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The '''Winter War''' (also known as the Russo-Finnish War) broke out when the [[Soviet Union]] attacked [[Finland]] on [[November 30]], [[1939]], three months after the start of [[World War II]]. As a consequence, the Soviet Union was expelled from the [[League of Nations]] on [[December 14]]th. [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]] had expected to conquer the whole country by the end of 1939, but Finnish resistance frustrated the Soviet forces, which outnumbered them three to one. Finland held out until March [[1940]], when a peace treaty was signed ceding about 10% of Finland's territory, and 20% of her industrial capacity, to the Soviet Union.

[[Image:Charles Montesquieu.jpg|thumb|right|Montesquieu in 1728.]]

'''Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu''' ([[January 18]], [[1689]] in Bordeaux – [[February 10]], [[1755]]), more commonly known as '''Montesquieu''', was a [[France|French]] social commentator and political thinker who lived during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of [[separation of powers]], taken for granted in modern discussions of [[government]] and implemented in many [[constitution]]s throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms [[feudalism]] and [[Byzantine Empire]].

== Biography ==

:"''We gained 57,000 km² [22,000 square miles] of territory. Just enough to bury our dead.''" – a Soviet General

After having studied at the Catholic [[College of Juilly]], he married Jeanne de Latrigue, a Protestant who brought him a substantial dowry when he was 26. The next year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the title Baron de [[Montesquieu]] and [[Président à Mortier]] in the [[Parlement]] of Bordeaux. By that time, England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its [[Glorious Revolution]] (1688–89), and had joined with [[Scotland]] in the [[Union of 1707]] to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. And in 1715 the long-reigning [[King Louis XIV|Sun King]], Louis XIV died and was succeeded by the weaker and more feeble Louis XV. These national transformations impacted Montesquieu greatly; he would later refer to them repeatedly in his work.

Franco-British preparations for support of Finland through northern [[Scandinavia]] (the [[Allied campaign in Norway]]), intended to occupy the [[Swedish iron ore (WWII)|Northern Scandinavia with its iron ore mines]] at the same time, became a strong reason for [[Nazi Germany]]'s invasion of [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] within a month after the war ([[Operation Weserübung]]). Furthermore, it has been persuasively argued that the poor showing of the Soviet forces had a significant effect on [[Adolf Hitler]]'s decision to attack the Soviet Union in [[1941]] ([[Operation Barbarossa]]).

Soon afterwards he achieved literary success with the publication of his ''Lettres persanes'' (''[[Persian Letters]]'', 1721), a [[satire]] based on the imaginary correspondence of an [[Oriental]] visitor to [[Paris]], pointing out the absurdities of contemporary society. He next published ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''[[Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans]]'', 1734), considered by some scholars a transition from ''The Persian Letters'' to his master work. ''De l'Esprit des Lois'' (''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'') was originally published anonymously in [[1748]] and quickly rose to a position of enormous influence. In France, it met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Roman Catholic Church banned ''l'Esprit'' – along with many of Montesquieu's other works – in 1751 and included it on the papacy's notorious [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index]]. But from the rest of Europe, especially Britain, it received the highest praise.

== Background ==

Finland had a long history of being a part of the [[Sweden|Swedish kingdom]] when it was conquered by [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] in [[1808]]. <!--The conquest was in 1808, occupation and local resistance was the history of 1808 and 1809, the war lasted until 1809, the territory was ceded in a peace treaty of 1809 - and the resistance ended. --> Following the end of [[World War I]], and the revolution that brought Soviet power to government in Russia, Finland had declared itself independent on [[December 6]], [[1917]]. The German&ndash;Finnish ties remained close, although Finnish sympathy for the [[National Socialist]]s was very sparse. These strong ties were founded when Finland's underground independence movement during the [[First World War]] was supported by [[German Empire|Imperial Germany]]. In the subsequent [[Finnish Civil War|Civil War]] Germany-trained [[Finnish Jaeger troops]] and regular German troops played a crucial role. Only Germany's defeat in World War I hindered the establishment of a Germany-dependent [[monarchy]] under [[Väinö I of Finland]].

Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in America as a champion of British liberty (though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America.<ref>"The Relative Influence of European Writers on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought," ''American Political Science Review'' 78,1(March, 1984), 189-197.</ref> And following the American secession, Montesquieu remained a powerful influence on many of the [[United States|American]] Founders, most notably [[James Madison]] of [[Virginia]], the "Father of the Constitution." Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national government required the inclusion of a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.

The relationship between the Soviet Union and Finland was tense and frosty&mdash;both the two periods of forced [[Russification of Finland|russification]] at the turn of the century, and the legacy of the failed [[Civil War in Finland|socialist rebellion in Finland]] contributed to a strong mutual distrust. [[Josef Stalin]] feared that Nazi Germany would attack sooner or later, and was keen to avoid a German attack on [[Leningrad]] (now: Saint Petersburg) via Finnish territory. In [[1932]], the Soviet Union signed a [[non-aggression pact]] with Finland. The agreement was reaffirmed in [[1934]] for ten years.

Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through [[Europe]] including [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], spending a year in [[Italy]] and eighteen months in [[England]] before resettling in [[France]]. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in [[1755]]. He was buried in L'église [[Saint-Sulpice]] in Paris, France.

== Political views ==

Nazi Germany <!-- the state and/or government, not the country, hence "Nazi Germany" or possibly "the Third Reich" --> and the Soviet Union had signed a mutual non-aggression pact, the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], on [[August 23]], [[1939]]. The pact also included a secret clause allocating the countries of [[Eastern Europe]] between the two signatories. Finland was agreed to be in the Soviet "[[sphere of interest]]". The German attack on [[Poland]], [[September 1]]st, was followed by a Soviet invasion from the east. In a few weeks they had divided the country between them. The countries in the neighbourhood realized their fate could be the same. During the fall of 1939 Stalin demanded that Finland and the [[Baltic countries]] allow the Soviet Union to set up military bases on their soil - supposedly for defensive purposes. The Finnish government felt it had little alternative but to refuse Stalin's demands; on [[November 30]] the Soviets attacked with 23 divisions of 450,000 men who quickly reached the [[Mannerheim Line]]. The war was based on a bogus border incident - the so-called [[Shelling of Mainila]] where Soviet artillery fired on their own soldiers, blaming it on the Finns. While the claims have never been considered credible by the Finns, they were only recently proved false by formerly classified documents.

Montesquieu's most radical work divided French society into three classes (or ''[[trias politica]]'', a term he coined): the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons. Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing: the sovereign and the administrative. The administrative powers were the [[legislative]], the [[executive (government)|executive]], and the [[judiciary]]. These should be separate from and dependent upon each other so that the influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination. This was radical because it completely eliminated the three ''Estates'' structure of the French Monarchy: the [[clergy]], the aristocracy, and the people at large represented by the [[Estates-General]], thereby erasing the last vestige of a [[feudalism|feudalistic]] structure.

Likewise, there were three main forms of government, each supported by a social "principle": [[monarchy|monarchies]] (free governments headed by a hereditary figure, e.g. king, queen, emperor), which rely on the [[Honour|principle of honor]]; [[republic]]s (free governments headed by popularly elected leaders), which rely on the [[Virtue|principle of virtue]]; and [[despot|despotisms]] (enslaved governments headed by [[dictator]]s), which rely on [[fear]]. The free governments are dependent on fragile constitutional arrangements. Montesquieu devotes four chapters of ''The Spirit of the Laws'' to a discussion of England, a contemporary free government, where liberty was sustained by a balance of powers. Montesquieu worried that in France the intermediate powers (i.e., the nobility) which moderated the power of the prince were being eroded.

