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=[[Esercito romano della media repubblica]] da Wiki.en=
== Army structure ==
=== Legionary infantry ===
==== Organization ====
The normal size of a legion in this period was 4,200 infantry, of which 3,000 was heavily armed and 1,200 ''velites'' (plus 200-300 cavalry). In times of emergency, a legion of 5,000 infantry could be levied, of which 3,800 would be heavy infantry.<ref name="Polybius VI.20"/> However, Polybius and Livy also mention legions of 6,000 infantry.<ref name="Wallbank 1957 702"/> This has led Roth to conclude that Republican legions were variable in size, depending on circumstances when they were raised.<ref>Roth (1998)</ref> The heavy infantry of the earlier legion was organised into 30 ''[[centuria]]e'' units of 100 men each. The subdivisions in the mid-republican period were called [[maniple (military unit)|maniple]]s (''manipuli'', from ''manus'' = "hand"). There were 10 maniples in each of the three lines that a legion was drawn up in for battle: ''hastati'', ''principes'' and ''triarii'', for a total of 30 maniples in each legion. The maniples of the front two lines contained twice as many men (120) as those in the rear line (60).<ref name="Polybius VI.20"/> If the legion numbered 5,000 men, the maniples in the front lines were increased to 160 men each.<ref name="Polybius VI.21">Polybius VI.21</ref> Membership of each line was determined by age-group: the ''hastati'' contained the younger men (up to 25 years old); the ''principes'' those in the 26-35 group; and the ''triarii'' the older men (36-46).<ref name="Polybius VI.21"/>
Each maniple was commanded by 2 [[centurion]]s (''centuriones'', literally "leaders of 100 men"), one senior (''prior''), one junior (''posterior''), who were elected by the unit's members.<ref name="Polybius VI.24">Polybius VI.24</ref> Centurions were paid double the rate of their men (i.e. 4 ''obols'', or two-thirds of a ''drachma'' per day).<ref name="Polybius VI.39"/> Each centurion would then appoint a deputy (''[[optio]]''), whose role was to supervise the rear of the unit in action, while the centurions led from the front.<ref name="Polybius VI.24"/> In addition, each maniple included 2 ''[[signifer]]i'' (standard-bearers), appointed by the centurions, and at least one ''[[tubicen]]'' (trumpeter).<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003"/>
The presence of two centurions and two standard-bearers in each maniple has led many historians to assume that a maniple contained two ''centuriae'', the basic unit of the earlier Roman army. In this scenario, the ''centuriae'' of the front two ranks would contain 60 men each.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 27</ref> But Polybius makes clear that the maniple was the smallest tactical unit in the army. It was in some cases, smaller than the later cohort<ref>Polybius VI.35</ref> Furthermore, the sources are clear that a maniple possessed only one ''[[signum]]{{dn|date=November 2013}}'', or standard.<ref>Varro ''Ling.'' V.88</ref> Indeed, ''signum'' was used as an alternative name for ''manipulus''.<ref name="Polybius VI.24"/> Thus, the role of the maniple's second ''signifer'' was presumably to act as a substitute for the first if the latter fell in combat.<ref>Wallbank (1957) 707</ref> This is how Polybius explains the presence of two centurions in each maniple, emphasizing that the senior one was in command of the maniple.<ref name="Polybius VI.24"/> Furthermore, if each maniple contained two ''centuriae'', the ''centuriae'' of the ''triarii'' would contain only 30 men each, improbably few for a unit that was nominally 100-strong. Thus, it is possible that ''centuriae'' did not exist in this period and were wholly replaced by maniples.
==== Equipment ====
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Detail from the Ahenobarbus relief showing (centre-right) two Roman foot-soldiers ca. 122 BC. Note the [[Montefortino helmet|Montefortino-style helmet]]s with horsehair plume, chain-mail cuirasses with shoulder reinforcement, oval shields with calfskin covers, ''gladius'' and ''pilum'']]
[[File:Légionnaire romain Ier siècle av JC.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Colour sketch of a Roman infantryman as shown in the Ahenobarbus relief]]
[[File:Helmet typ Montefortino 01.jpg|thumb|right|The bowl of a Montefortino-type helmet, which was used by Roman infantry between ca. 300 BC and the 1st century AD. The cheek-guards are missing, although their hinges are visible. The knob on the top was used to hold black plumes]]
[[File:Cogotas-II (dagas)-Segunda Edad del Hierro.jpg|thumb|right|Drawing of one of the earliest known exemplars of the ''gladius'' design, from the Cogotas II culture of Iron Age Iberia (ca. 700 BC). Note the blade's characteristic narrowing "waist"]]
===== Body armour =====
Chain-mail cuirasses (known then simply as the ''lorica'') offered superior protection to bronze and was more flexible and easy to wear. Mail was, however, heavier and more expensive to manufacture. The mail cuirasses worn seem to have had a double thickness on the shoulders for extra protection against downward cuts.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2000">Goldsworthy (2000)</ref> Polybius states that only those soldiers rated over 10,000 ''drachmae'' (i.e. the First Class of commoners) wore a mail-shirt, while the rest wore a ''pectorale'', or small, square breastplate designed to protect the heart.<ref name="Polybius VI.23">Polybius VI.23</ref> However, this is highly unlikely. The First Class at this time served mainly in the cavalry, so this would imply that only a tiny minority of heavy infantrymen wore mail. This would also result in different armour within the same ranks. As the Ahenobarbus monument shows all foot soldiers in mail armour, it would appear that by c. 120 BC at the latest, mail was standard issue.
