; horses trained to specialize exclusively in skills such as [[calf roping|roping]] or [[cutting (sport)|cutting]] are very rarely used on ranches. Because the rider often needs to keep one hand free while working cattle, the horse must [[neck rein]] and have good ''cow sense''&mdash;it must instinctively know how to anticipate and react to cattle.

===The horse===

A good stock [[horse]] is on the small side, generally under 15.2 [[hand (measurement)|hands]] (62 inches) tall at the [[withers]] and under 1000 pounds, with a short back, sturdy legs and strong muscling, particularly in the hindquarters. While a [[team roping|steer roping]] horse may need to be larger and weigh more in order to hold a heavy adult [[cow]], [[bull]] or [[steer]], a smaller, quick horse is needed for herding activities such as [[cutting (sport)|cutting]] or [[calf roping]]. The horse has to be intelligent, calm under pressure and have a certain degree of 'cow sense" -- the ability to anticipate the movement and behavior of cattle.

Many breeds of horse make good stock horses, but the most common today is the [[American Quarter Horse]], which is a [[list of horse breeds|horse breed]] developed primarily in [[Texas]] from a combination of [[Thoroughbred]] bloodstock crossed on horses of [[Mustang (horse)|Mustang]] and other [[Iberian horse]] ancestry, with influences from the [[Arabian horse]] and horses developed on the east coast, such as the [[Morgan horse]] and now-extinct breeds such as the Chickasaw and Virginia Quarter-Miler.

===Horse equipment or tack===

{{Main|Horse tack}}

[[Image:Westernsaddle.jpg|thumb|a western saddle with saddle pad]]

Equipment used to ride a horse is referred to as ''[[horse tack|tack]]'' and includes:

*[[Western saddle]]; a saddle specially designed to allow horse and [[equestrianism|rider]] to work for many hours and to provide security to the rider in rough terrain or when moving quickly in response to the behavior of the livestock being herded. A western saddle has a deep seat with high [[saddle|pommel]] and [[saddle|cantle]] that provides a secure seat. Deep, wide [[stirrup]]s provide confort and security for the foot. A strong, wide [[saddle|saddle tree]] of wood, covered in rawhide (or made of a modern synthetic material) distributes the weight of the rider across a greater area of the horse's back, reducing the pounds carried per square inch and allowing the horse to be ridden longer without harm. A [[Western saddle|horn]] sits low in front of the rider, to which a [[lariat]] can be snubbed, and "saddle strings" allow additional equipment to be tied to the saddle.

*[[Saddle blanket]]; a blanket or pad is required under the Western saddle to provide comfort and protection for the horse.

*[[Bridle]]; a Western bridle usually has a [[curb bit]] and long split [[rein]]s to control the horse in many different situations. In some areas, especially where the "California" style of the ''vaquero'' tradition is still strong, young horses are often seen in a ''bosal'' style [[hackamore]].

* Saddle bags (leather or nylon) can be mounted to the saddle, to carry various sundry items and extra supplies.

* [[Martingale]]s, or "tiedowns" are occasionally seen on horses that have training or behavior problems.

===Vehicles===

The most common vehicle driven in modern ranch work is the [[pickup truck]]. Sturdy and roomy, with a high ground clearance, and often [[Four-wheel drive]] capability, it has an open box, called a "bed," and can haul supplies from town or over rough trails on the ranch. It is used to pull stock trailers transporting cattle and livestock from one area to another and to market. With a horse trailer attached, it carries horses to distant areas where they may be needed. Motorcycles are sometimes used, but the most common smaller vehicle is the [[All-terrain vehicle|four-wheeler]]. It will carry a single cowboy quickly around the ranch for small chores. In areas with heavy snowfall, [[snowmobile]]s are also common.

==Rodeo cowboys==

The word ''rodeo'' is from the Spanish ''rodear'' (to turn), which means ''roundup''. In the beginning there was no difference between the working cowboy and the [[rodeo]] cowboy, and in fact, the term ''working cowboy'' did not come into use until the 1950s. Prior to that it was assumed that all cowboys were working cowboys. Early cowboys both worked on ranches and displayed their skills at the roundups.

The advent of professional rodeos allowed cowboys, like many [[athlete]]s, to earn a living by performing their skills before an audience. Rodeos also provided [[employment]] for many working cowboys who were needed to handle livestock. Many rodeo cowboys are also working cowboys and most have working cowboy experience.

