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'''Stuart Smith''' (a.k.a. '''Stuart Steen''' a.k.a. '''Stuart Smita''') is a [[United Kingdom|British]]-[[Australia|australian]] actor born in [[Winchester]], who grew up in [[Sidney]].
{{otheruses}}
The '''Bible''' (sometimes '''The Book''', '''Good Book''', '''Word of God''', '''The Word''', or '''Scripture'''), from [[Greek language|Greek]] (τα) βιβλια, ''(ta) biblia'', "(the) books", plural of βιβλιον, ''biblion'', "book", originally a diminutive of βιβλος, ''biblos'', which in turn is derived from βυβλος—''byblos'', meaning "papyrus", from the ancient [[Phoenicia]]n city of [[Byblos]] which exported this writing material), is the classical name for the [[Hebrew Bible]] of [[Judaism]] or the combination of the [[Old Testament]] and [[New Testament]] of [[Christianity]] ("The Bible" therefore actually refers to at least two different Bibles). It is thus applied to [[sacred]] [[scripture]]s. Many Christian English speakers refer to the Christian Bible as "the good book" (''Gospel'' means "good news"). For many people, their Bible is the revealed word of [[God]] or an authoritative record of the relationship between God, the world, and humankind.
After studying acting and playing a few parts in [[Australia]], he moved to [[Hong Kong]] and starred in several movies in the 80's, including "[[ninja]]" flicks by [[Godfrey Ho]]. He also worked extensively as a [[voice actor]], dubbing chinese movies into english.
Both Bibles have been the most widely distributed of books. It has also been translated more times, and into more languages, than any other book. The complete Bible, or portions of it, have been translated into more than 2,100 languages. It is said that more than 5 billion copies of the Bible have been sold since 1815, making it the best-selling book of all-time.
[http://fabianshammer.blogspot.com/2004_10_01_fabianshammer_archive.html]
[http://www.goantiques.com/detail,chairman-mao-red,592541.html]
[http://www.grisda.org/origins/15004.htm]
He is particularly popular among bad movie fans due to his overacting that makes him twist his face in [[grimace]]s.
Because of Christian domination of Europe from the late [[Rome|Roman]] era to the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the Christian Bible has influenced not only religion, but language, law and, until the [[Early modern Europe|modern era]], the [[natural philosophy]] of mainstream [[Western world|Western Civilization]]. The Age of Enlightenment and the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe and America brought skepticism regarding the divine origin and historical accuracy of the Bible and [[Bible prophecy]]. Scholars such as Professor [[Peter Stoner]] and Dr. Hawley O. Taylor have argued that Bible prophecy is of a remarkable nature and did not happen by mere chance. Skeptics counter, however, that there have been notable figures like [[Porphyry of Tyros]] and the scholar Gustave Holscher who have made criticisms of Bible prophecy. With that being said, many still view the Bible as a great work of literature, including important reflections on morality, and dramatic love poetry such as the [[Song of Solomon]].
He is now a financial counselor in [[Thailand]]
Although the term "Bible" is most often used to refer to Jewish and Christian scriptures, "Bible" is sometimes used to describe scriptures of other faiths. Thus the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]'' is often referred to as the "[[Sikhism|Sikh]] Bible". In the early years after the publication of the [[Book of Mormon]] in 1830, it was sometimes known as the "Golden Bible". The word "bible" (in [[lower case]]) is also used to refer to any [[tome]] which incorporates comprehensive and/or authoritative coverage of its subject.
==External link==
As the original meaning of the word indicates, the Jewish and Christian Bibles are actually collections of several books, considered to be inspired by [[God]] or to record God's relationship with humanity or a particular nation.
*[http://www.nanarland.com/interview/interview.php?id_interview=stuartsmithvo&vo=1 Interview with Stuart Smith on Nanarland.com]
*{{imdb|id=0810051|name=Stuart Smith}}
{{UK-actor-stub}}
==The Hebrew Bible==
[[Category:English film actors|Smith, Stuart]]
{{mainarticle|Tanakh}}
[[Category:British B-movie actors|Smith, Stuart]]
[[Image:241530 7953 torah.jpg|thumb|The holy Jewish scripture: The Torah. Background: [[Magen David|Star of David]], [[Menorah]].]]