===== Helmets =====
Polybius does not describe in detail the helmets of heavy infantry. However, the Ahenobarbus friezes and archaeological discoveries show that the [[Montefortino helmet|"Montefortino" type]] was prevalent. This was made of bronze, and only protected the face with cheek-guards, so as not to obstruct soldiers' vision, hearing, breathing and shouting-range. According to Polybius, the foot-soldier adorned his helmet with three tall black or purple plumes to look taller and more awesome to the enemy.<ref name="Polybius VI.23"/> Other helmet types used was an Italian version of the [[Corinthian helmet]]. The latter had a face-guard with two eye-holes which could be lifted off the face when out of combat. But the Romans did not like face-guards, because they obstructed soldiers' senses. In the Italo-Corinthian helmet, the face-guard was worn off the face at all times, although the eye-holes were retained for decoration. Also used were [[Attic helmet|Attic-type helmets]], which were popular in Italy because they left the face unobstructed.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 30</ref>
===== Shield =====
The heavy infantry shield (''scutum'') was a long oval in shape and convex, made of two layers of wood glued together, with canvas and calf-skin covers and an iron boss at the centre.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003"/> This provided very good overall protection and the boss could be used as a weapon, to be smashed in the face of the enemy.<ref>Polybius XVIII.30</ref>
===== ''Pilum'' =====
Polybius states that the three lines of heavy infantry were equipped with similar weapons and shields, save that the ''triarii'' were armed with a heavy thrusting-spear (''hasta''), while the ''hastati'' and ''principes'' held two ''pila'' (throwing-javelins, singular form: ''pilum''), one heavy, the other light.<ref name="Polybius VI.23"/> The ''pilum'' was a type of heavy javelin designed for launch at short range (15m or less). It consisted of a wooden shaft with a long shank with barbed point affixed to one end, either attached by rivets or socketed into the shaft itself. The weapon thus had great penetrative power, as its weight, unusually high for a javelin, was channeled into a tiny point. It was designed to punch through an enemy's shield and penetrate the shield-bearer's body behind it. If successful, the enemy would be pinned to his shield and placed ''hors de combat''. Even if the bearer was not struck, the barb on the ''pilum'' point would prevent him from removing it from his shield, rendering it useless.<ref name="Bishop & Coulston 2006 48"/>
Modern reconstruction of the heavy ''pilum'' according to Polybius' specifications has shown that it would have weighed some 8.5 kg, far too heavy to be of any practical use as a throwing-weapon. The light ''pilum'' would have weighed a more serviceable 2.2 kg.<ref>Wallbank (1957) 705</ref> The ''pilum'' used during the earlier period was not as sophisticated as the fully developed weapon used in the later Republic: it did not feature lead counterweights or a buckling shank until around 150 BC.<ref>Fields (2009) 28</ref>
===== ''Gladius'' =====
The few exemplars of Republican ''gladii'' found show that these were significantly longer (and heavier) than those of the imperial period.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003 29"/> Typical blade-length was 60–68 cm, compared to 45–55 cm in the 1st century AD. This made the early ''gladius'' suitable for use by cavalry as well as infantry. The characteristic shape of the ''gladius'' blade, narrowing in the middle to provide greater balance and stabbing-force, was more pronounced in the Republican than imperial types. Although stabbing remained the preferred method of combat for the Romans, as it was far more likely to result in fatal wounds than slashing, the advantage of the ''gladius'' over the Italic sword-types previously used by the Romans were that it could be used for slashing (with both edges) as well as more effective stabbing.<ref>Vegetius I.11</ref>
The ''gladius'' was made of the best-quality steel then available, the ''[[Noric steel|chalybs Noricus]]'', celebrated in Roman times, from the region of [[Noricum]] (Austria). The strength of iron is determined by its [[carbon]] content (the higher the content, the stronger the metal). The [[wrought iron]] produced in the Greco-Roman world generally contained only minimal traces of carbon and was too soft for tools and weapons. It thus needed to be [[carburisation|carburised]] to at least 1.5% carbon content. The main Roman method of achieving this was to repeatedly heat the wrought iron to a temperature of over 800 C (i.e. to "white heat") and hammer it in a [[charcoal]] fire, causing the iron to absorb carbon from the charcoal.<ref>Healy (1978) 231</ref> This technique had been developed empirically, as there is no evidence that ancient iron producers understood the chemistry involved. The rudimentary methods of carburisation used rendered the quality of the iron ore critical to the production of good steel. The ore needed to be rich in [[manganese]] (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), but also to contain very little, or preferably zero, [[phosphorus]], whose presence would compromise the steel's hardness.<ref name="Buchwald 2005 124">Buchwald (2005) 124</ref> The ore mined in [[Noricum|Carinthia]] (S. Noricum) fulfills both criteria to an unusual degree.<ref>Buchwald (2005) 115</ref> The Celtic peoples of Noricum (predominantly the [[Taurisci]] tribe) empirically discovered that their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and established a major steel-making industry around it.<ref>Healy (1978) 236</ref> At [[Magdalensberg]], a major production and trading centre was established, where a large number of specialised blacksmiths crafted a range of metal products, especially weapons. The finished products were mostly exported southwards, to [[Aquileia]], a Roman colony founded in 180 BC.<ref name="Buchwald 2005 124"/>