The dress of the rodeo cowboy is not very different from that of the working cowboy on his way to town. Snaps, used in lieu of buttons on the cowboy's shirt, allowed the cowboy to escape from a shirt snagged by the horns of [[steer]] or [[Cattle|bull]]. Styles were often adapted from the early movie industry for the rodeo. Some rodeo competitors, particularly women, add sequins, colors, silver and long fringes to their clothing in both a nod to tradition and showmanship. Modern riders in "rough stock" events such as [[saddle bronc]] or [[bull riding]] may add safety equipment such as [[kevlar]] vests or a neck brace, but use of safety helmets in lieu of the cowboy hat is yet to be accepted, in spite of constant risk of injury.

==Cowgirls==

[[Image:Russellrodeocowgirlonabuckinghorse.gif|thumb|left|200px|"Rodeo Cowgirl" by [[Charles Marion Russell|C.M. Russell]].]][[Image:FannieSperrySteele.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fannie Sperry Steele, Champion Lady Bucking Horse Rider, Winnipeg Stampede, 1913]] The history of women in the west, and women who worked on cattle ranches in particular, is not as well documented as that of men. However, institutions such as the [[National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame]] have made significant efforts in recent years to gather and document the contributions of women.<ref>[http://www.cowgirl.net Cowgirl Hall of Fame Website]</ref>

There are few records mentioning girls or women driving cattle up the cattle trails of the Old West, even though women undoubtedly helped on the ranches, and in some cases (especially when the men went to war) ran them. There is little doubt that women, particularly the wives and daughters of men who owned small ranches and could not afford to hire large numbers of outside laborers, worked side by side with men and thus needed to ride horses and be able to perform ranch work. The largely undocumented contributions of women to the west were acknowledged in law; the western states led the [[United States]] in granting women the right to vote, beginning with [[Wyoming]] in [[1869]].<ref>[http://www.history.com/tdih.do?action=tdihArticleCategory&id=4363 "This Day in History 1869: Wyoming grants women the vote"]</ref>

Following the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], [[Charles Goodnight]] developed a western-styled [[side-saddle]] that allowed women to ride horses while fashionably dressed. The traditional ''charras'' of [[Mexico]] preserve a similar tradition and ride side-saddles today while exhibiting superb horsemanship in ''[[charreada]]s'' on both sides of the border.

It wasn't until the advent of the Wild West shows that cowgirls came into their own. Their riding, expert marksmanship, and trick roping entertained audiences around the world. Women such as [[Annie Oakley]] became household names. By 1900, skirts split for riding astride, allowing women to compete with the men without scandalizing Victorian Era audiences by wearing men's clothing or, worse yet, [[bloomers]]. In the movies that followed, women expanded their roles in the popular culture and movie designers developed attractive clothing suitable for riding Western saddles.

The growth of the [[rodeo]] brought about another type of cowgirl&mdash;the rodeo cowgirl. In the early Wild West shows and rodeos, women competed in all events, sometimes against other women, sometimes with the men. Performers such as [[Fannie Sperry Steele]] rode the same "rough stock" and took the same risks as the men (and all while wearing a heavy split skirt that was still more encumbering than men's trousers) and gave show-stopping performances at major rodeos such as the [[Calgary Stampede]] and [[Cheyenne Frontier Days]].<ref>[http://www.historynet.com/culture/womens_history/3026886.html?page=1&c=y McKelvey Puhek, Lenore. "Fannie Sperry Made the Ride of Her Life"]</ref>

Competition for women changed after 1925 when Eastern promoters started staging indoor rodeos in places like Madison Square Garden. Women were generally excluded from the men's events and many of the women's events were dropped. In today's rodeos, men and women compete equally together only in the event of [[team roping]], though technically women today could enter other open events. There also are all-women rodeos where women compete in [[bronc riding]], [[bull riding]] and all other traditional rodeo events. However, in open rodeos, cowgirls compete in the timed riding events such as [[barrel racing]], and most professional rodeos do not offer as many women's events as men's events.

