|
'''Game Oriented Assembly Lisp''' (or '''GOAL''') is a computer game programming language developed by [[Andy Gavin]] and the [[Jak and Daxter]] team at [[Naughty Dog]]. It was written using [[Allegro Common Lisp]] and used in the development of the entire [[Jak and Daxter]] series of games.
'''Apartheid''' is an [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] word meaning "separation" or literally "aparthood" (or "apartness"). In English, it has come to mean any legally sanctioned system of [[ethnic]] [[segregation]], such as existed in [[South Africa|The Republic of South Africa]] between [[1948]] and [[1990]]. The first recorded use of the word is in [[1917]], during a speech by [[Jan Smuts]], who became [[Prime Minister]] of South Africa in 1919.
Syntactically GOAL resembles [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], though with many idiosyncratic features inspired by other languages such as classes, inheritance, and virtual functions. An example of what GOAL code looks like can be found at [http://lists.midnightryder.com/pipermail/sweng-gamedev-midnightryder.com/2005-August/003804.html]. GOAL encourages an [[imperative programming]] style: programs tend to be comprised of sequence of events to be executed rather than the [[functional programming]] style of functions to be evaluated recursively. This is a diversion from [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], which allows such [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effects]] but does not encourage imperative style.
== Apartheid in South Africa from day to day ==
Non-whites were excluded from national government and were unable to vote except in elections for segregated bodies which had no power. Non-whites were not allowed to run businesses or professional practises in any areas designated as being for whites only. Blacks (except for a few who had "Section 10" rights), being in excess of 70% of the population, were excluded from all but a small proportion of the country, unless they had a [[dompas|pass]] which was impossible for most to get. Implementation of this policy resulted in the confiscation of property and the forced removal of millions of blacks. A pass was only issued to someone who had approved work - spouses and children had to be left behind. A pass was issued for one magisterial district confining the (black) holder to that area only. Being without a valid pass made a black person subject to immediate arrest, summary trial and "deportation" to the "homeland". Police vans containing [[sjambok]] wielding police roamed the "white area" to round up the "illegal" blacks. The land assigned to blacks was typically very poor land unable to support the population forced onto it. Blacks were prohibited from holding many jobs and were not allowed to employ whites. Hospitals were segregated, the white hospitals being the match of any in the western world, the black ones being comparitively seriously understaffed and underfunded and far too few in number. Ambulances were segregated forcing the race of the person to be correctly identified when the ambulance was called. A "white" ambulance would refuse to take a black to hospital. Black ambulances typically contained little or no medical equipment. In the 1970's each black child's education cost the state only a tenth of each white child. Higher education was practically impossible for most blacks: entry requirements disqualified all but a handful of them from attending world-class universities. Beaches were racially segregated, with the majority (including all of the best ones) reserved for whites. Trains and buses were segregated. White trains had no third class carriages, while black trains were overcrowded and had only third class carriages. Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses at white ones. Park benches were all labeled "Europeans Only". Public swimming pools and libraries were racially segregated but there were practically no black pools nor black libraries. There were almost no parks, cinemas, sports fields or any amenities except police stations in black areas. Cinemas in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks. Restaurants and hotels were not allowed to admit blacks (except as staff). Black areas rarely had plumbing or electricity. Black policemen were not allowed to arrest whites. Blacks were not allowed to buy most alcoholic beverages. A black could be subject to the death penalty for raping a white, but a white raping a black was faced only a fine, and oftentimes not even that. Membership of trade unions was not allowed by blacks until the [[1980's]], and any "political" trade union was banned. Strikes were banned and severely repressed. Blacks were taxed on income as low as R30/month (approx GBP15 in the 70's), the white threshold was much higher.