From 200 BC onwards, it appears that the tribes of Noricum were gradually united in a native Celtic kingdom, known to the Romans as the ''regnum Noricum'', with its capital at an uncertain ___location called Noreia. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing a reliable supply of high-quality weapons and tools in return for Roman military protection. Although there was no formal treaty of military alliance, the Norici could count on Roman military support, as demonstrated in 113 BC, when a vast host of [[Teutones]] invaded Noricum. In response to a desperate appeal by the Norici, the Roman consul [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 113 BC)|Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]] rushed an army over the Alps and attacked the Germans near [[Battle of Noreia|Noreia]] (although, in the event, he was heavily defeated).<ref>Appian 13</ref>
The ''gladius'' was structurally robust, very light for its size and superbly balanced, possessed razor-sharp blades and strong triangular point. It could wreak fearsome carnage: Livy relates the reaction of the Macedonians to the results of an early cavalry skirmish in the [[Second Macedonian War|2nd Macedonian War]] (200-197 BC): " The Macedonians were used to the relatively limited wounds caused by arrows and spears, as their traditional enemies were Greeks and Illyrians. When they saw the horrendous injuries inflicted with the Spanish sword - arms hacked off at the shoulder, heads entirely severed, bellies ripped open and guts hanging out - they realised the kind of weapons and the sort of enemy that they were up against, and a wave of fear spread through their ranks."<ref>Livy XXXI.34</ref>
The light infantry (''velites'') wore no armour over their tunics. They wore a light helmet, probably of leather, covered by an animal-skin such as a wolf-skin, according to Polybius, and a small round shield (''[[Parma (shield)|parma]]''). They carried light javelins and a sword.<ref>Polybius VI.22</ref>
==== Tactics ====
For set-piece battles, in contrast the single massed line of the [[Early Roman army]] phalanx, the heavy infantry were usually drawn up in three lines (''triplex acies''). However, the vast majority of the heavy infantry (2,400 out of 3,000) were stationed in the front two lines, the ''hastati'' and ''principes''. These lines contained were the younger recruits who were expected to do all the fighting. The rear line (''triarii''), was a reserve consisting of 600 older men who formed a line of last resort to provide cover for the front lines if they were put to flight (and also to prevent unauthorised retreat by the front ranks). It is thus more accurate to describe the Roman battle-line as a double-line (''duplex acies'') with a small third line of reserve. It is this double line that constituted the most significant change from the previous single-line phalanx. The three lines of maniples were drawn up in a [[chessboard]] pattern (dubbed ''quincunx'' by modern historians, after the Latin for the "5" on a dice-cube, whose dots are so arranged).<ref>fields (2007) 42</ref> In front of the heavy infantry, would be stationed the legion's 1,200 ''velites''. It appears that the ''velites'' were not members of the maniples. But for the purposes of battle, they were divided into 10 companies of 120 men, each under the command of a senior centurion of ''hastati''.<ref name="Polybius VI.24"/>
The replacement, for the two front lines, of the thrusting-spear with the thrown ''pilum'' implies a shift to a different tactic by the heavy infantry. The phalanx of spearmen was replaced by ranks of sword-fighters armed with javelins.
In the mid-Republican army, the central tactic was a shock infantry-charge, designed to put the enemy to flight as quickly as possible. ''Hastati'' legionaries would advance at a measured pace towards the enemy line. When the gap was only around 15m, each successive line of ''hastati'' would fling their two ''pila'', draw their swords and break into a run, yelling their war-cry and charging into the enemy line. Smashing the enemy in the face with their shield-bosses, legionaries would use their ''gladii'' to stab the enemy in the groin, belly, or face, inflicting fatal wounds in the great majority of cases.<ref>Fields (2007) 42</ref> Where the enemy was tribal and unarmoured, the initial impact alone frequently resulted in the collapse of the enemy line. Against advanced enemies such as the Greeks, the initial impact would at least disrupt the enemy line and, in the ensuing melee, the Romans would benefit from their improved weaponry.
=== ''Alae'' infantry ===
The ''socii'' were summoned to arms by a message from the Consuls, ordering each ally to deliver a specified number of troops to a specified assembly-place (one ___location for each consular army) by a set deadline.<ref name="Polybius VI.21"/> At the assembly-point, where the legions would also muster, the allied troops would be allocated to an ''ala'' and placed under the command of Roman officers.<ref name="Polybius VI.26">Polybius VI.26</ref> Each Consul would then arrive from Rome to assume command of their army.<ref name="Polybius VI.26"/>
=== Cavalry ===
[[Image:Sg0542.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Roman coin issued during the [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC) showing (obverse) the god of war [[Mars]] and (reverse) probably the earliest image of a Roman cavalryman of the Republican era. Note helmet with horsehair plume, long spear (''hasta''), small round shield (''parma equestris''), flowing mantle. Bronze ''[[Quincunx (Roman coin)|quincunx]]'' from [[Larinum]] mint]]
==== Levy and conditions of service ====
The legionary cavalry during this period was drawn exclusively from the two wealthiest classes, the Order of Knights and the First Property Class of commoners. The latter had started to be admitted to cavalry service when the knights were no longer sufficiently numerous to satisfy the needs of the cavalry. This may have occurred as early as 400 BC, and certainly by the time of the Samnite Wars, when the normal levy of Roman cavalry was doubled to 1,200 (4 legions' contingent). According to Mommsen, First Class ''iuniores'' were all eventually required to join the cavalry.