Boys and Girls are more apt to compete against one another in all events in high-school rodeos as well as [[Gymkhana|O-Mok-See]] events, where even boys can be seen competing in barrel racing. Outside of the rodeo, women compete equally with men in nearly all other [[equestrianism|equestrian]] events, including the [[Equestrian at the Summer Olympics|Olympics]], and [[western riding]] events such as [[cutting (sport)|cutting]], [[reining]], and [[endurance riding]].

Today's cowgirls generally use clothing indistinguishable from that of men, other than in color and design, usually preferring a flashier look in competition. Sidesaddles are only seen in exhibitions and a limited number of specialty [[horse show]] classes.

A cowgirl wears jeans, close-fitting shirts, boots, hat and when needed, chaps and gloves. If working on the ranch, they perform most of the same chores as cowboys and dress to suit the situation.

==Synonyms ==

Other names for a cowboy in American English include ''cowpoke, cowhand, cowherd, and cowpuncher''.

The term "cowpuncher" was especially popular with cowboys who worked in the [[Cherokee Strip]] since they were entitled to join the Cherokee Strip Cowpunchers Association which was organized in 1920.

A [[ranch]]er who owns land and livestock is often referred to as a "cattleman," or less often, "cowman."

==Popular culture==

In today's society, there is little understanding of the daily realities of actual agricultural life. Cowboys are more often associated with (mostly fictitious) Indian-fighting than with their actual life of [[ranch]] work and cattle-tending. Actors such as [[John Wayne]] are thought of as exemplifying a cowboy ideal, even though [[Western (genre)|western movies]] seldom bear much resemblance to real cowboy life. Arguably, the modern [[rodeo]] competitor is much closer to being an actual cowboy, as many were actually raised on ranches and around livestock, and the rest have needed to learn livestock-handling skills on the job.

However, in the United States and the Canadian West, as well as [[Australia]], [[dude ranch]]es offer people the opportunity to ride horses and get a taste of the western life--albeit in far greater comfort. Some dude ranches also offer vacationers the opportunity to actually "play" cowboy by participating in cattle drives or accompanying [[wagon train]]s. This type of [[vacation]] was popularized by the 1991 movie ''[[City Slickers]],'' starring [[Billy Crystal]].

===Regional identification===

The long history of the West in popular culture tends to define those clothed in Western clothing as cowboys or cowgirls whether they have ever been on a horse or not. This is especially true when applied to entertainers and those in the public arena who wear western wear as part of their persona.

However, many people, particularly in the West, wear elements of Western clothing, particularly [[cowboy boot]]s or hats, as a matter of form even though they have other jobs, up to and including lawyers, bankers, and so on. Conversely, some people raised on ranches do not necessarily define themselves cowboys or cowgirls unless they also compete in rodeos or feel their primary job is to work with livestock.

Actual cowboys and westerners in general tend to value personal honesty and have derisive expressions for individuals who adopt cowboy mannerisms as a fashion pose without any actual understanding of the culture. For example, a "drugstore cowboy" means someone who wears the clothing but cannot actually ride anything but the stool of the [[drugstore]] [[soda fountain]]--or, in modern times, a [[bar stool]]. The phrase, "all hat and no cattle," is used to describe someone (usually male) who boasts about himself, far in excess of any actual accomplishments. The word "dude" (or the now-[[archaic]] term "greenhorn") indicates an individual unfamiliar with cowboy culture, especially one who is trying to pretend otherwise.

===Cowboy symbolism===

Outside of the West, the cowboy became an archetypal symbol of American individualism. In the late [[1950s]], a [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] youth subculture calling themselves the [[Bills]] based their style and outlook on [[Hollywood]]'s depiction of cowboys in movies. Something similar occurred with the term "[[Apache]]," which in early twentieth century [[Paris|Parisian]] society was a slang term for an outlaw.

The state of [[Wyoming]]'s nickname is ''The Cowboy State''.

===Negative associations===

Worldwide, the term "cowboy" can be used as an adjective in a derogatory sense to describe someone who is violent, impulsive, or who behaves in a hot-headed and rash manner. For example, [[TIME Magazine]] had a cover article about [[George W. Bush]]'s "Cowboy Diplomacy," and Bush has been described in European newspapers as a "cowboy."

In the [[British Isles]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], it is applied to [[tradesman|tradesmen]] whose work is of shoddy and questionable value, e.g., "a cowboy [[plumber]]". Similar usage is seen in the United States to describe someone in the skilled trades who operates without proper training or licenses. In the eastern United States, the term is sometimes used to describe a fast or careless driver on the highway.

