Red Dwarf and Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox US Constitution}}

{{dablink|For the type of star, see [[Red dwarf]].}}

[[Image: Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg|190px|thumb| The Bill of Rights in the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]]]

{{Infobox_Television

| show_name = Red Dwarf

| image = [[Image:Red dwarf logo.png|200px|Red Dwarf logo]]

| caption = ''Red Dwarf'' logo

| format = [[Science fiction]] [[Britcom]]

| runtime = 30 mins

| creator = [[Grant Naylor]]<br />([[Rob Grant]] and [[Doug Naylor]])

| starring = [[Chris Barrie]]<br />[[Craig Charles]]<br />[[Danny John-Jules]]<br />[[Norman Lovett]]<br />[[Hattie Hayridge]]<br />[[Robert Llewellyn]]<br />[[Clare Grogan|C. P. (Clare) Grogan]]<br />[[Chloë Annett]]<br />[[Mac McDonald]]

| country = [[United Kingdom]]

| network = [[BBC2]]

| first_aired = [[15 February]] [[1988]]

| last_aired = [[5 April]] [[1999]]

| num_episodes = 52

| website = http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/

| imdb_id = 0094535

| tv_com_id = 132

}}

'''''Red Dwarf''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction]] [[sitcom]] that ran for eight series, from 1988 to 1999. It was created and originally written by [[Grant Naylor]] (a so-called 'gestalt entity', in reality a collective [[pseudonym]] for the writing duo [[Rob Grant]] and [[Doug Naylor]]).

'''Amendment IX''' (the '''Ninth Amendment''') to the [[United States Constitution]], which is part of the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], addresses rights of the people that are not specifically enumerated in the Constitution.

Despite the pastiche of science fiction used as a backdrop, ''Red Dwarf'' is primarily a character-driven comedy, with many off-the-wall science fiction elements used as complementary [[plot device]]s. For example, in the early series, a recurring source of comedy was the [[The Odd Couple|'odd couple']] relationship between Lister and Rimmer, its two central characters.

==Text==

''Red Dwarf'''s highest accolade came in 1993, when an episode from the sixth series, ''Gunmen of the Apocalypse'', won an [[International Emmy]] in the Popular Arts category. The show also won Best BBC Comedy Series at the [[British Comedy Awards]] in 1994, and attracted its highest ratings - of over eight million viewers<ref>http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck05/series_8/aftermath.html</ref> - during the eighth series in 1999. The status of the show remains uncertain, as Doug Naylor (now in sole control of the series following the departure of Rob Grant in 1995) is committed to writing and producing a spin-off [[#Red Dwarf: The Movie|feature film]], although he has stated that he hopes one day to tie up the [[cliffhanger]] upon which the eighth series ended.

{{cquote|The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.}}

==Scenario==

{{spoiler}}

==Adoption==

:''See also: [[List of Red Dwarf episodes]]''

When the US Constitution was sent to the states for ratification in 1787, [[Anti-Federalists]] argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. One argument of [[Federalism (United States)|Federalists]] against the addition of a Bill of Rights, during the debates about [[History of the United States Constitution|ratification of the Constitution]], was that a listing of rights could problematically enlarge the powers specified in [[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article One, Section 8]] of the new Constitution, by implication. For example, in [[The Federalist Papers|Federalist]] [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa84.htm 84,] [[Alexander Hamilton]] asked, "why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?" Likewise, James Madison explained to Thomas Jefferson as follows: "I conceive that in a certain degree ... the rights in question are reserved by the manner in which the federal powers are granted"<ref>James Madison, [http://www.constitution.org/jm/17881017_tj.htm Letter to Thomas Jefferson] (October 17, 1788). Madison often expressed this idea, for example in a [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mjmtext:@field(DOCID+@lit(jm050127)) letter to George Washington]on December 5, 1789 ("If a line can be drawn between the powers granted and the rights retained, it would seem to be the same thing, whether the latter be secured by declaring that they shall not be abridged, or that the former shall not be extended").</ref> in [[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article One, Section 8]] of the Constitution.

The Anti-Federalists persisted in favor of a Bill of Rights during the ratification debates, and consequently several of the state ratification conventions provided their assent with a coda attached, requesting a Bill of Rights to be added. In 1788, the ratification by the Commonwealth of Virginia attempted to solve the problem that Hamilton and the Federalists had identified, by proposing a constitutional amendment specifying:<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/const/ratva.htm Virginia Ratification Resolution] (June 26, 1788)</ref>

[[Image:RedDwarfCast.jpg|thumb|300px|The cast of ''Red Dwarf'' as of Series IV. In the foreground from left to right: Cat, Lister, and Rimmer. In the background is Kryten, and on the monitors is Holly's [[Avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]].]]

The mining ship '''[[Red Dwarf ships#Red Dwarf|Red Dwarf]]''' is a spaceship 6 miles long, 5 miles tall, and 4 miles wide belonging to the Jupiter Mining Corporation. In the first episode, an on-board radiation leak kills everyone except for low-ranking technician [[Dave Lister]] (a genial [[Liverpudlian]] slob, albeit a more intelligent one than is initially apparent), who is in suspended animation at the time, and his pregnant cat, Frankenstein, who is safely sealed in the cargo hold. Lister had smuggled Frankenstein aboard the ship following shore-leave on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], but had been caught in possession of the illegal life form and chose to be sentenced to eighteen months in [[Stasis (fiction)|stasis]] imprisonment rather than surrender his pet to be dissected. Following the accident, the ship's computer [[Holly (Red Dwarf)|Holly]] has to keep Lister in stasis until the background radiation dies down — a process that takes three million years. Lister therefore emerges as the last human being in the universe — but not the only life form on-board the ship. His former bunkmate and immediate superior [[Arnold Rimmer]] (a fussy, bureaucratic bully obsessed with rank and rules, who is at heart a neurotic coward), is resurrected by Holly in [[Holography|hologrammatic]] form after the accident to keep Lister sane, while a creature known only as [[Cat (Red Dwarf)|The Cat]] is the last known surviving member of ''[[Felis sapiens]]'', a race of humanoids that evolved in the ship's hold from Frankenstein and her kittens during the millions of years that Lister was in stasis.

{{quote|That those clauses which declare that Congress shall not exercise certain powers be not interpreted in any manner whatsoever to extend the powers of Congress. But that they may be construed either as making exceptions to the specified powers where this shall be the case, or otherwise as inserted merely for greater caution.}}

The main dramatic thrust of the series is Lister's attempt to get back to Earth (indeed, in the novels, this was introduced as a desire of his, even before the accident that left him stranded three million light-years away). Along the way, however, are frequent distractions that usually see the not-so-intrepid ''Dwarf'' crew encountering strange races and lifeforms that have developed in the intervening millions of years (although a core tenet of the series is that there are no aliens anywhere in the universe — every element of the large and bizarre mix of intelligent life within the ''Red Dwarf'' universe is in one way or another derived from Earth, a result of developments in robotics and/or genetic engineering).