As for infantry, pay was introduced for cavalrymen around 400 BC, set at a ''drachma'' per day, triple the infantry rate. Cavalrymen were liable to call-up for a maximum of 10 campaigns up to age 46.
The Second Punic War placed unprecedented strains on Roman manpower, not least on the Order of Knights and the First Class of commoners which provided the cavalry. During Hannibal's apocalyptic march through Italy (218-216 BC), thousands of Roman cavalrymen were killed in the field. The losses were especially serious for the equestrian order, which also provided the army's senior officers. Livy relates how, after Cannae, gold rings (a badge of knightly rank), recovered from the corpses of Roman knights formed a pile one ''modius'' (about 9 litres) large.<ref>Livy XXIII.12</ref> In the succeeding years 214-203 BC, the Romans kept at least 21 legions in the field at all times, in Italy and overseas, with a Roman cavalry requirement of 6,300.<ref name="Brunt 1971 418">Brunt (1971) 418</ref> This would have required the depleted ranks of knights to provide at least 252 senior officers (126 ''tribuni militum'', 63 ''decuriones'' and 63 ''praefecti sociorum''), plus the army commanders (Consuls, Praetors, Quaestors, proconsuls, etc.). It was probably from this time that knights became largely an officer-class, while legionary cavalry was henceforth provided mainly of commoners of the First Class.
==== Organisation ====
Each Polybian legion contained a cavalry contingent of 300 horse, which does not appear to have been officered by an overall commander.<ref name="Polybius VI.20"/> The cavalry contingent was divided into 10 ''[[turma]]e'' (squadrons) of 30 men each. The squadron members would elect as their officers 3 decurions, of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron's commander and the other two as his deputies.<ref name="Polybius VI.25">Polybius VI.25</ref> In addition, each allied ''ala'' contained 900 horse, three times the size of the legionary contingent. The allies would thus supply three-quarters of a consular army's cavalry.<ref name="Polybius VI.20"/>
==== Equipment ====
Legionary cavalry underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius.<ref name="Polybius VI.25"/> It appears that until c. 200 BC, Roman cavalrymen wore bronze breastplates, but after that time, chain-mail became standard, with only officers retaining a breastplate.<ref name="Polybius VI.23"/> Most cavalrymen carried a spear (''[[hasta (spear)|hasta]]'') and the cavalry version of the small, round shield (''parma equestris''). However, it appears that in the late 2nd century BC, some cavalrymen carried long lances (''[[contus]]''), which would be held in both hands, precluding a shield.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 161</ref>
==== Campaign record ====
There is a persistent view among some historians that the Romans of this period were inept at horsemanship and that their cavalry was simply a token adjunct to their far superior infantry. Indeed, some authors have even claimed that Roman cavalry preferred to fight on foot whenever possible, on the basis of a few incidents in which cavalry dismounted to assist their hard-pressed infantry colleagues.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 155-7</ref> Against this, Sidnell argues that this view is misguided and that the record shows that Roman cavalry were a formidable force which won a high reputation for skill and valour in numerous battles of the 3rd century BC.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 155-71</ref>
Roman cavalry of the Republican period specialised in the shock charge, followed by close melee combat.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 152</ref> Examples include the [[Battle of Sentinum]] (295 BC), in which the cavalry played a crucial role in the Romans' crushing victory over an enormous combined army of Samnites and Gauls. On the left wing, the Romans twice drove back the more numerous and highly rated Gallic cavalry with spirited frontal charges, but pursued too far and became entangled in a melee with the enemy infantry. This gave the Gauls the opportunity to unleash on the Roman cavalry their [[chariot]] forces, whose unfamiliar deep rumbling noise panicked the Roman horses and resulted in a chaotic Roman flight. However, on the right, the Roman cavalry routed the Samnite infantry with a devastating charge on their flank.<ref>Livy X.28-9</ref> At [[Battle of Heraclea|Heraclea (280 BC)]], the Roman cavalry dismayed the enemy leader king Pyrrhus by gaining the advantage in a bitterly contested melee against his [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] professional cavalry, then regarded as the finest in the world, and were only driven back when Pyrrhus deployed his elephants, which panicked the Roman horses.<ref>Plutarch ''Pyrrhus'' 15-17</ref> At [[Battle of Telamon|Telamon]] (225 BC), the Roman cavalry hotly contested a strategic hill on the flank of the battlefield with more numerous Gallic cavalry. In what developed as a separate cavalry battle before the main infantry engagement began, the Gauls were eventually driven off the hill by repeated Roman charges, enabling the Roman horse to launch a decisive flank attack on the Gallic foot.<ref>Polybius II.27-8, 30</ref> On the eve of the Second Punic War, therefore, Roman cavalry was a prestigious and much feared force.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 170-1</ref>
