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The '''massacre of prisoners''' refers to a series of mass executions committed by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[NKVD]] against prisoners in [[Poland]] and parts of the Soviet Union from which the [[Red Army]] was withdrawing after the [[Nazi Germany|German]] invasion in [[1941]] (''see [[Operation Barbarossa]]''). The overall death toll is estimated at 30,000-40,000, including more than 10,000 in Western Ukraine.<ref name="Rhodes">{{en icon}} {{cite book | author=[[Richard Rhodes]] | year = 2002 | title = Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | ___location = New York | id = ISBN 0-375-40900-9}} Despite the deportations, Barbarossa surprised the NKVD, whose jails and prisons in the invaded western territories were crowded with political prisoners. Rather than releasing their prisoners as they hurried to retreat during the first week of the war, the Soviet secret police simply killed them. NKVD prisoner executions in the first week after Barbarossa totaled some ten thousand in the western Ukraine and more than nine thousand in Vinnitsa, eastward toward Kiev; comparable numbers of prisoners were executed in eastern Poland, Byelorussia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. The Soviet areas had already sustained losses numbering in the hundreds of thousands from the Stalinist purges of 1937-38. “It was not only the numbers of the executed,” historian Yury Boshyk writes of the evacuation murders, “but also the manner in which they died that shocked the populace. When the families of the arrested rushed to the prisons after the Soviet evacuation, they were aghast to find bodies so badly mutilated that many could not be identified. It was evident that many of the prisoners had been tortured before death; others were killed en masse.”</ref>
{{this|the chemical series}}
{| align="right" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! [[Group 17 element|17]]
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 9|Fluorine|F| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|17|Chlorine|Cl| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|35|Bromine|Br| |Liquid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|53|Iodine|I| |Solid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|85|Astatine|At| |Solid|Halogens|Natural radio}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|117|ununseptium|Uus| |Solid|Halogens|Undiscovered|ununseptium|#fcfece}}
|}
In [[Inorganic Chemistry]], '''Halogens''' or '''Halogen Elements''' are a [[chemical series|series]] of [[chemical element|elements]] from the [[Periodic table group|Group 17]] (old-style: VII or VIIA; Group 7 [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] Style) only present naturally in compounds as halide ions, and as [[diatomic molecules]] in synthesised natural forms. The term originates from [[18th century]] scientific [[France|French]] nomenclature based on erring adaptations of [[Greek language|Greek]] roots; the greek word "halos" meaning "salt", and "genes" meaning "production" -- referring to elements which produce a [[salt]] in union with a [[metal]]. At room temperature, the group consists of two solids, two gases, and one liquid, which makes the Halogens the only group with all three forms of matter .
By the beginning of the war most of the [[Poles|ethnically Polish]] population, [[Treatment of Polish citizens by occupiers|subject to Soviet rule for two years now]], have already [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|been deported off the border regions]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union. Others, including a large number of Polish civilians of other nationalities (mostly [[Belarusians]] and [[Ukrainians]]), were kept in provisional prisons in the towns of the region, where they awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in [[Moscow]] or to the [[Gulag]]. It is estimated that out of 13 million people living in the pre-war Polish areas, roughly half a million of people were arrested, more than 90% of them being males. Thus approximately every tenth adult male was imprisoned at the time of the German offensive<ref name="From_Peace">{{en icon}} {{cite book | author =[[Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt]] (corporate author) | coauthors =[[Gottfried Schramm]], [[Jan T. Gross]], [[Manfred Zeidler]] et al. | title =From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia and the World, 1939-1941 | year =1997 | editor =Bernd Wegner | pages =47-79 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =Berghahn Books | ___location = | id =ISBN 1-57181-882-0| url =http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1571818820&id=7odfDAlO64UC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&q=Lvov&vq=Lvov&dq=NKVD+1941&sig=1MZdzhkhg1tmo6fSCF19oz4KP4o }}</ref>. Many died in prisons from torture or neglect<ref name="From_Peace"/>.