This proposal ultimately led to the Ninth Amendment. In 1789, while introducing to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] twelve draft Amendments, [[James Madison]] addressed what would become the 9th Amendment as follows:<ref>James Madison,[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss11.html Speech Introducing Bill of Rights] (June 8, 1789)</ref>

Furthermore, the crew roster changes as the years go by. During the second series, the "Dwarfers" encounter the sanitation [[mechanoid]] [[Kryten]], rescuing him from a long-since crashed vessel. Initially, Kryten only appears in one episode of Series II, but by the beginning of Series III he has becomes a full time character in the series. At the end of Series V, however, disaster strikes when Lister loses Red Dwarf, having forgotten which planetoid he parked it around. This forces the crew to travel in the smaller [[Starbug]] craft for two series, with the added side-effect that they lose contact with Holly. And in Series VII, Rimmer departs the crew to take up the role of his alter-ego from a parallel universe, [[Ace Rimmer]], whose name has become a long-standing legend and a legacy passed down from dimension to dimension. Shortly afterwards, the crew find a replacement for Rimmer when they encounter another parallel version of themselves. In this universe, it was [[Kristine Kochanski]] — Lister's long-time crush and (because of merged realities) ex-girlfriend — who went into stasis, while Lister died and was brought back as a hologram. A complicated series of events leaves Kochanski stranded in 'our' universe, and she is forced to join the crew.

{{quote|It has been objected also against a [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], that, by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power, it would disparage those rights which were not placed in that enumeration; and it might follow by implication, that those rights which were not singled out, were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government, and were consequently insecure. This is one of the most plausible arguments I have ever heard against the admission of a bill of rights into this system; but, I conceive, that it may be guarded against. I have attempted it, as gentlemen may see by turning to the last clause of the fourth resolution.}}

Finally, in the eighth (and so far final) series, Red Dwarf itself is reconstructed by Kryten's [[nanobots]] that had stolen it and broken it down into its constituent atoms. In the process, the entire crew of the ship — including Rimmer — are resurrected, but the Starbug crew all find themselves sentenced to two years in the ship's brig on a set of convoluted charges. The series ends, however, with Red Dwarf being eaten away by a virus and all onboard evacuated, save for Rimmer who is left to face his (apparent) death for the second time - although the cliffhanger ending leaves this open to interpretation.

Like Hamilton, Madison was concerned that enumerating various rights could "enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution". Id. Here is the draft of the Ninth Amendment that Madison submitted to Congress in order to solve this problem:

==Characters and actors==

:''Main article: [[Red Dwarf characters]]''

{{quote|The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Id.}}

===Regular cast===

*[[Craig Charles]] plays Dave Lister.

*[[Chris Barrie]] plays Arnold Rimmer. Rimmer appears in only four episodes of Series VII (two before departing, and two in flashback).

*[[Danny John-Jules]] plays The Cat.

*[[Norman Lovett]] plays Holly in Series I, II, VII and VIII. [[Hattie Hayridge]] plays him/her in Series III to V. The character makes no appearance in Series VI.

*[[Robert Llewellyn]] plays Kryten from Series III onwards. In his original one-off appearance in Series II, Kryten was played by [[David Ross (actor)|David Ross]].

*[[Chloë Annett]] plays Kristine Kochanski in Series VII and VIII. Kochanski was originally, in Series I, II and VI, a supporting character played by [[Altered Images]] vocalist [[Clare Grogan]], (credited as CP Grogan).

This was an intermediate form of the Ninth Amendment that borrowed language from the Virginia proposal, while foreshadowing the final version. Like Madison's draft, the final text of the Ninth Amendment speaks of other rights than those enumerated in the Constitution. The character of those other rights was indicated by Madison in his speech introducing the Bill of Rights (emphasis added):

===Recurring guest characters===

*[[Red Dwarf characters#Captain Frank Hollister|Captain Frank Hollister]] (played by [[Mac McDonald]]) appears in Series VIII, two episodes of Series I and one episode of Series II.

*[[Red Dwarf characters#Olaf Petersen|Olaf Petersen]] (played by [[Mark Williams (actor)|Mark Williams]]) appeared in three episodes and is mentioned regularly when Lister talks about the days before the accident. Typically Lister refers to this character by his surname only.

*[[Red Dwarf characters#Selby and Chen|Selby and Chen]] (played by David Gillespie and Paul Bradley, respectively) appeared in three episodes altogether.

*[[Red Dwarf characters#Kill Crazy|Kill Crazy]] (played by [[Jake Wood]]) appeared in four episodes of Series VIII.

*[[Red Dwarf characters#Warden Ackerman|Warden Ackerman]] (played by [[Graham McTavish]]) appears in Series VIII.

*Baxter (played by [[Ricky Grover]]) appeared in the last three episodes of Series VIII.

*Bob the Skutter, a small maintenance robot and friend to the regular characters. Married to another Skutter named Madge.

*Ace Rimmer (also played by [[Chris Barrie]]) is an alternate version of Rimmer, from a parallel universe, and is essentially his complete opposite - a dashing, charming hero. The original Ace only appears in one episode (during series IV), and in one episode of series VI, "our" Rimmer becomes an approximation of Ace after having his cowardice removed by an emotion-leeching life form. In series VII, yet another version of Ace is encountered, and after he is killed, "our" Rimmer takes over his role.

{{quote|It has been said, by way of objection to a bill of rights....that in the Federal Government they are unnecessary, because the powers are enumerated, and it follows, that all that are not granted by the constitution are retained; that the constitution is a bill of powers, <strong>the great residuum being the rights of the people</strong>; and, therefore, a bill of rights cannot be so necessary as if the residuum was thrown into the hands of the Government. I admit that these arguments are not entirely without foundation, but they are not as conclusive to the extent it has been proposed. It is true the powers of the general government are circumscribed; they are directed to particular objects; but even if government keeps within those limits, it has certain discretionary powers with respect to the means, which may admit of abuse. Id.}}

===Guest actors===

*Actors to play more than one role in ''Red Dwarf'' include [[Tony Hawks]], [[Rupert Bates]] and [[Tony Slattery]]. Guest stars have included [[Craig Ferguson]], [[Sarah Alexander]], [[Arthur Smith (comedian)|Arthur Smith]], [[Gordon Kennedy]], [[Jack Docherty]], [[Lee Cornes]], [[Morwenna Banks]], [[Don Henderson]], [[Don Warrington]], [[Angela Bruce]], [[Koo Stark]], [[Ruby Wax]], [[Jenny Agutter]], [[Maggie Steed]], [[Jane Horrocks]], [[Geraldine McEwan]], [[Frances Barber]], [[Ainsley Harriot]] and [[Timothy Spall]].

For the Founders, "rights" (against the actions of government) were always complementary to delegated powers of government, partitioning the space of public action. Each delimits its complement. Every constitutional "right" (or "immunity" to use [[Privileges and Immunities Clause|a term in Article Four of the Constitution]]) delimits its opposing power, and every delegated power delimits its opposing right.

==Production history==

The first series aired on [[BBC2]] in 1988. Seven further series have so far been produced, and a [[film]] has been in [[development hell]] almost continually since the last series in 1999. The idea was originally developed from the sketch-series "[[Dave Hollins: Space Cadet]]", introduced on Grant and Naylor's [[BBC Radio 4]] show ''Son of Cliché''. Having first written the pilot script for ''Red Dwarf'' in 1983, former ''[[Spitting Image]]'' writers Rob Grant and Doug Naylor had hawked it around a number of places before it was finally accepted by BBC Manchester in 1986, a happy result of a spare budget being assigned for a second series of ''[[Happy Families (TV series)|Happy Families]]'' that would never arise. The show was lucky to be remounted after an electrician's strike partway through rehearsals shut the entire production down, and the first episode, "The End", finally made it onto screens on [[15 February]] [[1988]]. The creators have long admitted that without the persistence of producers and commissioners such as [[K. Paul Jackson|Paul Jackson]] and [[Peter Ridsdale Scott]], the series might never have seen the light of day.