Like many modern implementations of Common [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], GOAL does not run in an interpreter, but instead is compiled directly into [[PlayStation 2]] machine code for execution. It offers limited facilities for [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]], relying extensively on runtime support. It offers dynamic memory allocation primitives designed to make it well-suited to running in constant memory on a video game console. GOAL has extensive support for [[Inline expansion|inlined]] assembly code using a special <code>rlet</code> form[http://lists.midnightryder.com/pipermail/sweng-gamedev-midnightryder.com/2005-August/003804.html], allowing programmers to freely mix assembly and higher-level constructs within the same function.
Apartheid pervaded South African culture, as well as the law. A white entering a shop would be served first, ahead of blacks already in the queue, irrespective of age, dress, or any other factors. Until the [[1980's]], blacks were always expected to step off the pavement to make way for any white pedestrian. A white boy would be referred to as "klein baas" (little boss) perhaps through gritted teeth by a black; a grown black man would be referred to as "boy", to his face, by whites.
The GOAL compiler is implemented in [[Allegro Common Lisp]]. It supports a long term compiling listener session which gives the compiler knowledge about the state of the compiled and therefore running program, including the symbol table. This, in addition to dynamic linking, allows a function to be edited, recompiled, uploaded, and inserted into a running game without having to restart. The process is similar to the "edit and continue" feature offered by some [[C++]] compilers, but allows the programmer to replace arbitrary amounts of code (even up to entire object files), and does not interrupt the running game with the debugger. This feature was used to implement code as well as level streaming in the [[Jak and Daxter]] games.
GOAL's first use was for the original [[Jak and Daxter]] PS2 game; the predecessor language, GOOL, was also developed by Andy Gavin for [[Crash Bandicoot (video game)|Crash Bandicoot]].
==Motivations behind the implementation of apartheid==
Many sociologists find it interesting to examine what moved the apartheid policy makers and what view of the world was held by the many otherwise fair-minded people to justify such discrimination.
It is conventional to consider apartheid to centre on the beliefs that (i) other races are inferior, (ii) inferior treatment of "inferior" races is appropriate, and (iii) such treatment should be enforced by law. However, there have been and continue to be academic apologists for apartheid who hold that although the South African implementation of apartheid was flawed, it was intended by its architects to be a system which would separate the races, thus preventing the "Whites" (and other minorities) from being "swamped" and losing their identity, but would would nevertheless treat the races fairly and equally. [[Herman Giliomee]] in his book ''The Afrikaners'' describes how many in the intellectual leadership of the Afrikaners were genuinely well-meaning. He leaves unanswered, however, the question of how the intellectual elite were able to play the "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil" game so well and for so long, although faced with the daily cruelties of apartheid.
A case in point is the [[Afrikaner Broederbond]] document referenced below. Therein is afirmed the Afrikaner belief in democracy and in Christian principles. Their view of democracy, however, systematically excluded non-whites, and their understanding of Christian principles did not extend to treating their Black neighbours equally. It would appear that they regarded blacks as either inferior or "too different" to be treated on an equal basis.
One explanation used by apologists to excuse the rank and file white South Africans is that once apartheid had been implemented to the point where its victims were no longer citizens of South Africa, but instead citizens of the nominally independent [[Bantustan|"homelands"]] who worked in South Africa as holders of temporary work permits, they no longer regarded themselves as responsible for their welfare.
The South African government attempted to divide the internationally recognised state of South Africa into a number of statelets. Some eight-seven percent of the land was reserved for whites, [[Coloured|coloureds]], and [[Asians in South Africa|Indians]]. About thirteen percent of the land was divided into ten fragmented [[Bantustan|"homelands"]] which were given "independence," although autonomy was more theoretical than actual: the South African army would intervene to remove "homeland" governments that implemented policies not to South Africa's liking. The South African government attempted to draw an equivalence between their view of black "citizens" of the "homelands" and the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] view of illegal immigrants from Eastern Europe and Latin America, respectively.
Where South Africa differed from other countries is that while other countries were dismantling discriminatory legislation and were becoming more open on issues of race, South Africa was constructing a labyrinth of discriminatory racial legislation. That white South Africans considered the implementation of apartheid necessary may have been motivated by [[demography|demographics]]; as a minority that was shrinking as a percentage of the total population, there was widespread unease at the thought of being swamped by the black majority, and of losing their identity through intermarriage if that were permitted.