[[category:Hong Kong film actors|Smith, Stuart]]
The Hebrew Bible (also known as the Jewish Bible, or תנ"ך, [[Tanakh]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) consists of 24 books. Tanakh is an acronym for three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the [[Torah]], [[Nevi'im]], and [[Ketuvim]].
[[Category:Living people|Smith, Stuart]]
===Torah===
[[Category:british expatriates|Smith, Stuart]]
The [[Torah]], or "teaching" is also known as the five books of [[Moses]], thus [[Humash|Chumash]] or [[Pentateuch]] (Hebrew and Greek for "five," respectively).
The five books are:
*I [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] (''Bereishit'' בראשית),
*II [[Exodus]] (''Shemot'' שמות),
*III [[Leviticus]] (''Vayikra'' ויקרא),
*IV [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] (''Bemidbar'' במדבר) and
*V [[Deuteronomy]] (''Devarim'' דברים)
The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.
*The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the [[Creation (theology)|creation]] (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.
*The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (also called [[Israel]]), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially [[Joseph]]. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt
*The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of [[Moses]], the greatest Hebrew prophet, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
Traditionally, the Torah contains 613 [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]], or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for Jewish law [[Halakha]] and are elaborated in the [[Talmud]].
The Torah is divided into fifty four portions which are read in turn, from the beginning of [[Genesis]] to the end of Deuteronomy, each [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of [[Sukkot]].
====The Two Torahs====
By the Hellenistic period of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the [[Sadducees]]) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the [[Pharisees]], believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e. the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or Oral Torah). Orthodox Jews today believe that the [[Talmud]] consists of the Oral Torah committed to writing.
====The Four Sources====
Most [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist Jews]], as well as many liberal Christian scholars, now accept the [[Documentary hypothesis]] which posits that the Written Torah has its origins in earlier sources labeled J (Yahwists), E (Elohim), D (Deuteronomists), and P (Priests). These in turn may go back to oral traditions and/or drew on (and sometimes parodied) earlier [[Ancient Near East|ancient Near Eastern]] mythology. The documentary hypothesis posits that these four distinct traditions (or sources) are evident in the Torah. Julius Wellhausen, who in the late 1800s gave this hypothesis a definitive formulation, suggested that these sources were edited together or redacted during the time of [[Ezra]], perhaps by Ezra himself. Orthodox Jews, on the other hand, tend to accept "Torah Min Hashamayim", or Torah from the sky. This is the belief that Hashem actually dictated the words of [[Torah]] to [[Moses]] atop Mount Sinai.
Jewish scholars who accept the documentary hypothesis differ as to whether these sources were or were not divinely inspired, and differ over the nature and extent of their obligation to the 613 commandments and the body of law represented in the Oral Torah, although each branch of Judaism recognizes both the Written and Oral Torahs as central to Jewish tradition, whether it be conceived of as sacred, national, or cultural.
The documentary hypothesis has not been without its critics. For example, evangelical [[Egyptologist]] [[Kenneth Kitchen]], and [[Gleason Archer]], have sharply criticized and rejected the documentary hypothesis using various lines of argumentation, as has the critical scholar R. N. Whybray.[http://www.equip.org/free/DW035.htm][http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/moses.html][http://www.ankerberg.com/Articles/apologetics/AP0404W3.htm][http://answering-islam.org.uk/Campbell/s3c1.html]
===[[Nevi'im]]===
Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judea by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The [[Book of Jonah]] is read on [[Yom Kippor]].
According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.