The First through Eighth Amendments address the means by which the federal government exercises its enumerated powers, while the Ninth Amendment addresses a "great residuum" of rights that have not been "thrown into the hands of the government." The Ninth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791 upon ratification by three-fourths of the states.

Grant and Naylor wrote the first six series together (using the pseudonym Grant Naylor on the first two [[Red Dwarf#Books|novels]] and later as the name of their production company, although never on the episodes themselves) before Grant left in 1996, leaving Naylor to write the final two with a group of new and less well-known writers, notably including [[Paul Alexander]] and actor Robert Llewellyn.

==Interpretation==

For the most part, [[Ed Bye]] produced and directed the series. He left before Series V due to a scheduling clash, and [[Juliet May]] took over as director, but she parted ways with Grant and Naylor partway through the series for personal and professional reasons. Grant and Naylor took over direction of the series, in addition to writing and producing. Series VI was directed by [[Andy De Emmony]], with Bye returning for the final two series.

The Ninth Amendment has generally been regarded by the courts as negating any expansion of governmental power on account of the enumeration of rights in the Constitution, but the Amendment has not been regarded as further limiting governmental power. The U.S. Supreme Court explained this, in ''[[United Public Workers v. Mitchell]]'' {{ussc|330|75|1947}}:

Series I, II and III were made by [[Paul Jackson Productions]], with subsequent series produced by the writers' own company [[Grant Naylor Productions]], all for [[BBC North]]; all eight series were broadcast on BBC2. At the beginning of Series IV, production moved from the BBC's [[Manchester]] studios to [[Shepperton Studios|Shepperton]].

{{quote|If granted power is found, necessarily the objection of invasion of those rights, reserved by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, must fail.}}

The theme tune and incidental music were written and performed by [[Howard Goodall]], with the distinctive vocals on the theme tune courtesy of [[Jenna Russell]]. Goodall also wrote music for the show's various songs, including "Tongue Tied", with lyrics written by Grant and Naylor, which [[Danny John-Jules]] re-orchestrated and released as a Top 20 single. Craig Charles wrote, performed and sang "Cash" — from the episode "Timeslides" — with his band. Goodall's own voice can be heard in the version of the song "[[High Noon (song)|High Noon]]" in "Queeg" (Series II), and in the "Rimmer Munchkin Song" in "Blue" (Series VII).

Some jurists have asserted that the Ninth Amendment is relevant to interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Arthur Goldberg (joined by Chief Justice Warren and Justice Brennan) expressed this view in a concurring opinion in the case of ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' (1965):

A period of three years elapsed between Series VI and VII, partly due to the imprisonment and subsequent exoneration of Craig Charles, but also due to cast and crew working on other projects (notably Chris Barrie in ''[[The Brittas Empire]]'') and disputes over pay. When the series returned, it was [[filmizing|filmised]] and no longer shot in front of a live audience (a common misconception is that canned laughter was used, when in fact the completed episodes were later shown to an audience), allowing for greater use of four-walled sets, [[___location shooting]] and [[Single camera setup|single camera]] techniques. Although some critics praised the higher production values, many fans disliked the series (see "[[Red Dwarf#Mixed reactions|Mixed reactions]]"), and when the show returned two years later it had dropped use of the filmising process and restored the live audience.

{{quote|[T]he Framers did not intend that the first eight amendments be construed to exhaust the basic and fundamental rights.... I do not mean to imply that the .... Ninth Amendment constitutes an independent source of rights protected from infringement by either the States or the Federal Government....While the Ninth Amendment - and indeed the entire Bill of Rights - originally concerned restrictions upon federal power, the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the States as well from abridging fundamental personal liberties. And, the Ninth Amendment, in indicating that not all such liberties are specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments, is surely relevant in showing the existence of other fundamental personal rights, now protected from state, as well as federal, infringement.}}

In 1998, on the tenth anniversary of the show's first airing (between the releases of Series VII and VIII), the first three series of ''Red Dwarf'' were [[remastered]] and released on [[VHS]]. The remastering included reformatting the series in 14:9 widescreen, applying the same 'field-removal' film effect as Series VII, replacing model shots with computer graphics, cutting various small pieces of dialogue (and, in some cases, entire scenes), and updating music and ambient sound effects. ''[[Red Dwarf Remastered]]'' was met with a generally poor fan reaction in the UK, but massive international broadcast success. No further series were remastered and the later DVD releases of the same series reverted to the original versions, although the first episode of Series VII ("Tikka to Ride") would also include an alternate ''Remastered'' version, featuring upgraded CGI as the only difference to the original broadcast version.

Subsequent to ''Griswold'', some judges have tried to use the Ninth Amendment to justify judicially enforcing rights that are not enumerated. For example, the District Court that heard the case of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' ruled that the Ninth Amendment protected a limited right to abortion.<ref>[http://hometown.aol.com/abtrbng/roedist.htm Roe v. Wade], 314 F. Supp. 1217 (1970).</ref> However, Justice William O. Douglas rejected that view; Douglas wrote that, "The Ninth Amendment obviously does not create federally enforceable rights." See ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'' (1973).

==Spin-offs==

===Books===

The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stated as follows in ''[[Gibson v. Matthews]]'', 926 F.2d 532, 537 (6th Cir. 1991):

[[Image:Red Dwarf IWCD.jpg|thumb|100px|left|The cover to the first [[Red Dwarf: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers|''Red Dwarf'' novel]]]]

{{quote|[T]he ninth amendment does not confer substantive rights in addition to those conferred by other portions of our governing law. The ninth amendment was added to the Bill of Rights to ensure that the maxim [[Statutory interpretation#Canons of Statutory Interpretation|expressio unius est exclusio alterius]] would not be used at a later time to deny fundamental rights merely because they were not specifically enumerated in the Constitution.}}

The franchise has expanded to include four novels, written by the show's creators, Doug Naylor and Rob Grant (under the combined name of Grant Naylor).

Professor Laurence Tribe shares this view: "It is a common error, but an error nonetheless, to talk of 'ninth amendment rights.' The ninth amendment is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution."<ref>Laurence H. Tribe, ''American Constitutional Law'' 776 n. 14 (2nd ed. 1998).</ref> Likewise, Justice Antonin Scalia has expressed the same view, in ''[[Troxel v. Granville]]'' (2000):

* ''[[Red Dwarf: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers]]'' (published [[2 November]] [[1989]]) — Grant Naylor — ISBN 0-45-145201-1

* ''[[Better Than Life]]'' (published [[25 October]] [[1990]]) — Grant Naylor — ISBN 0-14-012438-1

* ''[[Last Human]]'' (published April [[1995]]) — Doug Naylor — ISBN 0-14-014388-2

* ''[[Backwards]]'' (published [[2 May]] [[1996]]) — Rob Grant — ISBN 0-14-017150-9

{{quote|The Declaration of Independence...is not a legal prescription conferring powers upon the courts; and the Constitution’s refusal to 'deny or disparage' other rights is far removed from affirming any one of them, and even farther removed from authorizing judges to identify what they might be, and to enforce the judges’ list against laws duly enacted by the people.}}

These novels contain deeper insights and more thorough backstories for the main characters, as well as more information on humanity's future state of affairs. Rather than adapting the show outright, the books provide yet another, possibly idealized version of the series' backstory. They reinterpret and reposition elements from past episodes, and even introduce ideas that would later be used in the show.