A [[puppet regime]] was created in the occupied Finnish border town of [[Terijoki]] (now Zelenogorsk) on [[December 1]], 1939, under the auspices of the [[Finnish Democratic Republic]] and headed by [[Otto Ville Kuusinen]] for both diplomatic purposes (it immediately became the only government for Finland that was recognized by the Soviet Union) and for military ones (it was hoped to cause [[socialist]]s in Finland's Army to [[defect]]). It was not particularly successful. This republic existed until [[March 12]], [[1940]], and was eventually incorporated with the Russian [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]].

Like many of his generation, Montesquieu held a number of views that might today be judged controversial. While he endorsed the idea that a woman could head a government, he held that she could not be effective as the head of a family. He firmly accepted the role of a hereditary aristocracy and the value of [[primogeniture]]. His views have also been abused by modern [[Revisionism|revisionists]]; for instance, even though Montesquieu was ahead of his time as an ardent opponent of [[slavery]], he has been quoted out of context in attempts to show he supported it.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

== The War ==

Initially Finland had a mobilized army of only 160,000 men, but the Finnish troops turned out to be a fierce adversary employing [[guerrilla]] tactics, fast-moving [[skiing|ski]] troops in white [[camouflage]] suits, and capitalizing on their local knowledge. A certain improvised [[petrol bomb]] adapted from the [[Spanish Civil War]] was used with great success, and gained fame as the ''[[Molotov cocktail]].'' The conditions of the winter 1939/40 were harsh; temperatures of -40[[Celsius|°C]] were not unusual, and the Finns were able to use this to their advantage.

One of his more exotic ideas, outlined in ''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'' and hinted at in ''Persian Letters'', is the [meteorological] climate theory, which holds that [[climate]] may substantially influence the nature of man and his society. He goes so far as to assert that certain climates are superior to others, the temperate climate of France being ideal. His view is that people living in very warm countries are "too hot-tempered," while those in northern countries are "icy" or "stiff." The climate of middle Europe is therefore optimal. On this point, Montesquieu may well have been influenced by similar statements in ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' by [[Tacitus]], one of Montesquieu's favorite authors.

In addition, to the surprise of both the Soviet leadership and the Finns, it turned out that the majority of the Finnish [[Socialist]]s did not support the Soviet invasion but fought alongside their compatriots against the common enemy. Many Finnish [[Communist]]s had moved to the Soviet Union in the [[1930s]] to "build Socialism," only to end up as victims of Stalin's [[Great Purges]], which led to widespread disillusion and even open hatred of the Soviet regime among Socialists in Finland. This partial healing of the wounds and rifts after the Civil War in Finland ([[1918]]), and [[Finland's language strife]], is still referred to as "the Spirit of the Winter War," although it should also be noted that many communists were not allowed to fight in Finland's [[conscription]] army because of their political background.

==Notes==

Soviet arrogance and/or incompetence was an important factor. The attackers weren't expecting much of a struggle, and due to Stalin's purges, the commanders of the Red Army had suffered 80% peacetime losses. These were commonly replaced by people less competent but more pleasing to their superiors, and tactics which were obsolete by [[World War One]] were sometimes witnessed. Tactics were strictly "by the book," as a failed initiative otherways carried a high risk of execution. The Soviet army was also far less well prepared for winter warfare, particularly in forests, and heavily used vulnerable motorized vehicles. The so-called "Raatteentie Incident," during the month-long [[Battle of Suomussalmi]], where one Soviet division was defeated after marching on a forest road straight into an ambush with vastly outnumbered Finnish soldiers, is still used in military academies as an example of what ''not'' to do.

<references/>

==Further reading==

The Finnish equipment shortage is also worth noting. At the beginning of the war, only those soldiers who had been receiving basic training had uniforms and weapons. The rest had to make do with their own clothing with a semblance of insignia added and, in some cases, with their own guns. These mismatched "uniforms" were nicknamed "Model Kajander" after the Prime Minister [[Aimo Cajander]]. The Finns tried to alleviate the shortages by making extensive use of the equipment, weapons and ammunition captured from the enemy.