The eight books are:
* I. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] or Yehoshua [יהושע]
* II. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] or Shoftim [שופטים]
* III. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] or Shmu'el [שמואל] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges (his sons were named judges, but rejected by the people) or the first of the prophets; it was he who negotiated on behalf of the Children of Israel with God to anoint a King)
* IV. [[Books of Kings|Kings]] or Melakhim [מלכים] (often divided into two books)
* V. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] or Yeshayahu [ישעיהו]
* VI. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] or Yirmiyahu [ירמיהו]
* VII. [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] or Yehezq'el [יחזקאל]
* VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve [[Minor Prophets]]) תרי עשר
** 1. [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] or Hoshea [הושע]
** 2. [[Book of Joel|Joel]] or Yo'el [יואל]
** 3. [[Book of Amos|Amos]] [עמוס]
** 4. [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] or Ovadyah [עבדיה]
** 5. [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] or Yonah [יונה]
** 6. [[Book of Micah|Micah]] or Mikhah [מיכה]
** 7. [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] or Nachum [נחום]
** 8. [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] or Habaquq [חבקוק]
** 9. [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] or Tsefania [צפניה]
** 10. [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] or Haggai [חגי]
** 11. [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] Zekharia [זכריה]
** 12. [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] or Malakhi [מלאכי]
The [[Torah]] and the [[Nevi'im]] have an epical quality, although they have no human hero (Moses and David are, in many ways, anti-heros; one may consider the Children of Israel collectively to be the hero of the epic, or, if one must chose a single character, God)
===[[Ketuvim]]===
[[Ketuvim]], or "Writings," were, according to critical scholars, mostly written during or after the Babylonian Exile and were among the last books to be canonized. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of [[Psalms]] are attributed to [[King David]]; [[King Solomon]] wrote three books: [[Song of Songs]] in his youth, [[Proverbs]] at the prime of his life, and [[Ecclesiastes]] at old age; and the prophet [[Jeremiah]] wrote [[Lamentations]]. The [[Book of Job]] is the only Biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of [[King David]]. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: [[Song of Songs]] on [[Passover]]; the [[Book of Ruth]] on [[Shavuot]]; [[Lamentations]] on the [[Ninth of Av]]; [[Ecclesiastes]] on [[Sukkot]]; and the [[Book of Esther]] on [[Purim]]. Collectively, the [[Ketuvim]] contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Judea to rebuild the Temple.
Ketuvim contains eleven books:
* I. Tehillim ([[Psalms]]) תהלים
* II. Mishlei ([[Book of Proverbs]]) משלי
* III. `Iyyov ([[Book of Job]]) איוב
* IV. Shir ha-Shirim ([[Song of Songs]]) שיר השירים
* V. Ruth ([[Book of Ruth]]) רות
* VI. Eikhah ([[Lamentations]]) איכה [Also called ''Kinnot'' in Hebrew.]
* VII. Kohelet ([[Ecclesiastes]]) קהלת
* VIII. Esther ([[Book of Esther]]) אסתר
* IX. Daniel ([[Book of Daniel]]) דניאל
* X. Ezra (often divided into two books, [[Book of Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah]]) עזרא
* XI. Divrei ha-Yamim ([[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], often divided into two books) דברי הימים
===Translations and editions===
The Tanakh was mainly written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some portions (notably in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]) in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].
Some time in the [[3rd century BC]], the Torah was translated into [[Koine Greek]], and over the next century other books were translated as well. This translation became known as the [[Septuagint]] and was widely used by Greek-speaking [[Jew]]s and, later, by [[Christian]]s. It differs somewhat from the Hebrew text as standardized later ([[Masoretic Text]]).
From the [[800s]] to the [[1400s]], Rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the [[Masoretes]] compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added [[vowel]] points (called [[niqqud]]) to the text, since the original text only contained [[consonant]]s. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since words can differ only in their vowels, and thus the meaning can vary in accordance with the choice of vowels to insert. In antiquity other variant readings existed, some of which have survived in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.
Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books additional to what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition from the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.
The Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.
See below for a partial list of contemporary English translations.
==The Christian Bible==
[[image:bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407, for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
The [[Septuagint]] was generally abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations into [[Western world|Western]] languages from [[Jerome|Saint Jerome's]] [[Vulgate]] to the present day. In [[Eastern Christianity]], translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text that seem to have suffered corruption in transcription. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]]).