A key reason for some historians' disparagement of the Roman cavalry were the crushing defeats, at the [[Battle of the Trebia|Trebia]] and at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]], that it suffered at the hands of the Carthaginian general [[Hannibal]] during the latter's invasion of Italy (218-6 BC). But Sidnell points out these reverses were not due to poor performance by the Romans, who fought with their customary courage and tenacity, but to the Hannibalic cavalry's far superior numbers and the operational flexibility afforded by his Numidian light cavalry.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 171-87</ref> Hannibal's already powerful cavalry (6,000 men) that he brought over the Alps, consisting of Spanish cavalry and Numidian light, was swollen by the adherence of most of the Gallic tribes of northern Italy, who provided an additional 4,000, bringing his horse up to 20% of his total force.<ref>Polybius III.114</ref> At Cannae, 6,000 Roman horse (including Italian confederates) faced 10,000 Carthaginians, and on the Roman right wing, the Roman cavalry of 2,400 was probably outnumbered by more than 2 to 1 by Hannibal's Spaniards and Gauls. It is on this wing that the Roman disaster at Cannae was determined, as the Roman cavalry were overwhelmed and broken. In the words of Polybius: "As soon as the Spanish and Celtic horse on the (Carthaginian) left wing came into contact with the Roman cavalry... the fighting which developed was truly barbaric... Once the two forces had met they dismounted and fought on foot, man to man. Here the Carthaginians finally prevailed, and although the Romans resisted with desperate courage, most of them were killed..."<ref>Polybius III.115 (Penguin Classics translation, 1979 ed.)</ref> The fact that the Romans dismounted has been used to support the thesis of a Roman cavalry that lacked confidence in its horsemanship and was in reality just a mounted infantry. But since the Carthaginian cavalry also dismounted, Livy's explanation is more credible, that fighting on horseback was impractical in the confined space between the right flank of the Roman infantry and the river Aufidus.<ref>Livy XXII.47</ref>
One reason for Hannibal's cavalry superiority was greater numbers. Whereas the Roman/Italian cavalry constituted about 12% of a confederate army, Carthaginian and Gallic cavalry were around 20% of their respective forces. It also became evident to the Romans that their exclusive reliance on heavy shock cavalry was insufficiently flexible. In addition to superior numbers, Hannibal's cavalry superiority was primarily based on his formidable light Numidian horse. Numidians rode their small but tough horses bareback, without bridles and unarmoured. They were armed simply with a few javelins and a light leather shield.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 172</ref> They were exceptionally fast and manoeuvrable, ideal for scouting, skirmishing, harassment, ambushing and pursuit. Their standard tactic was to repeatedly approach the enemy, throw their javelins and then hastily scatter before the enemy could engage them. To this, the Romans, used to the charge followed by close melee combat, had no effective response.<ref>Goldsworthy (2001) 54</ref> Nevertheless, in the years following Cannae (216-203 BC), the record of Roman cavalry in operations against Hannibal in southern Italy was creditable, scoring a number of successes in cavalry encounters although never depriving the enemy of overall cavalry superiority.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 187-95</ref> The Romans finally succeeded in closing the light cavalry gap with the Carthaginians by winning over the Numidian king [[Massinissa]], previously an ally of Carthage. This enabled the Romans to field at least an equal number of Numidians at the [[battle of Zama]] (202 BC), who, outnumbering the Roman/Italian cavalry by 2 to 1, played a vital role in neutralising their compatriots fighting for Hannibal. Even so, it was the Roman cavalry that decided the issue, charging and routing the Carthaginians facing them, then wheeling to attack the Punic infantry in the rear.<ref>Goldsworthy (2000) 78-9</ref>
==== Native allied cavalry ====
The cavalry of Roman armies before the 2nd Punic War had been exclusively Roman and confederate Italian, with each holding one wing of the battleline (the Romans usually holding the right wing). After that war, Roman/Italian cavalry was always complemented by allied native cavalry (especially Numidian), and was usually combined on just one wing. Indeed, the allied cavalry often outnumbered the combined Roman/Italian force e.g. at Zama, where the 4,000 Numidians held the right, with just 1,500 Romans/Italians on the left.<ref>Livy XXX.29</ref> One reason was the lessons learnt in the war, namely the need to complement heavy cavalry with plenty of light, faster horse, as well as increasing the cavalry share when engaging with enemies with more powerful mounted forces. It was also inevitable that, as the Roman Republic acquired an overseas empire and the Roman army now campaigned entirely outside Italy, the best of non-Italian cavalry would be enlisted in increasing numbers, including (in addition to Numidians) Gallic, Spanish and Thracian heavy cavalry.<ref>Sidnell (2006) 208</ref>
Certains auteurs modernes attribuent à la création du [[tribun militaire à pouvoir consulaire|tribunat militaire à pouvoir consulaire]] en [[-444|444]] ou [[-438|438 av JC]] à des causes militaires plutôt que politiques. Trois tribuns militaires, revêtus des pouvoirs et insignes consulaires, remplacent alors ponctuellement les [[consul (Rome antique)|consuls]] pour mener la guerre sur plusieurs fronts<ref group=h name=Heurg285>J. Heurgon, op.cit., p.285.</ref>. De trois au départ, ils sont jusqu'à six, voire huit selon certains auteurs antiques, pour une année<ref group=h name=Heurg286>J. Heurgon, op.cit., p.286.</ref>. L'augmentation du nombre de commandants militaires à pouvoir consulaire semble correspondre au besoin de l'armée plus qu'aux luttes politiques, et le nombre de tribuns culmine pour la [[Bataille de Véies (-396)|guerre contre Véies]]<ref group=h name=Heurg287>J. Heurgon, op.cit., p.287.</ref>.
