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{{otheruses2|Hun}}
The '''Huns''' were an early confederation of [[Central Asia]]n [[Eurasian nomads|equestrian nomads]] or semi-nomads.<ref>[[Walter Pohl]] has remarked "early medieval peoples were far less homogeneous than often thought. They themselves shared the fundamental belief to be of common origin; and modern historians, for a long time, found no reason to think otherwise." (Walter Pohl, "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies" ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, p 16). In reviewing Joachim Werner's ''Beiträge zur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches'' (Munich 1956), in ''Speculum'' '''33'''.1 (January 1958), p 159, Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen noted with relief that "the author is not concerned with the slightly infantile question, 'who' the Huns were; he does not ask where the Huns 'ultimately' came from."</ref> Some of these [[Eurasian nomads|Eurasian tribes]] moved into [[Europe]] in the [[4th century]], most famously under [[Attila the Hun]]. Huns remaining in [[Asia]] are recorded by neighboring peoples to the south, east, and west as having occupied Central Asia roughly from the 4th century to the 6th century, with some surviving in the [[Caucasus]] until the early 8th century.
==Origins and research==
The research and debate about the [[Asia]]n ancestral origins of the Huns has been ongoing since the 18th century. To this day, [[Philology|philologists]] still debate which [[ethnonym]] from [[China|Chinese]], [[Persia]]n, or [[Armenia]]n sources is identical with the [[Latin]] ''Hunni'' or the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Chounnoi'', in their attempts to clarify the Huns' origins and linguistic background.<ref name="Pohl">[[Walter Pohl]] (1999), "Huns" in ''Late Antiquity'', editor [[Peter Brown]], p.501-502 .. further references to F.H Bauml and M. Birnbaum, eds., ''Atilla: The Man and His Image'' (1993). [[Peter Heather]], "The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe," ''English Historical Review'' 90 (1995):4-41. [[Peter Heather]], ''The Fall of the Roman Empire'' (2005). [[Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen|Otto Maenchen-Helfen]], ''The World of the Huns'' (1973). E. de la Vaissière, Huns et Xiongnu "Central Asiatic Journal" 2005-1 pp. 3-26</ref>
Recent [[genetics|genetic]] research<ref name="Pohl"/> shows that the great [[confederation]]s of steppe warriors were not, in fact, an ethnically [[homogeneous]] people, but rather tended to be comprised of various [[Eurasian nomads|Eurasian clans]]. Hun identity is further complicated by the fame of the name, as many [[clan]]s apparently claimed to be Huns for the prestige of the name; similarly, Greek or Latin chroniclers may have referred to "Huns" in a more general sense, to describe social or ethnic characteristics, believed place of origin, or reputation.<ref name="Pohl" />"''All we can say safely''", says [[Walter Pohl]],"''is that the name Huns, in late antiquity, described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors''".<ref name="Pohl" /> These views come in the context of the [[ethnocentric]] and [[Historiography and nationalism|nationalistic scholarship]] of past generations, which often presumed that an ethnic homogeneity must underlie a socially and culturally homogeneous peoples.<ref>[[Michael Kulikowski]] (2006). ''Rome's Gothic Wars''. Cambridge University Press. Page 52-54</ref>
The genetic research and [[ethnogenesis]] approach is in contrast to traditional theories based on [[China#Arts.2C scholarship.2C and literature|Chinese records]], [[archaeology]], [[linguistics]] and other indirect evidence. These theories contain various elements: that the name "Hun" first described a nomadic ruling group of warriors whose ethnic origins were in [[Central Asia]], and was most likely in present day [[Mongolia]]; that they were possibly related to, or included in, the [[Xiongnu]] (the theory first suggested by [[Joseph de Guignes]] in the 18th century); that the Xiongnu were defeated by the [[History of China|Chinese]] [[Han Empire]]; and that this is why they left Mongolia and moved westward, eventually invading [[Europe]] 200 years later. Indirect evidence includes the transmission of the [[composite bow]], the so-called [[Hun bow]], from [[Central Asia]] to the west.
This traditional narrative, of a westward movement of people triggered by a Chinese war, is deeply ingrained in western (and eastern) historiography — but the evidence is often indirect or ambiguous (the Huns left practically no written records). For a timespan of 150 years, there is no record of what happened between the time they left [[China]] and arrived in Europe. The last mention of the northern Xiongnu was their defeat by the Chinese in [[151]] at the lake of [[Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County|Barkol]], after which they fled to the western steppe at [[Kangju|K’ang-chü]] (centered on [[Hazrat-e Turkestan|Turkestan]] in [[Kazakhstan]]). Furthermore, [[China#Arts.2C scholarship.2C and literature|Chinese records]] between the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century]] suggest that a small tribe called [[Yueban]] (described as the remnants of northern Xiongnu) were distributed about the steppe of [[Kazakhstan]]. The recent genetic research presents a further challenge to the theory of a distinct ethnic-Hun origin.