===The Old Testament===
The collection of books that the majority of [[Christian]]s (including members of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches) call the [[Old Testament]] include not only the 24 books of the Jewish [[Tanakh]], but also certain [[deuterocanonical books]] preserved in the [[Greek language|Greek]] of the [[Septuagint]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] recognizes seven such books ([[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]), as well as some passages in [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], that are not included in the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]]. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and occasionally even [[4 Maccabees]]. [[Protestantism|Protestants]] in general do not recognize these books as truly part of the Bible, though they may print them along with the books they do recognize.
===The New Testament===
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of 27 books with [[Jesus]] as its central figure, written in [[Koine Greek]] in the early [[Christian]] period, that almost all [[Christian]]s recognize as [[Sacred text|Scripture]]. These can be grouped into:
*The [[Synoptic Gospels]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**The [[Gospel of Matthew]] - [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], a tax-collector and [[apostle]].
**The [[Gospel of Mark]] - [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], a follower of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and also of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
**The [[Gospel of Luke]] - [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a follower of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
-->
*The [[Gospel of John]]
*The [[Acts of the Apostles]]
*The [[Pauline Epistles]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**[[Epistle to the Romans]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] the [[Apostle]]
**[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Galatians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Philippians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to Philemon]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Ephesians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Colossians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**The [[Pastoral Epistles]] - traditionally [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], but normally considered by two thirds of modern scholars to be by another (single) author
***[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Epistle to Titus]]
**[[Epistle to the Hebrews]] - Anonymous, but sometimes traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], although disputed by even the most conservative of modern scholars.
-->
*The [[General Epistles]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**[[Epistle of James]] - [[James the Just|James]], "the brother of the Lord"
**[[First Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[Second Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[First Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]] (the [[Authorship of the Johannine works|Johannine]] letters are usually attributed to members of the community of his disciples, though [[First Epistle of John|1 John]] closely resembles the [[Gospel of John]] in style and vocabulary)
**[[Second Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Third Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Epistle of Jude]] - [[Jude]], brother of [[James the Just|James]]
-->
*[[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] - [[John the Divine|John "the divine"]], traditionally identified as [[John the Apostle]]. <!-- This is the bible article, keep it tight.
There is still debate as to whether this is [[John the Apostle]] or another prophet by the same name. -->
==== Original language ====
Most scholars believe that all of the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. The three main textual traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]]. Together they comprise the majority of New Testament [[manuscript]]s. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the [[Latin]] (both the [[Vetus Latina]] and the Vulgate).
A few scholars believe in [[Aramaic primacy]] - that parts of the Greek New Testament are actually a translation of an Aramaic original, in particular the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. Of these, a small number accept the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Peshitta]] as representing the original, while most take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text.
==== Historic editions ====
The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in [[1516]] from the [[Johann Froben|Froben]] press. It was compiled by [[Erasmus|Desiderius Erasmus]] on the basis of the few recent Greek [[manuscript]]s, all of [[Wiktionary:Byzantine|Byzantine]] tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text.
Erasmus was a deeply religious Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his Church.
The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer [[Robert Estienne]] of Paris in [[1550]]. The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'' (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the [[Elsevier|Elzevier]] edition of [[1633]], which termed it the text "nunc ab omnibus receptum" ("now received by all"). On it the Churches of the [[Protestant Reformation]] based their translations into [[vernacular]] languages, such as the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]].
The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]], led scholars to revise their opinion of this text. [[Karl Lachmann]]’s critical edition of [[1831]], based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be rejected. Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments dating in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings. It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have, for more than a century, been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar "Byzantine [[Majority Text]]".
==The canonization of Scripture==
{{mainarticle|Biblical Canon}}
For Judaism, it is commonly thought that the canonical status of some books was discussed between [[200 BC]] and around [[100 AD]], though it is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was decided.
To the books accepted by Judaism as Scripture, Christianity subsequently added those of the [[New Testament]], the 27-book [[Biblical canon|canon]] of which was finally fixed in the [[4th century]]. As indicated above, Christianity also mostly considers certain deuterocanonical books to be part of the [[Old Testament]], though Protestantism in general accepts as part of the Old Testament only the books in the canon of Judaism and uses the term [[Apocrypha]] for the deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament has a 39-book canon– the number varies from that of the books in the [[Tanakh]] because of a different way of dividing them – while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the Old Testament. For details, see [[Books of the Bible]].