{{French literature (small)}}

Fortunately, the army had not changed the [[caliber]] of its weapons after independence and was able to use Soviet ammunition.

* Pangle, Thomas, ''Montesquieu’s Philosophy of Liberalism'' (Chicago: 1989 rpt.; 1973).

* Person, James Jr., ed. “Montesquieu” (excerpts from chap. 8) in ''Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800'', (Gale Publishing: 1988), vol. 7, pp. 350-52.

* Shackleton, Robert. ''Montesquieu; a Critical Biography''. (Oxford: 1961).

* Schaub, Diana J. ''Erotic Liberalism: Women and Revolution in Montesquieu's'' 'Persian Letters'. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995).

* Spurlin, Paul M. ''Montesquieu in America, 1760-1801'' (New York: Octagon Books, 1961).

== ForeignList supportof works ==

* ''Les causes de l'écho'' (''The Causes of an Echo'')

World opinion at large supported the Finnish cause. The World War hadn't really begun yet, for the time being the Winter War was the only real fight going on, on which the world's interest was focused. The Soviet aggression was generally deemed totally unjustified. Various foreign organizations sent material aid, such as medical supplies. Finnish immigrants in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] returned home, and many volunteers travelled to Finland (one of them actor-to-be [[Christopher Lee]]) to join Finland's forces: 1,010 [[Denmark| Danes]], 695 [[Norway |Norwegians]], 372 [[Ingria]]ns, 346 Finnish [[expat]]s, and 210 volunteers of other nationalities made it to Finland before the war was over. Foreign correspondents in [[Helsinki]] wrote, and even greatly exaggerated, reports of supposed Finnish ingenuity and successes in combat.

* ''Les glandes rénales'' (''The Renal Glands'')

* ''La cause de la pesanteur des corps'' (''The Cause of Gravity of Bodies'')

* ''La damnation éternelle des païens'' (''The Eternal Damnation of the Pagans'', 1711)

* ''Système des Idées'' (''System of Ideas'', 1716)

* ''[[Lettres persanes]]'' (''Persian Letters'', 1721)

* ''Le Temple de Gnide'' (''The Temple of Gnide'', a novel; 1724)

* ''Arsace et Isménie'' (''(The True History of) Arsace and Isménie'', a novel; 1730)

* ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans'', 1734)

* ''[[De l'esprit des lois]]'' (''(On) The Spirit of the Laws'', 1748)

* ''La défense de «L'Esprit des lois»'' (''In Defence of "The Spirit of the Laws"'', 1748)

* ''Pensées suivies de Spicilège'' (''Thoughts after Spicilège'')

== See also ==

Sweden, that had declared herself as a [[non-belligerent]] and not a [[neutral country]], as in the war between [[Nazi Germany]] and the Western Powers, contributed with military supplies, cash, credits, humanitarian aid and some 8,700 Swedish volunteers prepared to die for Finland. Maybe most significant was the [[Swedish Voluntary Air Force (Winter War)|Swedish Voluntary Air Force]], in action from [[January 7]], with 12 fighters, 5 bombers, and 8 other planes, amounting to a third of the Swedish Air Force of that time. Volunteer pilots and mechanics were drawn from the ranks. The renowned aviator Count [[Carl Gustav von Rosen]], related to [[Hermann Göring]], volunteered independently. There was also a volunteering work force, of about 900 workers and engineers.

{{portalpar|Philosophy|Socrates.png}}

* [[Liberalism]]

* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]

* [[French Government]]

* [[Napoleon]]

== External links ==

The [[Swedish Volunteer Corps (Winter War)|Swedish Volunteer Corps]] with 8,402 men in Finland, and with the only common volunteers who had finished training before the war ended, started to relieve five Finnish [[battalion]]s at Märkäjärvi in mid-February. Together with three remaining Finnish battalions, the corps faced two Soviet [[division (military)|division]]s and were preparing for an attack by mid-March, that was inhibited by the peace. 33 men died in action, among them the commander of the first relieving unit, [[Army officer ranks| Leutenant Colonel]] Magnus Dyrssen. The Swedish volunteers remain a focus of dissonance between Swedes and Finns. The domestic debate in Finland had in the years immediately before the war given the Finns hopes for considerably more support from Sweden, notably large regular troops, that could have had a significant impact on the outcome of the war &mdash; or possibly made the Russians to never attack. As such a more substantial support was expected, Finnish evaluation of gifts, credits and volunteers from Sweden tend to be made on the foundation of deep and bitter disappointment.