In the year 2000, the Harvard historian [[Bernard Bailyn]] gave a speech at the White House on the subject of the Ninth Amendment. He stated that the rights referred to in the Ninth Amendment are rights that may be "enacted into law." Here is how Dr. Bailyn interpreted the Ninth Amendment:<ref>Bernard Bailyn, [http://clinton2.nara.gov/Initiatives/Millennium/bbailyn.html Remarks at White House Millennium Evening] (2000).</ref>

For various reasons, Grant and Naylor decided to both work alone when writing the sequel to ''Better Than Life'', and so two completely different, contradicting sequels were made. ''Last Human'' (by Doug Naylor, who would go on to make two further television series) introduced Kochanski to unsuspecting fans and felt very much like Series VII of the TV programme, while ''Backwards'' (by Rob Grant) was more in keeping with the previous two books, feeling much like Series VI. The styles of these sequels vary wildly from the two predecessors and each other. While opinion differs strongly on which solo effort is superior, neither matched the widespread fan acclaim of the original co-written novels.

{{quote|When the federal Constitution was written the wisest minds in America decided that there should be no national Bill of Rights, not merely because most of the state constitutions already contained some such protections, but, as Madison (who would later write the federal Bill of Rights) said, 'There is a great reason to fear that a positive declaration of some of the most essential rights could not be obtained in the requisite latitude.' In other words, the enumeration of rights by the federal government, the mere listing of them and defining them, would necessarily limit their scope. 'The rights of conscience in particular [he said], if submitted to public definition, would be narrowed more than they are likely ever to be by an assumed power.' The right solution, he and others then felt, was what is implied in the present 9th Amendment: that, in addition to the rights specified by the states, there is a universe of rights, possessed by the people latent rights, still to be evoked and enacted into law.

All four books were published in [[audiobook]] format, the first two read by Chris Barrie, ''Last Human'' read by Craig Charles, and ''Backwards'' read by its author Rob Grant.

But was this workable? In any given situation, someone would have to decide whether the rights that were claimed were valid, and that would leave the existence of rights to the mercy of personal and political opinion, and no one would be safe. Some rights a core body of rights protected against the powers of the federal government would have to be specified, and the residue somehow protected in general terms. This is the compromise that we have inherited from them and that we live with, and struggle with, and benefit from, every day of our lives: in the first eight amendments of the Constitution, a carefully worded list of specific rights protected from encroachment by the federal government, together with the belief that there are not only rights protected by the states but a reservoir of other, unenumerated rights that the people retain, which in time may be enacted into law.}}

The [[BBC World Service]] re-recorded the first two books as ''The Red Dwarf Radio Show'', with Chris Barrie narrating and additional sound effects. The first series was broadcast from [[3 December]] [[1995]] to [[17 February]] [[1996]], and the second from [[13 March]] [[1997]] to [[28 March]] [[1997]].

It is important, when discussing the history of the Bill of Rights, to note that the Supreme Court held in ''[[Barron v. Baltimore]]'' (1833) that it was enforceable by the federal courts only against the federal government, and not against the states. However, in 1868, the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] was adopted, in large part to overturn that precedent, and the Supreme Court has used that Amendment, together with enabling congressional legislation, to apply some, but not all, provisions of the Bill of Rights against the states through what is called [[selective incorporation]], thereby enabling a citizen to sue the citizen's own state in federal court (see [[sovereign immunity]]). Since 1938, when the Supreme Court wrote its famous [[footnote four]], the proper application of the Bill of Rights has been an increasingly contentious issue.

An ''Omnibus'' edition of the first two books, including a few edits to the original text and some extra material such as the original script to the first episode of the TV series, was released in 1992 (ISBN 0140174664).

[[Robert Bork]], sometimes styled an "[[originalism|originalist]]", has likened the Ninth Amendment to an inkblot. Bork argued in ''The Tempting of America'' that, while the amendment clearly had some meaning, its meaning is indeterminate; because the language is opaque, its meaning is as irretrievable as it would be had the words been covered by an inkblot. According to Bork, if another provision of the Constitution were covered by an actual inkblot, judges should not be permitted to make up what might be under the inkblot lest any judges twist the meaning to their own ends (cf. [[underdeterminacy]]).

Other books include:

* ''The Official Red Dwarf Companion'' — 1992 — Bruce Dessau — ISBN 1852864567

* ''Red Dwarf VIII Scriptbook'' — 1999 — Doug Naylor (with Paul Alexander) — ISBN 1852278722

* ''Red Dwarf Programme Guide'' — 2000 — Chris Howarth & Steve Lyons — ISBN 0753504022

* ''The Space Corps Survival Manual'' — 1996 — Doug Naylor & Paul Alexander — ISBN 0749323744

* ''The Red Dwarf Quiz Book'' — 1994 — Nicky Hooks & Sharon Burnett — ISBN 0140236627

* ''Red Dwarf Log No. 1996'' — 1995 — ISBN 0434003700 (Diary)

[[originalism|Originalist]] [[Randy Barnett#Ninth Amendment|Randy Barnett has argued]] that the Ninth Amendment requires what he calls a [[presumption of liberty]]. Other originalists, such as Thomas B. McAffee, have argued that the Ninth Amendment protects the unenumerated "residuum" of rights which the federal government was never empowered to violate.<ref>Thomas B. McAffee, [http://www.stephankinsella.com/texts/mcaffee_federalism_ninth.pdf Federalism and the Protection of Rights: The Modern Ninth Amendment's Spreading Confusion], 1996 B.Y.U. Law Rev. 351</ref> Constitutional historian [[Jon Roland]] has argued,<ref>Jon Roland, [http://www.constitution.org/9ll/schol/pnur.htm Presumption of Nonauthority and Unenumerated Rights] (2006)</ref> that the Ninth Amendment included by reference all of the rights proposed by the state ratifying conventions, in addition to those enumerated in the first eight amendments.

There have also been two script books — ''Primordial Soup'' (1993, ISBN 0140178864) and ''Son Of Soup'' (1996, ISBN 0140253637) — each containing six scripts, and an extremely rare short book entitled ''Scenes From The Dwarf'' (ISBN 0146002431) was also released in 1996 as part of the [[Penguin Books|Penguin]] ''60s'' series, and contained scripts of a handful of scenes from the series.

[[Gun politics|Gun rights]] activists in recent decades have sometimes argued for a fundamental natural right to keep and bear arms that both predates the U.S. Constitution and is covered by the Constitution's Ninth Amendment; according to this viewpoint, the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]] protects only a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms.<ref>Nicholas Johnson, [http://www.guncite.com/journals/nj9th.html ''Beyond the Second Amendment: An Individual Right to Arms Viewed Through The Ninth Amendment''], 24 Rutgers L.J. 1, 64-67 (1992)</ref> In the related case of ''[[United States v. Lopez]]'', 514 U.S. 549 (1995), the Supreme Court held that while Congress has broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, it is not unlimited, and does not apply to something as far from commerce as carrying handguns.