== History of apartheid in South Africa ==
South Africa was colonised by the [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[England|English]] from the [[17th century]] onwards. As was typically the case in the [[Africa]]n [[colony|colonies]], the [[Europe]]an settlers dominated the [[indigenous people|indigenous]] population through [[military]] and [[politics|political]] control and the control of land and wealth. In the years following the victory of the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] in the general [[election]] of [[1948]], a large number of laws were enacted, further instituting the dominance of white people over other races.
The principal apartheid laws were as follows:
*''The [[Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act]]'' ([[1949]])
*Amendment to ''The [[Immorality Act]]'' ([[1950]])
**This law made it a criminal offence for a white person to have any [[human sexual behavior|sexual relations]] with a person of a different race.
*''The [[Population Registration Act]]'' (1950)
**This law required all [[citizen]]s to register as black, white or coloured.
*''The [[Suppression of Communism Act]]'' (1950)
**This law banned any opposition [[political party|party]] the [[government]] chose to label as "[[communism|communist]]".
*''The [[Group Areas Act]]'' ([[April 27|27 April]] [[1950]])
**This law barred people of particular races from various [[urban]] areas.
*''The [[Reservation of Separate Amenities Act]]'' ([[1953]])
**This law prohibited people of different races from using the same public amenities, such as [[drinking fountain]]s, [[restroom]]s, and so on.
*''The [[Bantu Education Act]]'' (1953)
**This law brought in various measures expressly designed to reduce the level of [[education]] attainable by black people.
*''The [[Mines and Work Act]]'' ([[1956]])
**This law formalised racial [[discrimination]] in [[employment]].
*''The [[Promotion of Black Self-Government Act]]'' ([[1958]])
**This law set up nominally independent "homelands" for black people. In practice, the South African government had a strong influence over these [[bantustans]].
* ''[[Black Homeland Citizenship Act]]'' ([[1971]])
**This law changed the status of the inhabitants of the 'homelands' so that they were no longer citizens of South Africa, and therefore had none of the [[right]]s that came with citizenship.
On [[21 March]] [[1960]], 20,000 black people congregated in [[Sharpeville]] to demonstrate against the requirement for blacks to carry [[Dompas|identity card]]s (under the stipulations of the [[Pass Law]]). [[Police]] opened fire on the demonstrators, killing 69 and injuring 180. All the victims were black. Most of them had been shot in the back. [[Colonel J. Pienaar]], the senior police officer in charge on the day, was quoted as saying
:''"Hordes of natives surrounded the police station. My car was struck with a stone. If they do these things they must learn their lesson the hard way."''
The event became known as the [[Sharpeville Massacre]]. In its aftermath the government banned the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) and the [[Pan Africanist Congress]] (PAC).
The [[United Nations]] [[General Assembly]] passed [[UN General Assembly Resolution 1761|Resolution 1761]] on [[6 November]] [[1962]] which condemned South Africa's racist apartheid policies and called for all UN member states to cease [[military]] and [[economics|economic]] relations with South Africa.
In [[1964]] [[Nelson Mandela]], leader of the ANC, was sentenced to [[life imprisonment]].
In [[1974]] the government issued the ''Afrikaans Medium Decree'' which forced all schools to use the [[Afrikaans language]] when teaching blacks [[mathematics]], [[social sciences]], [[geography]] and [[history]] at the [[secondary education|secondary school]] level. [[Punt Janson]], the Deputy Minister of [[Bantu]] Education was quoted as saying: ''"I have not consulted the African people on the language issue and I'm not going to. An African might find that 'the big boss' only spoke Afrikaans or only spoke English. It would be to his advantage to know both languages."''