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author|Montesquieu}}

* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Montesquieu&amode=words Free full-text works online]

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10536a.htm Montesquieu] in The Catholic Encyclopedia.

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montesquieu/ Montesquieu] in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

* [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/montesquieu.html Timeline of Montesquieu's Life]

<br clear=all>

Already within a month, the Soviet leadership began to consider abandoning the operation, but Finland's government was reached by a preliminary peace offer (via Sweden's government) first in the end of January. Until then, Finland had factually fought for its existence. When credible rumours reached the governments in Paris and London, the incentives for military support were dramatically changed. Now Finland fought "only" to keep as much as possible of her territory in Leningrad's neighbourhood. But of course the public could know nothing about this &mdash; neither in Finland, nor abroad. For public opinion, Finland's fight remained a life and death struggle.

{{start box}}{{succession box|

title= [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 2|Seat 2]]<br>[[Académie française]] | years=1728&ndash;1755 |

[[Image:Lapland1940.png|right|frame|Franco-British support was offered on the condition it was given free passage through [[neutral country|neutral]] [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] instead of taking the road from [[Petsamo]]. The reason was a wish to occupy the iron ore districts in [[Kiruna]] and [[Malmberget]].<br><small>(Borders as of 1920&ndash;1940.)</small>]]

before= [[Louis de Sacy]] |

In February 1940 the [[Allies]] offered to help. 100,000 troops were to disembark at the [[Norway| Norwegian]] port of [[Narvik]] and allegedly support Finland via Sweden. However, only a small fraction was intended for Finland. Suspicions that the objective of the operation was to capture and occupy the Norwegian shipping harbour of Narvik and the [[Swedish iron ore (WWII)|North-Swedish iron ore fields]], in order to halt export to Germany, and fear of thereby becoming the battle ground for the armies of [[the Allied]] and the Third Reich, caused Norway and Sweden to deny transit. After the war it became known that the commander of the Allied expedition force actually was instructed to avoid combat contact with the Soviet troops.

after= [[Jean-Baptiste de Vivien de Châteaubrun]]

}}

France and Britain promised to send 20,000 men to arrive by the end of February, under the condition that on their way to Finland they were given opportunity to occupy the vast mountainous areas in Northern Sweden from where the Third Reich received a large share of the iron ore critical for the war production. Proposals to enter Finland directly, via the ice-free harbour of [[Petsamo]], were dismissed.

The Swedish government, headed by Prime Minister [[Per Albin Hansson]], declined to allow transit of armed troops through Swedish territory. Although Sweden had not declared herself neutral in the Winter War, she was neutral in the war between France and Britain on one side and the Third Reich and the Soviet Union on the other. Granting transit rights to a Franco-British corps were considered too great a diversion from international laws on neutrality.

The Swedish Cabinet also [[Sweden and the Winter War| decided to reject]] repeated pleas from the Finns for regular Swedish troops to be deployed in Finland, and in the end the Swedes also made it clear that their support in arms and munitions could not be maintained for much longer. Diplomatically, Finland was squeezed between Allied hopes for a prolonged war and [[Scandinavia]]n fears of a continued war spreading to neighbouring countries (or of the surge of refugees that might result from a Finnish defeat). Also from [[Wilhelmstrasse]] distinct advice for peace and concessions arrived &mdash; the concessions "could always later be mended."

By the end of February, Finland's [[Commander-in-Chief]], [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim| Field Marshal Mannerheim]], was pessimistic about the military situation, which is why the government on [[February 29]] decided to start peace negotiations. That same day, the Soviets commenced an attack against [[Vyborg]].