[[File:Toga Illustration-2.pngsvg|upright=0.8|thumb|La [[toge]] est l'apanage de la [[citoyenneté romaine]].|alt=Dessin en noir et blanc. Un romain en toge.]]
En [[-443|443 av JC]], le recensement est confié à deux magistrats spécifiques, les [[censeur]]s et tous les cinq ans, c'est-à-dire tous les [[Lustre (Rome antique)|lustres]], un recensement est effectué lors de l'élection des censeurs. Les citoyens déclarent leurs biens, l'état de leur armement est contrôlé, et ils sont répartis en classes censitaires<ref group=c name=Cosme21>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.21.</ref>. L’institution de cette nouvelle magistrature marque peut-être la complexification du système centuriate avec la subdivision de la ‘‘classis’‘ unique en plusieurs classes, ou l'ajout de nouvelles classes<ref group=h name=Heurg252/>.
=== L'équipement des soldats ===
[[File:Pilum heavy - cropped.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.2|’‘[[Pilum]]’‘ lourd.|alt=Reconstitution moderne d'un pilum, debout.]]
Les membres de la deuxième classe censitaire possèdent l'équipement entier de l'[[hoplite]] excepté la cuirasse, et ceux de la troisième classe n'ont pas en plus les jambières, ne leur laissant que le casque pour protection<ref group=c>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.18 et p.22.</ref><ref group=h name=Heurg248/>. Ainsi le bouclier rond traditionnel est remplacé par un bouclier ovale, le ‘‘[[Scutum (bouclier)|scutum]]’‘<ref group=h name=Heurg248/>, ovale et plus large, d'origine gauloise<ref group=c>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.19 et p.22.</ref> ou samnite<ref name=Bri group=b/>, de façon à protéger l'ensemble du corps en l'absence de la cuirasse et des jambières. En lieu et place d'une cuirasse, ces soldats sont protégés par un pectoral carré d'une vingtaine de centimètres de côté, un protège-cœur en métal<ref group=c name=Cosme1828>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.18 et p.28.</ref><ref group=v>C. Nicolet, op.cit., p.305 et p.313.</ref><ref group=h name=Heurg248/>.
Peu après, la [[Campanie]] devient à son tour sous domination romaine et les [[Campaniens]] fournissent des troupes alliées. De temps en temps, Rome utilise par ailleurs un corps irrégulier de mercenaires, sous le nom de ‘‘legio Campanorum’‘, et emploie des unités spéciales de cavalerie, les ‘‘alae equitum Campanorum’‘<ref group=h name=Heurg325>J. Heurgon, op.cit., p.325.</ref>.
[[File:Plan cosa.png|thumb|left|Plan de la [[colonie romaine de Cosa]].|alt=Plan de la colonie : un réseau viaire orthogonal et un ensemble Forum/Capitole.]]
Suite aux [[guerres samnites]], Rome fonde une colonie latine à [[Venosa|Venusia]], cité contrôlant le passage entre la [[Campanie]] et l’[[Apulie]], et les Samnites sont contraints de signer un traité les obligeant à fournir des troupes à l’armée romaine en tant qu'alliés<ref group=m name=Ceb74>M. Cébeillac-Gervasoni, op.cit., p.74.</ref>. Les territoires sabins et de la côte adriatique reçoivent le même sort dans les années qui suivent, et des colonies sont fondées, latine à [[Atri (Italie)|Hadria]] et romaine à [[Castrum Novum]]<ref group=m name=Ceb74/><ref>Maria Paola Guidobaldi, ‘‘La romanizzazione dell'ager Praetutianus (seculo {{III}}-{{I}} A.C.)’‘, Pérouse, 1995.</ref><ref group=h name=Heurg330>J. Heurgon, op.cit., p.330.</ref>.
==== L'organisation sur le champ de bataille ====
[[File:KemptenBent Pilumpilum tip-transparent.jpgpng|left|thumb|upright=0.25|Pointe de ‘‘[[pilum]]’‘ courbée.|alt=Un pilum avec une pointe courbée.]]
Les [[vélite (Rome antique)|vélites]] avancent en tirailleurs en avant des légions et ouvrent le combat avec leurs armes de jet, avant de se retirer derrière les fantassins mieux armés qu'eux pour le corps-à-corps<ref group=a name=Pol24/>.
La [[Cavalerie au temps de la Rome antique|cavalerie]] a encore un rôle très limité sur le champ de bataille<ref group=c name=Cosme25>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.25.</ref><ref group=a name=Pol28/>, n'ayant pas ou peu évolué, toujours placée sur les ailes et servant principalement de réserve<ref name=TM2-8-9 group=b/>.