One recent line of reasoning favors a political and cultural link between the Huns and the Xiongnu. The Central Asian ([[Sogdian]] and [[Bactrian]]) sources of the 4th century translate "Huns" as "Xiongnu", and "Xiongnu" as "Huns"; also, Xiongnu and Hunnish cauldrons are virtually identical, and were buried on the same spots (river banks) in [[Hungary]] and in the [[Ordos]].<ref>E. de la Vaissière, Huns et Xiongnu "Central Asiatic Journal" 2005-1 pp. 3-26</ref>
Ever since [[Joseph de Guignes]] in the [[18th century]] identified the Huns with the ''Xiongnu'' or ''(H)siung-nu'',<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hiung-Nu "Sir H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists, Leiden, 1883 (Actes, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guignes, Histoire generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares occidentaux (1756-1758)"]</ref> there has been a school of thought that the Huns were of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin. This theory is also supported by O. Maenchen-Helfen, on the basis of his linguistic studies.<ref>Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press, 1973</ref><ref>[http://www.kroraina.com/huns/mh/mh_6.html Otto Maenchen-Helfen, Language of Huns]</ref> [[England|English]] scholar [[Peter Heather]] called the Huns "the first group of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], as opposed to Iranian, nomads to have intruded into Europe".<ref>Peter Heather, "The Huns and the End of Roman Empire in Western Europe", ''The English Historical Review'', Vol. 110, No. 435, February 1995, p. 5.</ref> [[Kemal Cemal]], a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] researcher,<ref>[http://www.kessler-web.co.uk/History/FeaturesEurope/BarbarianHuns.htm "Europe: The Origins of the Huns"], by Kessler Associate, based on conversations with Kemal Cemal, Turkey, 2002</ref> bolsters this assertion with [[linguistic]] evidence, demonstrating similarities in words and names between [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]] languages. He also compares Hunnic systems of governance to those of Turkic tribes, again demonstrating similarity. Hungarian historian [[Gyula Nemeth]] also supports this view.
[[Uyghur]] historian [[Turghun Almas]] has suggested a link between the [[Uyghurs]] (a [[Turkic languages|Turkic speaking people]] who reside in [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]) and the Huns.
The so-called "[[White Huns]]" of [[Procopius]] were probably not related to the classical Huns.<ref>Columbia Encyclopedia</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>
==
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The [[Hunnic Empire]] stretched from the steppes of [[Central Asia]] into modern [[Germany]], and from the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Baltic Sea]]]]
=== 2nd-5th centuries ===
{{Cleanup|date=May 2007}}
[[Dionysius Periegetes]] describes a people who may be Huns living near the [[Caspian Sea]] in the [[2nd century]]. By AD [[139]], the European geographer [[Ptolemy]] writes that the [[Khuni]] are next to the [[Dnieper River]] and ruled by [[Suni]]?<!--fact: Suni here WP - "occur in South-east Africa in dense underbrush. They feed on leaves, fungi, fruits and flowers"..:)-->. Ptolemy lists the "[[Chuni]]" as among the "Sarmatian" [[White Hun]] tribes in the second century, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns. The [[fifth century]] [[Armenian]] historian [[Moses of Khorene]], in his "History of Armenia," introduces the ''Hunni'' near the [[Sarmatians]] and describes their capture of the city of [[Balk]] ("Kush" in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) sometime between [[194]] and [[214]], which explains why the [[Greeks]] call that city ''Hunuk''.
Following the defeat of the [[Xiongnu]] by the [[Han Dynasty|Han]], Xiongnu history is unknown for a century; thereafter, the Liu family of southern Xiongnu [[Tiefu]] attempted to establish a state in western [[China]] (see [[Han Zhao]]). [[Chionite]]s (OIONO/Xiyon) appear on the scene in [[Transoxiana]] in [[320]] immediately after [[Jin Zhun]] overthrew [[Liu Can]], sending the Xiongnu into chaos. Later [[Kidara]] came along to lead the [[Chionite]]s into pressing on the [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]].