The policy was deeply unpopular. On [[April 30|30 April]] [[1976]], children at [[Orlando West Junior School]] in [[Soweto]] went on strike, refusing to go to school. Their rebellion spread to other schools in Soweto. The students organised a mass rally for [[June 16|16 June]] [[1976]], which turned violent - police responding with bullets to stones thrown by children. The incident triggered widespread violence throughout South Africa, which claimed hundreds of lives.
Internationally, South Africa became isolated. Numerous conferences were held and the [[United Nations]] resolutions passed condemning South Africa, including the [[World Conference Against Racism]] in [[1978]] and [[1983]]. An immense divestment movement started, pressuring investors to refuse to invest in South African companies or companies that do business with South Africa. South African sports teams were barred from participation in international events, and South African culture and tourism were [[boycott]]ed.
These international movements, combined with internal troubles, persuaded the South African government that its hard-line policies were untenable, and in [[1984]] some reforms were introduced. Many of the apartheid laws were repealed, and a new constitution was introduced which gave limited representation to certain non-whites, although not to the black majority. The violence continued throughout the [[1980s]].
In [[1989]], [[F. W. de Klerk]] succeeded [[Pieter Willem Botha|P. W. Botha]] as president. On [[February 2|2 February]] [[1990]], at the opening of [[Parliament]], he declared that apartheid had failed and that the bans on political parties, including the ANC, were to be lifted. Nelson Mandela was released from prison. De Klerk went on to abolish all the remaining apartheid laws.
On [[April 15]] [[2003]], President [[Thabo Mbeki]] announced that the South African government would pay 660 million rand (85 million US dollars) to about 22,000 people who were tortured, detained, or lost family members under apartheid rule. The [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], set up to investigate abuses from the apartheid era, had recommended the government to pay 3 billion rand in compensation, over the next five years.
== Apartheid in international law ==
South African apartheid was condemned internationally as unjust and racist. In [[1973]] the [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly of the United Nations]] agreed the text of the ''International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid''. The immediate intention of the Convention was to provide a formal legal framework within which member states could apply sanctions to press the South African government to change its policies. However, the Convention was phrased in general terms, with the express intention of prohibiting any other state from adopting analogous policies. The Convention came into force in [[1976]].
Article II of the Convention defines apartheid as follows:
''For the purpose of the present Convention, the term "the crime of apartheid", which shall include similar policies and practices of racial segregation and discrimination as practised in southern Africa, shall apply to the following inhuman acts committed for the purpose of establishing and maintaining domination by one racial group of persons over any other racial group of persons and systematically oppressing them:
:(a) Denial to a member or members of a racial group or groups of the right to life and liberty of person
::(i) By murder of members of a racial group or groups;
::(ii) By the infliction upon the members of a racial group or groups of serious bodily or mental harm, by the infringement of their freedom or dignity, or by subjecting them to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;
::(iii) By arbitrary arrest and illegal imprisonment of the members of a racial group or groups;
:(b) Deliberate imposition on a racial group or groups of living conditions calculated to cause its or their physical destruction in whole or in part;
:(c) Any legislative measures and other measures calculated to prevent a racial group or groups from participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the country and the deliberate creation of conditions preventing the full development of such a group or groups, in particular by denying to members of a racial group or groups basic human rights and freedoms, including the right to work, the right to form recognised trade unions, the right to education, the right to leave and to return to their country, the right to a nationality, the right to freedom of movement and residence, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association;
:(d) Any measures including legislative measures, designed to divide the population along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups or to members thereof;
:(e) Exploitation of the labour of the members of a racial group or groups, in particular by submitting them to forced labour;
:(f) Persecution of organisations and persons, by depriving them of fundamental rights and freedoms, because they oppose apartheid.''