== Properties ==
Immediately after the start of the invasion, the [[NKVD]] started to execute a large number of prisoners in most of their prisons, while the remainder was to be evacuated in [[death march]]es<ref name="From_Peace"/><ref name="PWN">{{pl icon}} [[Encyklopedia PWN]], ''[http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/83293_1.html ZBRODNIE SOWIECKIE W POLSCE]'''':''After the outbreak of the German-Soviet war, in June of 1941, thousands of prisoners have been murdered in mass executions in prisons (among others in [[Lwów]] and [[Berezwecz]]) and during the evacuation (so-called death marches)''</ref>. Most of them were [[political prisoner]]s, imprisoned and executed without a trial. With few exceptions, the huge group of prisoners of [[Western Belarus]] and [[Western Ukraine]] was either marched eastwards, executed or both<ref name="From_Peace"/>. After the war and in recent years, the authorities of Germany, Poland, Belarus and Israel identified no less than 25 prisons whose prisoners were killed - and a much larger number of mass execution sites<ref name="From_Peace"/>. Among the notable cases of such mass execution of prisoners were:
=== Reactivity ===
* [[Lviv]]: between [[June 23]] and [[June 28]], the NKVD executed several thousand of inmates in a number of provisional prisons. Among the common methods of extermination were shooting the prisoners in their cells, killing them with grenades thrown into the cells or starving them to death in the cellars. It is estimated that over 4000 people were murdered that way, while the number of survivors is estimated at ca. 270<ref name="Gałkiewicz">{{pl icon}} [[Anna Gałkiewicz]] (2001) ''[http://www.ipn.gov.pl/biuletyn/7/biuletyn7_3.html Informacja o śledztwach prowadzonych w OKŚZpNP w Łodzi w sprawach o zbrodnie popełnione przez funkcjonariuszy sowieckiego aparatu terroru]''; Biuletyn [[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]], Vol. 7 - August 2001</ref>
In their natural states, halogens are radioactive and do not do not occur in their diatomic states (F<sub>2</sub> , Br<sub>2</sub>) due to radioactivity and the process of decay into several isotopes within several hours of synthesis<ref name="chem_795">Greenwood, N. N.,Earnshaw, A. (1997), p795</ref>. These elements, do occur in other compounds such as Sodium Chloride and fluorite, which are the most abundant [[halide]]s, which are found in deposits of crustal rocks and yield small amounts of natural-state halogens that can be extracted and synthesised.<ref name="chem_795" /> In this natural-state, they require an additional electron from another source such as a [[metal]] to obtain an octet, and form a single negatively-charged ion (<math>X^-</math>) known as a halide ion.
* [[Brzeżany]] near [[Tarnopol]]: between [[June 22]] and [[July 1]] the crew of the local NKVD prison has executed without a trial approximately 300 Polish citizens, among them a large number of Ukrainians<ref name="Gałkiewicz"/>.
* [[Grodno]]: on [[June 22]] the NKVD executed several dozen people in the local prison. The mass execution of the remaining 1700 prisoners was ended when the approach of the German army prompted the evacuation of the NKVD crew<ref name="Gałkiewicz"/>
* [[Hlybokaye|Berezwecz]] near [[Vitebsk]]<ref name="PWN"/>: on [[June 24]] the NKVD executed approximately 800 prisoners, most of them Polish citizens. Several thousands more perished during a [[death march]] to Taklinovo near [[Ulla]]<ref name="Berezwecz">{{pl icon}} Encyklopedia PWN, ''[http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/7010_1.html BEREZWECZ]''</ref>.
* [[Oryol]]: In Sepetember over 150 political prisoners (among them [[Christian Rakovsky]], [[Maria Spiridonova]] and [[Olga Kameneva]]) were executed in Medvedevsky Forest near Oryol.