[[File:Armée consulaire polybienne IIIe s. av. J.-C.svg|thumb|upright=3.5|center|<div align="center">Représentation schématique et détaillée d'une organisation de bataille d'une armée au IIIe siècle av JC <br /> Deux légions romaines au centre et les alliées italiens sur leurs côtés (‘‘alae sociorum’‘) flanqués par la cavalerie légionnaire et celle des alliés.</centerdiv>|alt=Schéma avec deux légions romaines en trois lignes manipulaires entourés des ailes alliées et de la cavalerie.]]
==== Le service militaire des soldats ====
=== La mobilisation et la hiérarchie de commandement ===
[[File:Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate by Cesare Maccari -Cicero- detail.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Représentation d'une séance au [[Sénat de la République romaine|Sénat]]<ref group=N>Cette image est extraite de la fresque ‘‘[[:File:Maccari-Cicero.jpg|Cicéron dénonce Catilina]]’‘, réalisée par [[Cesare Maccari]], {{XIXe siècle}}. Villa Madama, [[Rome]].</ref>.|alt=Peinture. Intérieur du Sénat, avec un orateur debout face à des sénateurs assis sur les bancs de la Curie.]]
==== Le ‘‘dilectus’‘ et le ‘‘tumultus’‘ ====
=== La solde et la discipline ===
[[File:Aes Signatum C des M.jpg|thumb|’‘Aes signatum’‘, fin du IVe ou début du IIIe siècle av JC, longueur environ 15|cm}}, environ 1.4|kg}}, [[Département des monnaies, médailles et antiques de la Bibliothèque nationale de France|Cabinet des médailles]], Paris.|alt=Pièce de bronze rectangulaire avec un bœuf dessiné.]]
==== L'instauration de la solde ====
==== Des effectifs en hausse ====
[[File:218BCMAPMEDITERRANEANMediterranean at 218 BC-en.jpgsvg|thumb|Le monde méditerranéen en [[-218|218 av JC]]|alt=Carte de la Méditerranée. Rome en Italie, Carthage sur la côte africaine et ibérique, et les royaumes grecs en Orient.]]
Au IIIe siècle av JC, [[République romaine|Rome]] doit faire un effort de guerre extraordinaire et continu durant les [[guerres puniques|guerres contre Carthage]], surtout pendant la [[deuxième guerre punique]]. L'organisation militaire doit alors s'adapter et innover pour que l'armée puisse intervenir en dehors de la péninsule italienne sur de longues périodes<ref group=c name=Cosme31>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.31.</ref><ref group=n name=Nic134/>.
En [[123|123 av JC]], la pression est telle que [[Gracques|Caius Gracchus]] interdit l'enrôlement des jeunes de moins de 17 ans<ref name=Nic152 group=n/><ref group=d>J.-M. David, op.cit., pp.135-136.</ref>, loi qui sera abrogée durant la [[Guerre de Jugurtha]]<ref name=Nic152 group=n/>.
[[File:Altar-of-Domitius-Ahenobarb.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3.5|<div align="center">L'[[autel de Domitius Ahenobarbus]], avec la plaque connue sous le nom de la « frise du recensement », représentant une scène de sacrifice. <br />Marbre, œuvre romaine de la fin du IIe siècle av JC Provenance : [[Champ de Mars (Rome)|Champ de Mars]], [[Rome]]. Aujourd'hui au [[musée du Louvre]], [[Paris]].</centerdiv>|alt=Longue frise sculptée. Nombreux figurants, dont plusieurs soldats en armes.]]
=== Les alliés de Rome dans l'armée ===
Après la [[deuxième guerre punique]], de nombreuses [[colonie (Rome)|colonies]] sont fondées dans les trente premières années du IIe siècle av JC, en majorité latines, et d'autres reçoivent de nouveaux contingents comme celle de [[colonie romaine de Cosa|Cosa]]<ref group=d>J.-M. David, op.cit., p.59.</ref>. Plus de 50000|familles}} sont installés sur les terres confisquées aux anciens alliés d'[[Hannibal Barca|Hannibal]], en tant que colons ou alliés<ref group=d name=Dav60>J.-M. David, op.cit., p.60.</ref><ref group=b>[[#CN2|C. Nicolet, ‘‘Rome et la conquête du monde méditerranéen, tome I : Les Structures de l'Italie romaine’‘, 1977]], p.125.</ref>.
[[File:Forumcosa.png|thumb|Restitution hypothétique du ‘‘[[Forum romain|forum]]’‘ de la [[colonie romaine de Cosa]].|alt=Dessin en noir et blanc.]]
Ces colonies, romaines ou latines, renforcent la domination romaine dans toute l’[[Italie (époque romaine)|Italie]], de la [[plaine du Pô]] à la [[Grande-Grèce]]<ref group=d name=Dav60/>.
==== Les camps romains ====
[[File:Castra layout.svg|upright=0.8|thumb|Plan d'un [[camp romain]] : <br />
1. ‘‘Prætorium’‘ <br />
2. ‘‘[[Decumanus|Via prætoria]]’‘ <br />
3. ‘‘[[Cardo|Via principalis]]’‘ <br />
4. ‘‘[[Cardo|Porta principalis dextra]]’‘<ref group=N name=CampLa>‘‘[[w:dextre|dextra]]’‘ pour « du côté droit » et ‘‘[[w:senestre|senestra]]’‘ pour « du côté gauche » en [[latin]].</ref> <br />
5. ‘‘[[Decumanus|Porta decumana]]’‘ <br />
6. ‘‘[[Cardo|Porta principalis senestra]]’‘<ref group=N name=CampLa/> <br />
7. ‘‘[[Decumanus|Porta prætoria]]’‘|alt=Schéma d'un camp, traversé du cardo et du decamus se croisant au milieu, à la tente du général.]]