The crime was also defined in the formation of the [[International Criminal Court]]:
: "The crime of apartheid" means inhumane acts of a character similar to those referred to in paragraph 1, committed in the context of an institutionalised regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime [http://www.preventgenocide.org/law/icc/statute/part-a.htm#2]
=== German attempt to introduce racial separation in Eastern Europe ===
In the [[General Government]] in [[1940]] the population was divided on different groups. Each group had different rights, food ratios, allowed strips in the cities, public transportation and restricted restaurants. Listed from the most privilaged to the least:
*Germans from Germany (''Reichdeutsche'')
*Germans from outside, active ethnic Germans, Volksliste category 1 and 2 (see [[Volksdeutsche]])
*Germans from outside, passive Germans and members of families (this group included also many ethnic Poles), Volksliste category 3 and 4,
*[[Ukraine|Ukrainians]],
*Highlanders (''Goralenvolk'') - an attempt to split Polish nation by using local collaborators
*[[PolanðPoles]],
*[[Jew|Jews]] (eventually sentenced to extermination as a category).
See also: [[General Government]]
=== Ethnic apartheid in the Arab world ===
Institutionalized ethnic discrimination exists in many [[Arab]] countries. [[Jordan]] forbids Jews from becoming citizens. [[Palestinian]] refugees are generally treated as second-class citizens at best in their countries of refuge.
Many Gulf states import large numbers of [[migrant workers]] from [[South Asia]] and other countries to do menial labour, who are often treated extremely poorly. Generally speaking, Arab countries recognize only Arabs as first-class citizens, though treatment of others ranges from tolerance to hostility in different places.
=== Religious apartheid in the Muslim world===
Some Muslim nations deny non-[[Islam|Muslims]], including [[Jew]]s and [[Christians]], some of the civil rights and voting privileges they grant to Muslims. Many Muslim countries consign non-Muslim [[monotheism|monotheists]] to the status of [[dhimmi]]s, both officially and by custom. Saudi Arabia in particular is notorious for very stringent religious laws banning the practice of non-Muslim religions, even prescribing imprisonment and the [[death penalty]] for attempting to convert Muslims to other religions. The following links are to articles about discrimination against non-Muslims in [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Iran|Iran]], [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Mauritania|Mauritania]], [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]], and [[Discrimination against non-Muslims in Sudan|Sudan]].
=== Apartheid in Israel ===
A number of organisations, including the [[Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human Rights|Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human Rights (LAW)]] and the [[Islamic Human Rights Commission]], allege that [[Israel]] is an apartheid state under the [[United Nations|UN]] definition.
===Apartheid in Fiji===
[[Fiji coups of 1987|Two military coups]] in [[Fiji]] in [[1987]] removed from power a government that was led by an [[Fijian people|ethnic Fijian]], but was supported principally by the [[Indo-Fijian]] (ethnic Indian) electorate, which then made up approximately half of the population. A new constitution was promulgated in [[1990]], establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of [[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]], two-thirds of the [[Senate (Fiji)|Senate]], and a clear majority of the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] reserved for ethnic Fijians, despite the fact that ethnic Fijians then comprised less than half the population. Ethnic Fijian ownership of the land (which was worked principally by Indo-Fijians) was also entrenched in the constitution.
World-wide condemnation of the [[1990]] constitution, and a brain-drain of many Indo-Fijian professionals and businesspeople, caused the Fijian government to revise the [[Constitution of Fiji|constitution]] in [[1997]]. Amendments deleted most of the discriminatory provisions, and subsequent elections in [[1999]] brought a new government to power, with [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] as the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister.
[[Fiji coup of 2000|Another coup followed in 2000]], with [[George Speight]], supported by sympathetic offices in the Army and police force, seizing power, with the aim of ending Indo-Fijian influence in politics. Democracy, and the moderate [[1997]] constitution, were eventually restored, however. What is clear is that there is an element in Fijian society that has attempted, on a number of occasions, to institutionalize racial discrimination in that country.