* [[Vilnius]]: after the German aggression the NKVD murdered a large number of prisoners of the infamous [[Lukiškės]] prison<ref name="Paszkowski">{{pl icon}} [[Bolesław Paszkowski]] (2005): ''[http://www.moto.gda.pl/strona.htm?id=454 Golgota Wschodu]''</ref>
* Cherven near [[Minsk]]: in late June the NKVD started an evacuation of all prisons in Minsk. Between [[June 24]] and [[June 27]] several thousand people were killed in Cherven and during the death marches<ref name="Januszczak">{{pl icon}} [[Joanna Januszczak]] ''[http://www.wspolnota-polska.org.pl/index.php?id=b99_9_2 Żalbiny w Czerwieni k. Mińska]'' in: ''Wspólnota Polska'' monthly</ref>
* [[Vinnitsa]]: more than 9,000 executed<ref name="Rhodes"/>.
* [[Lutsk]]: hundreds executed,
* Rainiai near [[Telšiai]], [[Lithuania]]: Up to 79 political prisoners killed in what is called the [[Rainiai massacre]] on [[June 24]] and the following day
* [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]]: Almost 250 detainees shot in the Gray House courtyard and Tartu prison on July 9, 1941 [http://www.expatexchange.com/lib.cfm?articleID=2265&start=1732&page=1].
* [[Vileyka]]: several dozen people, mostly political prisoners, sick and wounded, were executed prior to the departure of the Soviet guards on [[June 24]]<ref name="Siedlecki">{{pl icon}} {{cite book | author = [[Julian Siedlecki]] | others = [[Edward Raczyński]]
| title = Losy Polaków w ZSRR w latach 1939-1986 | year = 1990 | edition = 3 | publisher = Gryf Publications | ___location = London
| pages = 59}} as cited in: {{cite journal | author = Tadeusz Krahel | year = | month = | title = Zginęli w końcu czerwca 1941 roku | journal = Czas Miłosierdzia | volume = | issue = | url = http://www.bialystok.opoka.org.pl/czas/arch1/art/kaplani.htm
| accessdate = 2006-06-02 }}</ref>
* [[Sambor]]: 570 killed<ref name="Kowalik">{{pl icon}} {{cite journal | author =Helena Kowalik | year =2004 | month =November | title =Jaki znak twój? | journal =Przegląd | volume =47/2004 | issue =2004-11-15 | pages = | id = }}</ref>
Because of their high electronegativities, the halogens, particularly Fluorine are highly reactive and can cause serious harm to [[Organism|biological organism]]s if ingested, due to their reaction with organic compounds as corrosive compounds or toxic gases; fluorine is the most reactive element in existence, even attacking glass can form compounds with the heavier [[noble gases]]. However, because of their high reactivity they can be used as potent [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilant]] for the elimination of bacteria due to their rapid rate of [[Reaction (physics)|reaction]]. Similarly, their reactive properties are also put to use in [[Bleaching agent|bleaching]]; Chlorine is the active ingredient of most [[Cloth|fabric]] bleaches and is used in the production of most [[paper]] products.