La date d'apparition des premiers [[camp romain|camps romains]] est incertaine. [[Tite-Live]]<ref group=a>{{RefRA|TL|XXXV|14}}.</ref> et [[Frontin]]<ref group=a>[[Frontin]], [[:s:Les Stratagèmes/IV#I. De la discipline.|’‘Stratagèmes’‘, IV, I. De la discipline]], 14.</ref> suggèrent que les Romains conçoivent le plan du camp en observant les retranchements des soldats épirotes de [[Pyrrhus Ier|Pyrrhus {{Ier}}]], alors que [[Plutarque]]<ref group=a>{{RefRA|Plu|Pyrrhus|16}}.</ref> déclare, au contraire, que le roi d'[[Épire]] est impressionné par le camp romain d'[[Bataille d'Héraclée|Héraclée]]<ref group=c name=Cosme37>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.37.</ref>, et attribue quant à lui la construction des premiers camps à [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camille]] au IVe siècle av JC<ref group=a name=Plu/>
Il est cependant plus vraisemblable que les [[camp romain|camps romains]] soient une transposition militaire de la fondation des villes<ref group=c name=Cosme37/>. L'armée s'y abrite et y vit durant toute la durée d'une campagne militaire<ref group=c>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.36 et p.37.</ref>, et [[Pierre Cosme]] souligne que le camp a une double fonction : « défensive et psychologique<ref group=c name=Cosme36>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.36.</ref> ». Les camps romains permettent en effet de se protéger durant une campagne mais aussi d'impressionner son ennemi<ref group=c name=Cosme36/>.
[[File:Marschlager nach Polybios (Française).png|left|thumb|Schéma d'un camp du IIe siècle av JC suivant la description de [[Polybe]]<ref group=a name=Polcamp/>.|alt=Plan d'un camp avec les quartiers des unités manipulaires.]]
Le plan du camp romain, une vraie ville occupée théoriquement par deux légions entières, auxiliaires compris, soit près de 20000|soldats}} et le train, nous est principalement connu grâce à [[Polybe]]<ref group=a name=Polcamp>{{RefRA|Pol|[[:s:Histoire de Polybe - LVI#V. Milice romaine.|VI]]|29|49}}.</ref>, auteur grec du IIe siècle av JC, qui en fait une longue description détaillée qui n'est pas remise en question par les historiens<ref group=c name=Cosme36/>.
Les vestiges archéologiques des plus anciens camps remontent au IIe siècle av JC, notamment près de [[Numance]] en [[Hispanie]]<ref group=c name=Cosme36/>.
==== La solde et le butin ====
Le butin laissé par une armée en déroute revient aux légionnaires romains, tandis que les biens et les personnes des peuples vaincus, qui représentent la grande majorité des profits d'une guerre, reviennent au [[Senatus Populusque Romanus|Sénat et au peuple romain]]<ref group=c>P. Cosme, op.cit., pp.38-39.</ref><ref group=n>C. Nicolet, op.cit., pp.159-162.</ref>. En [[-187|187 av JC]], les profits de la guerre en [[Asie (province romaine)|Asie]] permettent de rembourser une partie de ‘‘[[tributum]]’‘, et celui de [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus|Paul-Émile]] sur [[Persée de Macédoine]], suffit à une suspension pure et simple du ‘‘tributum’‘ des [[citoyenneté romaine|citoyens]], alors que les soldats eux-mêmes n'ont obtenu que peu de butins sur ces campagnes<ref group=c name=Cosme39>P. Cosme, op.cit., p.39.</ref><ref group=n>C. Nicolet, op.cit., pp.162-164.</ref>.
[[File:Vecchi 051 - transparent background.jpgPNG|thumb|As grave : [[Janus (mythologie)|Janus]] aux deux visages / Proue de galère (env. [[-240|240]]/[[-225|225 av JC]]).|alt=Deux faces d'une même pièce : d'un côté, Janus aux deux visages, de l'autre une proue de galère.]]
Les officiers et les soldats reçoivent parfois des parts non négligeables, notamment en [[-194|194 av JC]], après la [[deuxième guerre macédonienne]] lorsque, selon [[Tite-Live]]<ref group=a name=TL34-52>{{RefRA|TL|XXXIV|52}}.</ref>, [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus|Quinctius Flamininus]] distribue 750 as aux [[chevalier romain|cavaliers]], 500 as aux [[centurion]]s et 250 as à chaque soldat<ref group=d name=Dav70>J.-M. David, op.cit., p.70.</ref>. Après la [[Guerres de Macédoine#Guerre séleucide ou Guerre contre Antiochos (192 à 188 av. J.-C.)|guerre séleucide]], les soldats reçoivent aussi une distribution<ref group=d name=Dav70/>, mais non après la victoire de [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus|Paul-Émile]]<ref group=c name=Cosme39/>, où les volontaires avaient pourtant afflué en vue du butin potentiel toujours selon [[Tite-Live]]<ref group=a name=TL34-52/>.
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