Back west, [[Ostrogoths]] came into contact with the Huns in AD [[358]]. The Armenians mention [[Vund]] c.370: the first recorded Hunnish leader in the Caucasus region. The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] invited the Huns east of the [[Ukraine]] to settle [[Pannonia]] in [[361]], and in [[372]], under the leadership of [[Balimir]] their king, the Huns pushed towards the west and defeated the [[Alans]]. Back east again, in the early [[5th century]], [[Tiefu|Tiefu Xia]] is the last southern Xiongnu dynasty in Western China and the ''[[Alchon]]'' / ''[[Huna (people)|Huna]]'' appear in what is now [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]. At this point deciphering Hunnish histories for the multi-linguist becomes easier with relatively well-documented events in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Armenia]]n, [[Iran]]ian, [[India]]n, and [[China|Chinese]] sources.
=== European Huns ===
[[Image:HunSiege-ChroniconPictum.jpg|thumb|400px|A 14th century [[chivalric]]-romanticized painting of "the huns" laying siege to a city. Note [[anachronistic]] details in weapons, armor and city type. ''[[Chronicon Pictum]]'', 1360.]]
The Huns appeared in Europe in the [[4th century]]. Apparently originating in Central Asia, they first appeared north of the [[Black Sea]], forcing a large number of [[Goths]] to seek refuge in the Roman Empire; later, the Huns appearred west of the [[Carpathians]] in [[Pannonia]], probably sometime between [[400]] and [[410]], perhaps triggering the massive migration of [[Germanic tribes]] westward across the [[Rhine]] in December [[406]].
The establishment of the [[5th century]] [[Hunnic Empire]] marks an historically early instance of [[horseback migration]]. Under the leadership of [[Attila the Hun]], the Huns achieved hegemony over several well-organized rivals by utilizing superior weaponry such as the [[Hun bow]], and a well-organized system of taxation. Supplementing their wealth by plundering wealthy [[Roman Empire|Roman]] cities to the south, the Huns managed to maintain the loyalties of a diverse number of tributary tribes.
Attila's Huns incorporated groups of unrelated [[tribute|tributary]] peoples. In Europe, [[Alans]], [[Gepid]]s, [[Scirii]], [[Rugians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] and [[Goths|Gothic tribes]] all united under the Hun family military elite. Some of Attila's Huns eventually settled in [[Pannonia]] after his death, but the [[Hunnic Empire]] would not survive Attila's passing. After his sons were defeated by [[Ardaric]]'s coalition at the [[Battle of Nedao]] in [[454]], at modern day [[Nedava]], the Hunnish Empire disolved.
Memory of the Hunnish conquest was [[oral tradition|transmitted orally]] among [[Germanic peoples]] and is an important component in the [[Old Norse]] ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', and the [[Middle High German]] ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', all of which portray [[Migrations period]] events a millennium before their written recordings. In the ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', the Goths make first contact with the bow-wielding Huns and meet them in an epic battle on the plains of the [[Danube]]. In the ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', King Attila (''[[Atli]]'' in Norse and ''[[Etzel]]'' in German) defeats the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Sigebert I]] (''[[Sigurðr]]'' or ''[[Siegfried]]'') and the [[Burgundian]] King [[Guntram]] (''[[Gunnar]]'' or ''[[Gunther]]''), but is subsequently assassinated by Queen [[Fredegund]] (''[[Gudrun]]'' or ''[[Kriemhild]]''), the sister of the latter and wife of the former.
==Successor nations==
Many nations have tried to assert themselves as ethnic or cultural successors to the Huns. For instance, the [[Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans]] may indicate that they believed themselves to have been descended from Attila. The [[Bulgars]] certainly were part of the Hun tribal alliance for some time, and some have hypothesized in the past that the [[Chuvash language]] (which is believed to have descended from the [[Bulgar language]]) is the closest surviving relative of the Hunnish language.<ref>[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], [[1997]]: ''Turkic languages''.<blockquote>
"Formerly, scholars considered [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] not properly a [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] at all but, rather, the only surviving representative of a separate subdivision of the [[Altaic languages]] probably spoken by the Huns."
</blockquote> </ref>
The [[Magyars]] (Hungarians) also have laid claims to Hunnish heritage. Considering that the Huns who invaded Europe represented a loose coalition of various peoples, it is not out of the question that Magyars were present among those ethnic groups as well. Until the early 20th century, many Hungarian historians believed that the [[Székely]] people (the Hungarians' "brother nation" who live in [[Transylvania]]) were the descendants of the Huns.
The names "Hun" and "Hungarian" sound alike, but differ in [[etymology]]. The name "Hungarian" is derived from a Turkish phrase "onogur" which means "ten tribes", which possibly refers to a tribal covenant between the different Hungarian tribes that moved into the area of today's Hungary at the end of the 9th century.