When France and Britain realized that Finland was seriously considering a peace treaty, they gave a new offer for help: 50,000 men were to be sent, if Finland asked for help before March 12. But actually, only 6,000 of these would have been destined for Finland. The rest was intended to secure northern [[Scandinavia]] and the North-Swedish iron ore fields.

== Armistice ==

By the end of the winter it became clear that the Russians had had enough, and German representatives suggested that Finland should negotiate with the Soviet Union. Russian casualties had been high and the situation was a source of political embarrassment for the Soviet regime. With the spring thaw approaching, the Russian forces risked becoming bogged down in the forests, and a draft of peace terms were presented to Finland on [[February 12]]. Not only the Germans were keen to see an end to the Winter War, but also the Swedes, who feared a collapse in Finland. As Finland's Cabinet hesitated in face of the harsh Soviet conditions, Sweden's King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustaf V]] made a [[statsrådsdiktamen by Gustaf V|public statement]], in which he confirmed to have <!-- it was already officially confirmed by a bulletine signed by the primeminister, that the Cabinet had done so, the issue was if the King could be persuaded by a strong public opinion to put a personal mark on Sweden's foreign politics, which had been done only rarely since 1864, and not at all after World War I. By the King's unprecedented statement, formally a dictation to the minutes of the Privy Council, the issue was sat in stone - and the public opinion muted. --> declined Finnish pleas for support by regular troops.

By the end of February, the Finns had depleted their ammunition supplies. Also, the Soviet Union had finally succeeded in breaking through the previously impenetrable [[Mannerheim Line]], against which they suffered most of their casualties. Finally on [[February 29]] the Finnish government agreed to start negotiations. An armistice was signed on [[March 6]], 1940, although fighting continued sporadically. After four months of fighting, at least 140,000 Russian soldiers had lost their lives[http://www.winterwar.com/War%27sEnd/casualti.htm#dead]. Finnish losses had been limited to around 20,000 men, but peace still came at a high price for the Finns.

== Peace of Moscow ==

In the [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty]] of [[March 12]] Finland was forced to cede the Finnish part of [[Karelia]] (with Finland's industrial center, including Finland's second largest city [[Vyborg|Viipuri]], in all nearly 10% of the territory), even though large parts still were held by Finland's army. Some 422,000 Karelians, 12% of Finland's population, lost their homes. Military troops and remaining civilians were hastily evacuated to avoid becoming subjects of the Soviet Union.

Finland also had to cede a part of the [[Salla]] area, the [[Kalastajansaarento peninsula]] in the [[Barents Sea]] and four islands in the [[Gulf of Finland]]. The [[Hanko Peninsula]] was also leased to the Soviet Union as a military base for 30 years.

The Finns were shocked by the harsh peace terms. It seemed as if more territory was lost in the peace than in the war. Sympathy from world opinion, and from the Swedes in particular, seemed to have been of little worth. For better or worse, the harsh terms drove the Finns to seek support from the Third Reich and made many Finns regard revenge as justified.

Only a year later hostilities resumed in the [[Continuation War]].

== Major battles ==

*[[Battle of Suomussalmi]], ([[December 8]], [[1939]] - [[January 7]], [[1940]])

*[[Battle of Tolvajärvi]], ([[December 12]], [[1939]])

*[[Battle of Honkaniemi]], ([[February 26]] [[1940]])

== See also ==

*[[Finnish Army (1939)]]

*[[Continuation War]]

*[[Finlandization]]

*[[List of Finnish wars]]

*[[Lotta Svärd]]

*[[Mannerheim Line]]

*[[Carl Gustav von Rosen]]

{{Template:Enlightenment}}

==External links==

* [http://www.letton.ch/lvx_39sdn.htm USSR expulsion from League of Nations]

*[http://www.hkkk.fi/~yrjola/war/finland/intel/ Finnish Radio Intelligence during World War II]

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