Canonicity is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible, questions discussed in the entries on [[higher criticism]] and [[textual criticism]].
==Biblical versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as 'versions', with the term 'translation' being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page.
The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of much of the Bible into Greek, and the [[Targum Onkelos]], an Aramaic version of the Bible.
Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their primary Biblical text was the Septuagint. Translations were made into Syriac, [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.
The ever-increasing number of variants in Latin manuscripts induced [[Pope Damasus]], in [[382]], to commission his secretary, Saint Jerome, to produce a reliable and consistent text. Jerome later took it on himself to make a completely new translation directly from the Hebrew of the Tanakh. This translation became the basis of the [[Vulgate]] Latin translation. Though he also translated Psalms from Hebrew, the earlier Septuagint-based version, slightly revised by him, is the text that was actually used in Church and is included in editions of the Vulgate. This includes the deuterocanonical books, also revised by Jerome, and became the official translation of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
''See'' [[Origin and Growth of the English Bible]] ''for a chart on how the English Bible came to be.''
==The Introduction of chapters and verses ==
{{mainarticle|Chapters and verses of the Bible}}; ''see [[Tanakh#Chapters_and_verse_numbers.2C_book_divisions|Tanakh]] for the Jewish textual tradition.''
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic text]] contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the [[Talmud]]ic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.
In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed [[Hebrew Bible]]s. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.
Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.
The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.
The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a [[1330]] manuscript, and for a printed edition in [[1516]]. However, for the past generation most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.
The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.
[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in [[1205]]. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the [[1400s]]. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in [[1565]] (New Testament) and [[1571]] (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]
==See also==
{{Commons|Bible}}
{{Wikisource3|EB1911:Bible|1911 Britannica entry}}
*[[Islamic view of the Bible]]
* [[Adam and Eve]]
* [[Alleged inconsistencies in the Bible]]
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Bible chronology]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Letters from the Earth]], by [[Mark Twain]]
* [[Metanarrative]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Origin and Growth of the English Bible]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[Ten Commandments|Ten Commandments (ethical)]]
* [[Ritual Decalogue|Ten Commandments (ritual)]]
* [[Jesus]]
==References==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] ''Understanding the Old Testament'' (ISBN 0139483993)
* Dever, William B. ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from?'' Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758.
* Head, Tom. ''The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible''. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0789734192.
* Miller, John W. ''The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0809135221.
* Silberman, Neil A. and colleagues. ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0684869136.
* [http://www.geocities.com/stonerdon/science_speaks.html Peter, Stoner ''Science Speaks'', Chapter 2: Prophetic Accuracy, Chicago, Moody Press, 1963 (online version available)]
*Taylor, Hawley O., "Mathematics and Prophecy," ''Modern Science and Christian Faith'', Wheaton,: Van Kampen, 1948, pp.175-183.
*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', subject: prophecy, page 1410, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986
*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', subject: Book of Ezekiel, page 580, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986
*[[Corinne Heline|Heline, Corinne]], ''New Age Bible Interpretation'', 1954, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, Santa Monica (CA), [http://www.campusi.com/ta_New_Age_Bible_Interpretation_by_Heline.htm 7 volumes]
==External links==
*[http://www.BibleGateway.com/ BibleGateway.com] (NIV, ESV, etc.)
*[http://biblestudytools.net/ BibleStudyTools.net] (NRSV, NKJV, etc.)
*[http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] Latin Vulgate
*[http://www.unboundbible.org/ UnboundBible.org] Languages other than English
*[http://bible.tmtm.com/ Bible Wiki] The Bible as a Wiki
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ Skeptic's Annotated Bible] A critical view of the Bible, using the unedited text of the King James version
{|-
|See also:
|{{wikisourcepar|Wikisource:Religious texts#Bible}}
| ... for ''King James Version'',<br> ''World English Bible'', etc.
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