===U.S. version===

[[Image:RedDwarfUSA.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Craig Bierko]] as Lister in ''Red Dwarf USA'']] A [[television pilot|pilot episode]] for an [[United States|American]] version (known as ''Red Dwarf USA'') was produced for [[NBC]] in 1992, though never broadcast. The show followed essentially the same story as the first two episodes of the original series compressed into one 45-minute episode, substituting American actors (including [[Craig Bierko]] as Lister, [[Chris Eigeman]] as Rimmer, and [[Hinton Battle]] as the Cat) for the British; exceptions being Llewellyn, who reprised his role as Kryten, and the British actress [[Jane Leeves]] as Holly. It was directed by [[Linwood Boomer]]

The Ninth Amendment bars denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the ''enumeration of certain rights'' in the Constitution, but does not bar denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the ''enumeration of certain powers'' in the Constitution. It is to that enumeration of powers that the courts have said we must look, in order to determine the extent of the unenumerated rights mentioned in the Ninth Amendment.<ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=330&page=75 ''United Public Workers v. Mitchell'', 330 U.S. 75 (1947)]</ref>

A later, extremely low-budget network promo consisting of scenes from the first pilot edited in with new footage (and featuring [[Terry Farrell (actress)|Terry Farrell]] as a female Cat) was also unsuccessful.

==Footnotes==

Clips from the first pilot can be found on the DVD of Series V in the featurette ''Dwarfing USA'', along with interviews with the British cast and Doug Naylor. Bootlegs of the pilots are widely circulated among ''Red Dwarf'' fans, and sold at conventions, while some low-quality recordings can be found on the Internet for downloading.

<references />

==External links==

===Red Dwarf: The Movie===

* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=953008 A Textual-Historical Theory of the Ninth Amendment] by Kurt Lash (2007)

* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=789384 The Ninth Amendment: It Means What It Says] by [[Randy Barnett]] (2006)

* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt9toc_user.html CRS Annotated Constitution: 9th Amendment] by the [[Congressional Research Service]] (2000)

* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=613621 The Lost Original Meaning of the Ninth Amendment] by Kurt Lash (2004)

* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=615701 The Lost Jurisprudence of the Ninth Amendment] by Kurt Lash (2005)

* [http://freemarketnews.com/Analysis/117/3116/2005-12-07a.asp?wid=117&nid=3116 Rights, the Constitution, and the Ninth Amendment] by [[Tibor R. Machan]] (2005)

* [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss11.html Proposed Amendments to the Constitution] by [[James Madison]] (1789)

* [http://www.stephankinsella.com/texts/mcaffee_federalism_ninth.pdf Federalism and the Protection of Rights: The Modern Ninth Amendment’s Spreading Confusion] by Thomas B. McAfee (1996)

* [http://www.constitution.org/dhbr.htm Documentary History of the Bill of Rights] -- Compilation of documents

{{US Constitution}}

Since the end of Series VIII, Doug Naylor has been attempting to get funding to make a feature length film version of the show, but on every occasion so far has been thwarted by circumstances. He has long persisted with his conviction that the making of the movie (for which the script has been written for many years) takes precedence over the production of a ninth TV series. On the Series VIII DVD documentary ''The Tank'', however, he admits to being — perhaps mindful of the age and schedules of the principal cast — close to having to make a final, outright decision of whether to continue to pursue the film, make a Series IX or some one-off TV special(s) (as ''[[Only Fools & Horses]]'' did previously), or simply end the series as it is<ref>See ''Red Dwarf VIII'' (BBC DVD, 2006), documentary "The Tank"</ref>. Naylor sent a letter to the Red Dwarf fans at DJ XI, which mostly consisted of his failed attempts to create the film, such as a fake duke of Manchester sending forged money to fund the film.

[[Category:1791 in law]]

===Tongue Tied===

[[Category:Amendments to the United States Constitution|09]]

[[de:9. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]]

The song "Tongue Tied", originally featured in a dream sequence in the series II episode "Parallel Universe", was rearranged and rerecorded by Danny John Jules (under the name 'The Cat') and released as a single in October 1993. It reached number 17 in the UK charts, and was expected to get higher, but a planned performance on ''[[Top Of The Pops]]'' never eventuated, thus halting momentum for the single. The single also included the actor's performance of the ''Red Dwarf'' theme song.

===Specials===

On [[February 14th]] [[1998]], the night before the tenth anniversary of the show's first broadcast episode, [[BBC2]] devoted an evening of special programming to the series, under the banner of ''Red Dwarf Night''. The evening consisted of a mixture of new, specially-recorded content and existing material, and was introduced and linked by famed actor and ''Dwarf'' fan [[Patrick Stewart]]. In addition, a series of special take-offs on BBC2's famous [[Station identification|idents]], featuring the "2" logo falling in love with a [[skutter]], were used.

The night began with ''Can't Smeg, Won't Smeg'', a spoof of the popular cookery programme ''[[Can't Cook, Won't Cook]]'', presented by that show's host [[Ainsley Harriott]] (who had himself earlier appeared in ''Red Dwarf'', albeit under heavy make-up, prior to his career as a celebrity chef). Taking place out of the continuity of the series (not least as it features both Kochanski and the hologram Rimmer, who never actually met in the series, on-board Starbug), two teams (Kryten and Lister versus Rimmer and the Cat, although the Cat quickly departs to be replaced by alter ego [[Duane Dibbley]]) are challenged to make the best chicken [[vindaloo]]. The show was part-scripted by Paul Alexander, and part-[[improvised]] by the cast.

After a compilation [[bloopers]] show, featuring out-takes that had already been seen on the various ''Smeg Ups'' releases (see [[#DVD and video|DVD and video]]) but new linking material from the cast, the next special programme was ''Universe Challenge'', a take-off of the ''[[University Challenge]]'' (or ''[[College Bowl]]'' in the USA) format. Hosted by original ''University Challenge'' presenter [[Bamber Gascoigne]] (following an introduction in which Chris Barrie mimicked current host [[Jeremy Paxman]]), the show saw a team of knowledgeable ''Dwarf'' fans defeat a team consisting of Chris Barrie, Craig Charles, Robert Llewellyn, Chloe Annett and Danny John Jules.

''Universe Challenge'' was followed by ''The Red Dwarf A-Z'', a half-hour documentary special that chose a different aspect of the show to focus on for each letter of the alphabet. Talking heads on the episode included [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Terry Pratchett]], original producer [[K. Paul Jackson|Paul Jackson]], and Patrick Stewart, in addition to an appearance from two (officially-licensed) [[Daleks]]. Finally, the night ended with a showing of the [[Emmy]] award-winning episode from 1993, ''Gunmen of the Apocalypse''.

Another one-off ''Dwarf'' special was produced in November of that year - a short sketch serving as a prelude to the eighth series that was broadcast as part of the annual [[Children in Need]] fundraising night. The sketch saw the ''Dwarf'' crew (again featuring both Rimmer and Kochanski - with Rimmer still sporting his holographic H to avoid spoiling the nature of his return) onboard the newly-redesigned Blue Midget, discussing fund-raising and [[telethon]]s.