==See also==
* [[History of South Africa]], [[Afrikaner Calvinism]]
* [[racism]], [[discrimination]], [[white supremacism]], [[Nazism]], [[multiculturalism]], [[segregation]], [[integration]], [[caste]]
* [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Desmond Tutu]], [[Steve Biko]]
* [[Jim Crow laws]], [[White Australia policy]], [[Israeli settlements]], [[Fiji coup of 2000]]
* [[Pieter-Dirk Uys]]
==External links==
* http://www.franz.com/success/customer_apps/animation_graphics/naughtydog.lhtml — Franz Inc. success story
===External links to articles about South African apartheid===
* http://bc.tech.coop/blog/060118.html — Page about LISP developments by [[Paul Graham]] and [[Naughty Dog]]
* [http://www.afrikanerbond.org.za/Dokideal.pdf ''Bearer of an Ideal''] - a public release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly ''Afrikaner Broederbond''): thinktank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa
* http://www.gamasutra.com/features/gdcarchive/2003/White_Stephen.ppt — (Powerpoint) ''Jak & Daxter: The Precursor Legacy'', development overview, lessons learned, very interesting
* [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm Full text of the UN convention]
* http://www.gamasutra.com/features/gdcarchive/2003/Denman_Stu.ppt — (Powerpoint) ''Highly detalied continuous worlds'', about the streaming world loader
* [http://www.iap.org/tutu.htm Full text of Desmond Tutu's speech in Cape Town, April 13 2002]
===External links to material about Israel===
* [http://www.hrw.org/press/2001/12/SecondClass1205.htm Israeli Schools Separate, Not Equal]
* [http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/israel+and+the+occupied+territories+!Open Amnesty International report 2002 Israel and the occupied territories]
* [http://www.afsc.org/middleeast/peace/jerusalem/jeruhistory.htm American Friends Service Committee item on the history of Jerusalem]
* [http://www.lawsociety.org/Apartheid/dibook.html LAW paper: "Israel's brand of apartheid: The Nakba continues"]
* [http://www.lawsociety.org/Press/Preleases/2002/august/aug20.html LAW press release regarding their petition against Israel's "apartheid wall"]
* [http://www.ihrc.org/ Islamic Human Rights Commission]
* [http://www.mediamonitors.net/mosaddeq11.html "Apartheid In the Holy Land"]: full text of a paper presented by Nafeez Ahmed of the Islamic Human Rights Commission, at the 2001 UN Conference Against Racism in Durban
* [http://www.israelnewsagency.com/mfa10.23.html Full text of Interview with Shimon Peres]
* [http://www.bitterlemons.org/previous/bl120802ed30.html Alon Liel, former director general of the Israel Foreign Ministry, on the question of apartheid]
* [http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/An_Old_Story_Anti-Semitism3_Past_and_Present.asp Anti-Semitism - past and Present]. Discusses the anti-Semitic motives of some of the individuals who accuse Israel of Apartheid.
* [http://www.adl.org/durban/durban_083001.asp ADL statement on the anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic outcry at Durban]
* [http://oznik.com/words/021212.html Haaretz article about interreligious marriages in Israel] (omitted in the official English edition)
[[Category:Lisp programming language family]]
===External links to articles about discrimination in the Muslim world===
[[Category:Functional languages]]
* [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=%2B%22Islamic+apartheid%22+OR+%22arab+apartheid%22+OR+%22Muslim+apartheid%22 Links to articles on apartheid in the Arab Muslim world]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]
* [http://www.dhimmi.com Dhimmi.Com: Victims of Muslim Religious Apartheid]
* [http://www.saudiinstitute.org/najran.htm religious apartheid in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]
* [http://www.shianews.com/hi/americas/news_id/0000232.php Allegations of apartheid]
* [http://www.house.gov/lantos/caucus/TestimonyAhmed060402.htm Directory of the Saudi Institute gives testimony to US House of Representatives on religious apartheid in Saudi Arabia]
{{videogame-software-stub}}
[[de:Apartheid]]
[[es:Apartheid]]
[[fr:Apartheid]]
[[nl:Apartheid]]
[[ja:アパルトヘイト]]
| 