==Notes and references==
=== Oxidation states ===
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Halogens are by default, one electron less than that of a noble gas, and to obtain a stable structure require an electron to be recieved through bonding or ionisation of another element to produce a negative ion (<math>X_{(g)} + e^- \rightarrow X^-_{(g)}</math>) through an [[exothermic]] reaction.<ref name="holl_312">Holliday, C., Chambers, A. K. (1975), p 312</ref> There are numerous [[ionic]]ally-bonded halogen compounds which form [[noble gas]] configurations, as well as covalent compounds formed through covalent bonds with other halogens of non-polar electronegative elements. Under normal conditions, the formation of halogen ions can only usually result in a single negative charge and oxidation state, due to the completion of it's outer shell and the amount of energy required to promote an element's structure to it's next shell by electron gain.<ref name="holl_311">Holliday, C., Chambers, A. K. (1975), p 311</ref><ref name="holl_313">Holliday, C., Chambers, A. K. (1975), p 313</ref> For instance, the gain of electrons in the structure of [[fluorine]] to yield it's [[3|electron shell]][[Sub-shell|s]] requires significantly higher amounts of energy than found under "normal conditions".<ref name="chem_800">Greenwood, N. N.,Earnshaw, A. (1997), p800</ref>
<div class="references-small">
::'''In-line:'''
However, because of unfilled ''d'' orbitals in halogens, they are still available for covalency and can contribute towards the formation of compounds formed from other halogens and oxygen, which can achieve oxidation states as high as +7, such as those observed in chlorate I, V, and VII anions (ClO<sup>-</sup>, ClO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> and ClO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup>).<ref name="holl_311" /><ref name="holl_312" /><ref name="chem_800" />
<references/>
</div>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! halogen || molecule || structure || model || ''d''(X−X) / pm<br>(gas phase) || ''d''(X−X) / pm<br>(solid phase)
|-
| <center>fluorine</center> || <center>F<sub>2</sub></center> || <center>[[Image:Difluorine-2D-dimensions.png|45px]]</center> || <center>[[Image:Fluorine-3D-vdW.png|45px]]</center> || <center>143</center> || <center>149</center>
|-
| <center>chlorine</center> || <center>Cl<sub>2</sub></center> || <center>[[Image:Dichlorine-2D-dimensions.png|70px]]</center> || <center>[[Image:Chlorine-3D-vdW.png|63px]]</center> || <center>199</center> || <center>198</center>
|-
| <center>bromine</center> || <center>Br<sub>2</sub></center> || <center>[[Image:Dibromine-2D-dimensions.png|80px]]</center> || <center>[[Image:Bromine-3D-vdW.png|72px]]</center> || <center>228</center> || <center>227</center>
|-
| <center>iodine</center> || <center>I<sub>2</sub></center> || <center>[[Image:Diiodine-2D-dimensions.png|70px]]</center> || <center>[[Image:Iodine-3D-vdW.png|84px]]</center> || <center>266</center> || <center>272</center>
|}
Halide ions combined with single [[hydrogen]] [[atoms]] form the [[hydrohalic acid|''hydrohalic'' acid]]s (i.e., HF, HCl, HBr, HI), a series of particularly strong [[acid]]s. (HAt, or "hydrastatic acid", should also qualify, but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic acid due to astatine's extreme instability toward [[alpha decay]].)
They react with each other to form [[interhalogen]] [[Chemical compound|compounds]]. Diatomic interhalogen compounds (BrF, ICl, ClF, etc.) bear strong superficial resemblance to the pure halogens.
==Properties==
The halogens show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance, decreasing electronegativity and reactivity, increasing melting and boiling point.
<table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width="100%">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF">'''Halogen'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Atomic Mass ([[unified atomic mass unit|u]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Melting Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Boiling Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Electronegativity ([[Pauling scale|Pauling]])'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Fluorine]]</td>
<td align="center">18.998</td>
<td align="center">53.53</td>
<td align="center">85.03</td>
<td align="center">3.98</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE">[[Chlorine]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">35.453</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">171.6</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">239.11</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">3.16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Bromine]]</td>
<td align="center">79.904</td>
<td align="center">265.8</td>
<td align="center">332.0</td>
<td align="center">2.96</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE">[[Iodine]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">126.904</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">386.85</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">457.4</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">2.66</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Astatine]]</td>
<td align="center">(210)</td>
<td align="center">575</td>
<td align="center">610 ?</td>
<td align="center">2.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununseptium]]</td>
<td align="center">(291)*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
</tr>
</table>
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Ununseptium has not yet been discovered; values are either unknown if no value appears, or are estimates based on other similar chemicals.
==Organic compounds==
Many synthetic [[organic compounds]] such as [[plastic]] [[polymers]], and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as ''halogenated'' compounds or [[organic halide]]s. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in [[brain]] function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter [[GABA]] and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of [[thyroid]] hormones such as [[thyroxine]]. On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be really essential for humans, although small amounts of fluoride can make tooth enamel resistant to decay.