''Red Dwarf A-Z'' and ''Can't Smeg, Won't Smeg'' have both since been released on DVD (on the releases for series II and IV respectively), but rights issues have prevented the release of ''Universe Challenge''.

==DVD and video==

All eight series are available on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4, with each release (except for Series II) accompanied by an original documentary about the making of the respective series and a bonus disc filled with extra material. The DVD releases have been praised<ref>[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck01/written_up.html Round-up of Series VIII DVD reviews by the official site]. The comments on the extras in these reviews are fairly indicative of the reaction each of the eight releases have received.</ref> for their particularly extensive bonus material, which includes cast commentaries, exhaustive deleted scenes, raw effects footage, previously-broadcast one-offs and specials about the show, amateur [[fan film]]s and much more, including — in one instance — a special audio/part-animated version of an unmade episode, performed by Chris Barrie. There are also various country-specific releases, usually without extras, across the globe.

Regions 2 and 4 have also seen the release of ''Just The Shows: Volume 1'', a special digipack boxset containing all the episodes from Series I–IV without any extras. Volume 2 will be released in the UK on [[October 2]] [[2006]]. In late 2006, meanwhile, an [[DVD TV Games|Interactive Quiz DVD]] entitled ''Red Dwarf: Beat The Geek'' will be released. The quiz will allow "hardcore fans" to compete against casual viewers, in addition to offering general knowledge questions for friends/family not ''au fait'' with the series <ref>[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck01/dvd_beat_the_geek_210406.html News report on ''Beat The Geek'' release]</ref>. The DVD will be hosted by Norman Lovett and Hattie Hayridge, both reprising their roles as Holly.

Prior to the DVD releases, all eight series had been available on VHS. All the videos are now deleted, but none — save for "Six Of The Best" — are particularly rare. Three episodes of Series VII were also released as special "Xtended" versions with extra scenes and no laugh track (these "Xtended" episodes would later be included on the DVD), while the ''[[Red Dwarf Remastered|Remastered]]'' versions of Series I–III were released individually and in a complete box-set. A special limited edition box-set, ''Six Of The Best'', was released in 1997, featuring one episode from each (then-existing) series selected by the writers, and an audio CD of discussion and commentary by Rob Grant, Doug Naylor and Ed Bye (this discussion would later be split up and used as extras and easter eggs on the DVD releases).

For the initial release of the VHS editions, the videos were named after the first episode on the tape, as were other BBC videos at the time. This was changed for the second half of Series I, as the BBC already had another series called [[Waiting for God (TV series)|Waiting for God]] (The title of the fourth episode in the series) so the video was named after the fifth episode, "Confidence and Paranoia". Because of this the episode summaries on the back of the tape were mixed up with the second episode being listed first. The first video of Series VI was named after the third episode on the tape, presumably because the [[Emmy]]-winning episode ''Gunmen of the Apocalypse'' was seen as being more prestigious than ''Psirens'', the first episode of the series.

Finally, two [[blooper|outtake]] videos were released, the famed ''Smeg Ups'' in 1994, and its sequel ''Smeg Outs'' in 1995. ''Smeg Ups'' contained out-takes from Series IV–VI, with brand new specially-recorded links performed by Robert Llewellyn as Kryten, and featured the never-before-seen original ending of the Series VI finale "Out Of Time". ''Smeg Outs'' featured out-takes from the first three series, with more new links (now also featuring Craig Charles as Lister), in addition to the full-length video for "Tongue Tied". These videos were a strong commercial success, and ''Red Dwarf'''s out-takes remain among the most famous in television. All the out-takes featured on the videos have now been included on the relevant DVDs, but the links have yet to be re-released. However, ''Smeg Ups'' is set to be re-released on [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]] in June 2006, with ''Smeg Outs'' to follow 'for Christmas' <ref>[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck01/future_echoes.html Information on future DVD releases]</ref>.

Meanwhile, three episodes — "Marooned", "Quarantine" and "Cassandra" — are also available to view on selected mobile phones on a "ROK Chip".

==Notable series characteristics==

=== Fandom ===

''Red Dwarf'' is known for its extremely [[cult following|cult]] status, largely due to its position in the [[sci-fi]] genre, and also due to the fact that it initially garnered low viewing figures (starting fairly strongly, but dropping off to the point where a second series may not have even been commissioned <ref>[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck05/series_1/aftermath.html Series I - Aftermath]</ref>) but began to gain momentum on repeat showings and on video. That said, many have in recent years questioned its position as 'true' cult nowadays, since it is one of the most well-known sitcoms ever to come out of the UK: it ranked 18th in the [[BBC]]'s [[Britain's Best Sitcom|100 Best British Sitcoms]], received over eight million viewers during its eighth series <ref>[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/deck05/series_8/aftermath.html Series VIII - Aftermath]</ref>, and has been syndicated worldwide to great success.

Nevertheless, ''Red Dwarf'' does attract a certain kind of fan, often a curious hybrid of the [[sci-fi]] [[geek]] and the comedy buff. Most-commonly known as 'Dwarfers' or 'Smegheads', ''Red Dwarf'' fans are also notable among the sci-fi community for their large female proportion, and their propensity for obsessive trivia about the show.

Its official fan club is still going strong, some seven years after the show was last seen on air, and the annual convention "Dimension Jump" is consistently well-attended. There are also still a significant number of active fansites devoted to the show.

Notable celebrity fans of the show include [[Bill Clinton]], Stephen Hawking, Terry Pratchett and Patrick Stewart, who famously recalled during ''Red Dwarf Night'' in 1998 an incident whereby he was channel-hopping and came across an episode of the series, initially believing it to be 'a rip-off of ''[[Star Trek]]''' before it made him laugh and he became hooked.

===Mixed reactions===

The many changes that were made to the series' cast, setting, creative teams and even production values from series to series have meant that opinions differ greatly between fans as to the quality of certain series. In particular, Series VII was seen by many as a major disappointment — while much slicker and higher-budget in appearance, the shift away from outright [[sitcom]] and into something approaching [[comedy drama]] did not impress the majority of long-standing fans. Furthermore, the attempt to then shift back into traditional sitcom format for Series VIII was greeted with a response that was similarly lukewarm — and at times downright hostile — by many fans who felt that the level of humour in that series was far below that which they'd come to expect from the show. There was also a significant amount of criticism aimed at the decision to resurrect the entire crew of ''Red Dwarf'', as many felt this detracted from the series' central premise of [[Dave Lister|Lister]] being the last human being alive.<ref>[http://www.ganymede-titan.info/articles/underfire.php Ganymede & Titan - "Under Fire"], 4th April 2003</ref>

On the other hand, there are many ''Red Dwarf'' fans who feel that Series VII and VIII, either individually or as a whole, are the equal of — if not superior to — the earlier series, and the topic is therefore the subject of constant fervent debate among the show's fandom<ref>[http://www.ganymede-titan.info/articles/likevii.php Ganymede & Titan - "Why I Actually Like Series VII"], 7th November 2004</ref>. Similar discussions revolve around the quality of Series VI (seen by some as the strongest series, but by others as a descent into formulaic comedy with an unwelcome change of setting), although not to the same extent; and there are even those who argue that the show lost its way with the significant changes made after the second series.