==In art and culture==

*Fashion: [[Western wear]], [[Rhinestone Cowboy]]

*Film: [[Western movie|Western]], [[List of Western movies]]

*Fine art: [[Frederic Remington]], [[Charles Russell]], [[Earl W. Bascom]], [[Cowboy Artists of America]]

*Literature: [[Western fiction]], [[List of Western fiction authors]], [[Cowboy poetry]]

*Music: [[Western Music (North America)|Western Music]], [[Western swing]], [[List of famous Cowboy songs]]

*Television: [[TV Western]]

*Sports: [[Cowboy action shooting]], [[Rodeo]], [[Indian rodeo]], [[Charreada]]

==See also==

*[[Herding]]: [[Buttero]], [[Drover]], [[Goatherd]] [[Shepherd]], [[Transhumance]].

*[[Ranching]]: [[Station (Australian agriculture)|Station]].

**[[Barbed wire]]

**[[Livestock branding]]

**[[Texas longhorn (cattle)|Longhorn cattle]], [[Mustang (horse)|Mustang]]

*[[Rodeo]]:

**Men's Events: [[bull riding]], [[bareback bronc|bareback bronc riding]], [[saddle bronc|saddle bronc riding]], [[calf roping]], [[steer roping]], [[steer wrestling]], [[team roping]].

**Women's Events: [[barrel racing]], [[breakaway roping]], [[goat roping]], [[pole bending]].

**[[Charreada]]: [[Charro]].

*[[Cowboy church]]

*[[Vaqueiros de alzada]] (Asturian pastoral population)

===Additionally===

*[[American West]]

*[[American Old West]]

*[[Audition (performing arts)]] also known as a "Cattle Call."

*[[List of cowboys and cowgirls]]

==Footnotes==

<References/>

==Further reading==

*Beck, Warren A., Haase, Ynez D.; ''Historical Atlas of the American West''. University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma, 1989. ISBN 0-8061-2193-9

*Jordan, Teresa; ''Cowgirls: Women of the American West''. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8032-7575-7

*Nicholson, Jon. ''Cowboys: A Vanishing World''. Macmillan, 2001. ISBN 0-333-90208-4

*Phillips, Charles; Axlerod, Alan; editor. ''The Encyclopedia of the American West''. Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996. ISBN 0028974956

*Roach, Joyce Gibson; ''The Cowgirls ''. University of North Texas Press, 1990. ISBN 0-929398-15-7

*Slatta, Richard W. ''The Cowboy Encyclopedia''. ABC-CLIO, California, 1994. ISBN 0-87436-738-7

*Ward, Fay E.; ''The Cowboy at Work: All About His Job and How He Does It''. University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma, 1987. ISBN 0-8061-2051-7

<!--Categories-->

==Sources and external links==

[[Category:1689 births|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.truecowboy.com/ American Cowboy Information] - History, facts, and current trends.

[[Category:1755 deaths|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.kaahelehawaii.com/pages/culture_paniola.htm ''Na Paniola Pipi'' &ndash; The Hawaiian Cowboy]

[[Category:18th century philosophers|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=cowboy&searchmode=none Etymology OnLine] & [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=vaquero&searchmode=none]

[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=cowpuncher WordNet, Princeton University]

[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.imdb.com/find?s=kw&q=cowboy IMDb references to cowboys in screen productions]

[[Category:French nobility|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.jimwegryn.com/Names/Cowboys.htm A list of famous cowboy names.]

[[Category:French philosophers|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.mysabah.com/2005_tamu-besar/horsemen/ The Cowboys of Borneo]

[[Category:Liberalism|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.nationalcowboymuseum.org/index.html National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum]

[[Category:Members of the Académie française|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.cowgirl.net Cowgirl Hall of Fame Website]

[[Category:Philosophers of law|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://www.wrca.org/ Working Ranch Cowboys Association]

[[Category:Political philosophers|Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de]]

*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0814_030815_cowboys.html Vaqueros: The First Cowboys of the Open Range] ''National Geographic News'' article on the origins of the American cowboy

*[http://www.thethomasranch.com/thomas_ranch_037.htm "Cowboy Myths and realities"]

*[http://www.blackamericanwest.org/ Black American West Museum Denver, Colorado]

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