==Drug discovery==
In [[drug discovery]], the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in analogues that are more [[lipophilic]] and less water soluble. Consequently, halogen atoms are used to improve penetration through [[lipid membrane]]s. However, there is an undesirable tendency for halogenated drugs to accumulate in lipid tissue.
The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of attachment to the lead and the nature of the halogen. [[Aromatic]] halogen groups are far less reactive than [[aliphatic]] halogen groups, which can exhibit considerable chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen bonds the C-F bond is the strongest and usually less chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity increasing down the periodic table. They are usually more chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. Consequently, the most popular halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and chlorine groups.
==See also==
* [[PseudohalogenList of massacres]]
* [[Katyn massacre]]
* [[Kurapaty]]
== Notes ==
* [[War crimes]]
<references />
== References ==
# Holliday, C., Chambers, A. K. (1975) ''Modern Inorganic Chemistry: an intermediate text'' Butterworth & Co (Publishers)
# Greenwood, N. N.,Earnshaw, A. (1997) ''Chemistry of the Elements''<sup> 2nd ed.</sup> Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann
# G. Thomas, ''Medicinal Chemistry: an Introduction'', John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, UK, 2000.
{|style="text-align: center;" border="0" cellpadding="2"
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
! bgcolor="{{element color/Halogens}}" | Halogens
| Atomic numbers in <font color="{{element color/Gas}}">{{element color/Gas}}</font> are gases
| Atomic numbers in <font color="{{element color/Liquid}}">{{element color/Liquid}}</font> are liquids
| Atomic numbers in <font color="{{element color/Solid}}">{{element color/Solid}}</font> are solids
|-
| style="border:{{element frame/Primordial}};" | Solid borders indicate [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style="border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};" | Dashed borders indicate [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] natural elements
| style="border:{{element frame/Synthetic}};" | Dotted borders indicate radioactive [[synthetic element]]s
| style="border:{{element frame/Undiscovered}};" | No borders indicates undiscovered elements
|}
{{PeriodicTablesFooter}}
[[Category:Halogens|*]]
[[Category:Periodic table]]
[[Category:Massacres]]
[[ar:هالوجين]]
[[Category:History of Poland (1939–1945)]]
[[ast:Halóxenu]]
[[Category:History of Ukraine]]
[[bg:Халоген]]
[[caCategory:HalogenNKVD]]
[[Category:Soviet executions]]
[[cs:Halogen]]
[[Category:Soviet World War II crimes]]
[[cy:Halogen]]
[[Category:Polish-Soviet relations]]
[[da:Halogener]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[de:Halogene]]
[[Category:Soviet occupation]]
[[et:Halogeen]]
[[el:Αλογόνα]]
[[es:Halógeno]]
[[eo:Halogeno]]
[[fa:هالوژن]]
[[fo:Halogen]]
[[fr:Halogène]]
[[ko:할로젠]]
[[id:Halogen]]
[[is:Halógen]]
[[it:Alogeno]]
[[he:הלוגן]]
[[la:Halogenica]]
[[lv:Halogēni]]
[[lt:Halogenas]]
[[jbo:klirylei]]
[[lmo:Alògen]]
[[hu:Halogének]]
[[ms:Halogen]]
[[nl:Halogeen]]
[[ja:第17族元素]]
[[no:Halogen]]
[[nn:Halogen]]
[[nds:Halogen]]
[[pl:Fluorowce]]
[[pt:Halogênio]]
[[ru:Галогены]]
[[simple:Halogen]]
[[sk:Halogény]]
[[sl:Halogen]]
[[sr:Халогени елементи]]
[[sh:Halogeni elementi]]
[[fi:Halogeeni]]
[[sv:Halogen]]
[[th:แฮโลเจน]]
[[vi:Halogen]]
[[tr:Halojen]]
[[zh-yue:鹵素]]
[[zh:卤素]]
| 