Within the context of British comedy in general, meanwhile, ''Red Dwarf'' occupies a curious position. While revered by many — and still a successful programme, as recent DVD sales have shown (Series IV and V were the third and fourth best-selling BBC DVDs respectively in 2005 <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/bbcworldwide/worldwidestories/pressreleases/2005/06_june/annual_review_2005.shtml BBC report on DVD sales], 6th June 2005</ref>) — it is also often looked down upon by those in the comedy fraternity{{fact}}. This could be the result of any number of factors — its [[niche]] content, the fact that its writers largely worked alone and are noted for little else in the industry, or the 'unfashionable' status of some of its cast members{{fact}}.

===Invented words===

====Expletives====

''Red Dwarf'' famously employed a vocabulary of [[List of fictional expletives|fictional expletives]] in order to avoid using potentially-offensive [[expletive]]s in the show, and to give nuance to futuristic colloquial language. By far, the most famous example is '[[smeg (vulgarism)|smeg]]'. Variations of the word include: 'smegger', '[[smeghead]]', 'smeg off',

'smeg-for-brains', 'smeg-a-rama', and 'smegging hell'. The writers of ''Red Dwarf'' have stated that they invented the word and that it has no connection with any similar real words, such as '[[smegma]]'. However, [[Lexicography|lexicographer]] Tony Thorne, in his 1990 ''Dictionary of Contemporary Slang'' (ISBN 074752856X), reports instances of 'smeg' (and derivatives) being used as a term of 'mild contempt and even affection' among 'schoolboys, students and punks' as early as the mid-1970s — a decade or so prior to the inception of the ''Red Dwarf'' phenomenon — and unequivocally traces the [[etymology]] of the term back to '[[smegma]]'.

Other invented expletives and [[euphemism]]s include 'goit' (one who is annoying or awkward; perhaps adapted from the words 'git' and 'oik' or referring to someone with the condition [[goitre]]) and 'gimboid' (one who is stupid or clumsy; possibly an adaptation of the word '[[gimp]]'). Another term of abuse used in the show was the word 'gwenlan', the last name of Gareth Gwenlan, a former [[BBC]] head of comedy who had once passed on the show.

====Other====

*'''Bazookoid''': the Red Dwarf crew's weapon of choice is the ''bazookoid''. Originally a piece of mining equipment, the crew have adapted it for offensive purposes. The bazookoid fires an energy charge that can be set to heat seek. Obviously derived from the word [[bazooka]].

*The currency in use at the time Red Dwarf left the [[Solar System]] was the '''[[dollarpounds|dollarpound]]''', divided into one hundred '''pennycents'''. It is also sometimes referred to as the '''buckquid'''.

*'''GELF''': a class of beings that makes recurring appearances in the programme is the GELF, an [[acronym]] for '''G'''enetically '''E'''ngineered '''L'''ife '''F'''orms. This term was also used in the unrelated American series ''[[seaQuest DSV]]'', which aired for three seasons in the early 1990s. As Grant and Naylor were keen never to include aliens in their series, GELFs are man-made beings, as are all the life-forms the ''Red Dwarf'' crew encounters — see also references to simulants and the [[Polymorph]].

*'''Jozxyqk''': in the episode "Bodyswap", Cat plays the word ''jozxyqk'' in a game of ''[[Scrabble]]'', claiming it to be the sound you make when you get your sexual organs trapped in something.

*'''Quagaar''': the name of the species in which Rimmer believes will make him a real body, in the episode "Waiting for God". It turns out that the Quagaars never existed, the pod that he believed they resided in was actually a Red Dwarf garbage pod, while the Quagaar body he believed he had found was actually the decomposing remains of a roast chicken.

*'''Shash''': in the Series V episode "The Inquisitor", Kryten refers to a statement made by Lister as 'complete and utter shash', leaving the viewer to assume that 'shash' is synonymous with 'nonsense'.

*'''Simulant''': a [[mechanoid]] that despises humans. They were created for a war that never happened, and are still floating around the unknown parts of space. The Red Dwarf crew occasionally run into simulants.

*'''Zero-Gee Football''': the main sport to have survived into the future is [[American football]], which is now played in zero-gravity. Lister's favourite player is Jim Bexley Speed, who plays the Roof Attack position for the [[London]] Jets and holds the single-season record for most cubic yardage. Interestingly, the game derives from American football rather than [[Football (soccer)|soccer]], despite the fact that ''Red Dwarf'' is a British series.

===Continuity===

''Red Dwarf'' is particularly known for its creators' lax attitude towards continuity. As such, there are many facts and events that go contradicted (sometimes multiple times) from series to series. In the beginning, changing such things as the number of people on-board the ship, or the number of times Rimmer took his astronavigation exam, was a result of Grant and Naylor not bothering to check their facts because they assumed that no-one else would either. Once the show began to attract a quite large fan base, however, such errors began to be gleefully pointed out by fans the world over, to the extent that they became one of the series' most notable features. Most of the series' continuity errors are therefore now treated with a certain amount of tongue-in-cheek reverence, and cheerfully ignored (just as Grant and Naylor ignored them when writing the show). Nevertheless, highlights include:

*Probably the most famed example is of Lister having had his appendix out twice, as it is removed by Legion in Series VI, despite the fact that Rimmer 'remembers' having had it removed as part of the memories he is given by Lister in "Thanks For The Memory". [[Rob Grant]] covers this in an interview by stating that Lister regrew his appendix during the episode "DNA", while another explanation is found in [[Doug Naylor]]'s novel ''Last Human'', in which it is revealed that Lister was born with a double appendix. In the Smeg Ups Bloopers video, Kryten answered a fan letter stating that since Lister enjoyed the procedure so much, he did it again.

*In Series I, Lister has shared a total of 171 words with Kochanski (he had a better verbal relationship with his potted plant) and had never asked her out. By Series IV, they had dated for three months, before she dumped him for a catering officer named Tim.

*The number of people aboard the ship is 169 in Series I, rose to 1,169 in Series IV, and was implicitly reverted to 169 in "The Inquisitor". In the novels, meanwhile, the ship had had a complement of 11,169 prior to the radiation leak.

*References to the series' pre-accident time period vary, with Lister describing himself as 'an enlightened 23rd century guy', even though the radiation leak is said to have happened in the 21st century, and Lister was supposedly abandoned as a baby in the 22nd.

*Lister drops a tombstone on one foot in the episode "Thanks for the Memory", and the plaster cast eventually appears on the other. This was due to Craig having to leave the set early as his wife had gone into labour, and a stand-in actor (actually the show's production manager Mike Agnew) subsequently wearing the cast on the wrong foot.

*In the Series 3 finale "The Last Day", Kryten finds himself fully capable of lying to his go-faster-stripes replacement Hudzen when the former convinces the latter that there is no Silicon Heaven. However, Kryten does not learn to lie until the fourth series opener "Camille".

*In the episode "White Hole", Lister plays pool with planets in order to "block up" the time-spewing white hole of the title. At the end of the episode, time is restored to a point before the "game" occurred, thus removing any knowledge of it. However, in the following series' episode "Demons & Angels", Lister makes reference to the event.