In [[2005]], a group of about 2,500 Hungarians petitioned the government for recognition of minority status as direct descendants of Attila. The bid failed, but gained some publicity for the group, which formed in the early 1990s and appears to represent a special Hun(garian)-centric brand of mysticism. The self-proclaimed Huns are not known to possess any distinctly Hunnish culture or language beyond what would be available from historical and modern-mystical Hungarian sources.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4435181.stm BBC News - "Hungary blocks Hun minority bid" - By Nick Thorpe, April 12, 2005]</ref>
While there is no question that the Huns left descendants all over Eastern Europe, the disintegration of the Hun Empire after the death of Attila meant they never regained their lost glory. One reason was that the Huns never fully established the mechanisms of a state, such as bureaucracy and taxes, unlike the [[Magyars]] or [[Golden Horde]], who did. Once disorganized, the Huns naturally were absorbed by more organized polities.
==Historiography==
The term "Hun" has been also used to describe peoples with no historical connection to what scholars consider "Hun".
On [[July 27]], [[1900]], during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China, [[Kaiser]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] gave the order to "make the name 'German' remembered in China for a thousand years, so that no Chinaman [''sic''] will ever again dare to even squint at a German". This speech, wherein Wilhelm invoked the memory of the [[5th century|5th-century]] Huns, coupled with the [[Pickelhaube]] or spiked [[helmet]] worn by German forces until [[1916]], that was reminiscent of ancient Hun (and Hungarian) helmets, gave rise to the later derogatory English usage of the latter term for their German enemy during [[World War I]]. This usage was reinforced by [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] propaganda throughout the war, and many pilots of the RFC referred to their foe as "The Hun". The usage resurfaced during [[World War II]].
<!--References needed. In modern [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], "Hün" means "Person", which stems from the modern Mongols' strong identification with the historical Huns, who are known in modern Mongolian as "Hunu." Most Mongolians today consider the Huns to be proto-Mongols. In the development of the Mongolian language, an [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language -- which is the family to which most scholars speculate the Hun language belonged -- the word for "person" is identical for the name of the tribe with which they identify their ancestors having belonged to, the Huns. A "Hun" is "a person" in Mongolian. This mirrors the American Navajos' use of the term 'Dine' to signify "person," as well as to refer to the entire tribe.-->
==See also==
*[[Hunnic Empire]]
*[[Hunnic language]]
*[[List of Hunnic Rulers]]
*[[Hungarian history]]
*[[Xiongnu]]
==Notes==
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==Further reading==
*de la Vaissière, E. "Huns et Xiongnu", Central Asiatic Journal, 2005-1, p. 3-26.
*Lindner, Rudi Paul. "Nomadism, Horses and Huns", ''Past and Present'', No. 92. (Aug., 1981), pp. 3–19.
* Otto J. Mänchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973) ISBN 0-520-01596-7
* Otto J. Mänchen-Helfen: ''Huns and Hsiung-Nu'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 222-243)
* Otto J. Mänchen-Helfen: ''The Legend of the Origin of the Huns'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 244-251)
* E. A. Thompson: ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, Oxford University Press, 1948)
* J. Webster: ''The Huns and Existentialist Thought'' (Loudonville, Siena College Press, 2006)
*[http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2003/10/28/200310280500015/200310280500015_1.html Huns leader, Attila is Koreans], shindonga, 2003 November (South Korean Monthly Magazine)
*[http://blog.naver.com/newid76/90014945602 Huns Bow = Korean Bow?]
*[http://www.geocities.com/ziadnumis/home Coinage and History of the White Huns- Waleed Ziad- Articles from the 'Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society', 2004-2006]
* The History Files [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesEurope/BarbarianHuns.htm Europe: The Origins of the Huns], based on conversations with Kemal Cemal, Turkey, 2002 (address correction to Notes, above)
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Russia]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:Hungary before the Magyars]]
[[Category:Huns]]
[[Category:Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
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[[Category:Migration Period]]
[[bg:Хуни]]
[[ca:Huns]]
[[cs:Hunové]]
[[da:Hunnerne]]
[[de:Hunnen]]
[[et:Hunnid]]
[[es:Hunos]]
[[eo:Hunoj]]
[[fr:Huns]]
[[gl:Hunos]]
[[ko:훈족]]
[[hr:Huni]]
[[is:Húnar]]
[[it:Unni]]
[[he:הונים]]
[[kk:Ғұндар]]
[[lv:Huņņi]]
[[nl:Hunnen]]
[[ja:フン族]]
[[no:Hunnerne]]
[[pl:Hunowie]]
[[pt:Huno]]
[[ro:Huni]]
[[ru:Гунны]]
[[sk:Huni]]
[[sl:Huni]]
[[fi:Hunnit]]
[[sv:Hunner]]
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[[tr:Hunlar]]
[[uk:Гуни]]
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