One way in which many of the series-to-series continuity errors can be explained away is by exploring the possibilities of different series taking place in alternate dimensions. Indeed, this is often used as a general explanation for the many changes in style (and characters' histories) between Series II and III — with many fans taking the words 'THE SAME GENERATION... NEARLY' in the opening scrolling text of the episode "Backwards" as indicative of this. Indeed, it is at this point in the series that Grant and Naylor began to introduce elements from the novels' continuity (such as Lister and Kochanski having actually had a prior relationship) into the series.

A fan-written document entitled the [http://www.ganymede-titan.info/docs/pip/pip1.php Plot Inconsistencies Project] has circulated around the Internet for many years. Contributed to by a large variety of ''Red Dwarf'' fans, it documents just about every known continuity error in the show, in addition to attempting to come up with logical, in-continuity explanations for many of them, and was even used as reference by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor when writing the segment of ''Smeg Ups'' entitled "The 10 Most Asked Things About ''Red Dwarf''".

===Pastiche and parody===

While ''Red Dwarf'' is a comedy series, there is a mistaken belief that it exists solely as a 'parody' of existing sci-fi shows. This, however, is untrue — the sci-fi elements of the series are always treated seriously by Grant and Naylor, and indeed there are many concepts introduced by the series that would later go on to be used by more "serious" programmes. Nevertheless, like many sitcoms of its era, a number of its episodes contain references to other (not always sci-fi) films and television shows. These include:

*"The End" — the first two series' opening theme is based on the soundtrack for ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''.

*"Kryten" — Kryten's favourite soap ''Androids'' is a parody of the real-life television show ''[[Neighbours]]''. Later, Kryten imitates [[Marlon Brando]] in ''[[The Wild One]]''. Kryten's name is taken from the play [[The Admirable Crichton]].

*"Queeg" — Queeg's name comes from ''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'', whilst Holly's line 'This is mutiny, Mr. Queeg' is based on ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty]]''. "The Ballad of ''[[High Noon]]''" plays as Holly goes to confront Queeg, and Holly's death is a parody of HAL's death in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.

*"Backwards" — The episode opens with high-speed text, in the style of the introduction from the ''[[Star Wars]]'' films. Lister and the Cat talk about ''[[The Flintstones]]'' in the opening scene.

*"Marooned" — The [[TARDIS]] from ''[[Doctor Who]]'' can be seen, hidden in the hangar for the very observant.

*"Polymorph" — The episode was based on ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]''. The cargo bay scene is supposed to resemble a scene from ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. The Heat-seekers produce a sound similar to that of the ''Star Wars'' light sabres.

*"The Last Day" — When Kryten asks 'Is this the human value you call "friendship"?', Lister gives the grumpy response 'Don't give me this ''[[Star Trek]]'' crap, it's too early in the morning!' In the same episode, a replacement robot named Hudzen 10 appears, a reference to the character of Hudson in ''[[Upstairs, Downstairs]]''.

*"Camille" — A parody of the popular film ''[[Casablanca]]'', which also featured a scene where the Cat and Lister discuss [[Hammy Hamster]] from ''[[Tales of the Riverbank]]''. This episode may also be influenced by the ''[[Star Trek]]'' episode "The Man Trap".

*"DNA" — Features the line 'How can the same smeg happen to the same guy twice?', a reference to the ''[[Die Hard]]'' movies. The Curry Monster's demise is in the manner of the death of the shark in ''[[Jaws]]''. Furthermore, the "Man Plus" is an amalgamation of Lister and [[Robocop]].

*"Dimension Jump" — The character of Ace Rimmer owes something to [[James Bond 007]]. The sound track was inspired by ''[[Top Gun (film)|Top Gun]]'s'' "Take My Breath Away".

*"Meltdown" — The scene where Rimmer inspects the Waxdroid troops resembles a scene in ''[[Full Metal Jacket]]''. This episode also includes references, direct and indirect, to ''[[The Dirty Dozen]]''

*"The Inquisitor" — This episode was heavily inspired by the film ''[[The Terminator]]'' and its sequels. The Inquisitor himself bears a passing resemblance to [[Darth Vader]], or more closely [[Hordak]], the villain from the 80s cartoon series [[She-Ra: Princess of Power]].

*"Terrorform" — When Kryten offlines he listens to a remix of ''[[Copacabana]]''.

*"Gunmen Of The Apocalypse" — The showdown scene pays tribute to ''High Noon''.

*"Stoke Me A Clipper" — Opens with another 007-esque sequence.

*"Beyond a Joke" — The crew visit [[Jane Austen]]'s ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' World on the A.R. Machine.

*"Epideme" — The Epideme virus (whose speech is a parody of the stereotypical game show host) says the line 'And tonight, Dave Lister, assistant vending machine sub-operative and spice food connoisseur, THIS IS YOUR DEATH!', a reference to the show ''[[This Is Your Life]]''.

*"Pete: Part 1" —- The story ''Pete'' features a rampaging ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', similar to that in ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'', Although quite '''clearly''' not at all influenced by the film apart from a possible aspect of appearance

*"Pete: Part 2" — Kryten's pet penis, Archie, appears to burst out of the Cat's chest, spoofing a similar moment in ''Alien''.

==References==

<references/>

==See also==

*[[Red Dwarf characters]]

*[[List of Red Dwarf episodes]]

*[[Red Dwarf ships]]

*[[British sitcom]]

*[[Britain's Best Sitcom]]

*[[List of television series that include time travel]]

*[[Chinface]]

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

*[http://www.reddwarf.co.uk/ Official ''Red Dwarf'' site]

*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/tv/red-dwarf/faq/ ''Red Dwarf'' FAQ]

*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094535/ Red Dwarf] entry at the IMDb

*[http://www.reddwarffanclub.com/ The Official ''Red Dwarf'' Fan Club]

*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/r/reddwarf_7775370.shtml ''Red Dwarf'' at the BBC Comedy Guide]

*[http://www.reddwarf.nildram.co.uk/rd-seasons.htm Red Dwarf Scripts]

*[http://www.observationdome.org/wiki DwarfWiki from Observation Dome]

*[http://groups.msn.com/DrumjaysReality/ Red Dwarf Props, Costumes and Collectables]

*[http://www.whitehole-reddwarf.co.uk/ The White Hole - Fansite]

*[http://www.ganymede-titan.info/ Ganymede & Titan - Fansite]

*[http://www.sadgeezer.com/html/Sections+index-req-viewarticle-artid-139-page-1.html The SadGeezers Guide to ''Red Dwarf''] Episodes, characters, ships and culture guides and resources

===Cast links===

*[http://www.normanlovett.co.uk/norman.htm Website of Norman Lovett (Holly)]

*[http://www.llew.co.uk/ Website of Robert Llewellyn (Kryten)]

*[http://www.chrisbarrie.co.uk/ Website of Chris Barrie (Rimmer)]

*[http://www.dannyjohn-jules.com/ Website of Danny John Jules (Cat)]

[[Category:BBC television sitcoms]]

[[Category:Fictional spacecraft]]

[[Category:Programs broadcast by YTV]]

[[Category:Red Dwarf|Red Dwarf]]

[[Category:Science fiction television series]]

this info is not reliable

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