Peloponnesian War and Marfan syndrome: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox_Disease

''For the earlier war beginning in [[460 BC]], see [[First Peloponnesian War]]. For the book by the Greek historian Thucydides, see [[History of the Peloponnesian War]].''

| Name = Marfan syndrome

{{Infobox Military Conflict

| Image = Marfansyndrome.jpg

|conflict=Peloponnesian War

| Caption =

|image=[[Image:Pelops innit.jpg|300px]]

| DiseasesDB = 7845

|caption=The Peloponnesian War

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|87|4|q|80}}

|date=c. [[431 BC | 431]]–[[404 BC]]

| ICD9 = {{ICD9|759.82}}

|place=Mainland [[ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Sicily]]

| ICDO =

|territory=Dissolution of the [[Delian League]]

| OMIM = 154700

|result=[[Spartan]] victory

| MedlinePlus = 000418

|combatant1=[[Delian League]] led by [[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]]

| eMedicineSubj = ped

|combatant2=[[Peloponnesian League]] led by [[History of Sparta#The 5th century BCE|Sparta]]

| eMedicineTopic = 1372

|commander1=[[Pericles]],<br>[[Cleon]],<br>[[Nicias]],<br>[[Alcibiades]]

| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|orthoped|414}}

|commander2=[[Archidamus II]],<br>[[Brasidas]],<br>[[Lysander]]<br>[[Alcibiades]]

| MeshID = C17.300.500

}}

{{Campaignbox Peloponnesian War}}

'''Marfan syndrome''' is an [[autosomal dominant]] genetic disorder of the [[connective tissue]] characterized by disproportionately long [[limb]]s, long thin fingers, a relatively tall stature, and a predisposition to cardiovascular abnormalities, specifically those affecting the [[heart valves]] and [[aorta]]. The [[disease]] may also affect numerous other structures and organs &mdash; including the [[lung]]s, [[eye]]s, dural sac surrounding the [[spinal cord]], and [[hard palate]]. It is named after [[Antoine Marfan]], the [[France|French]] [[pediatrician]] who first described it in 1899.

The '''Peloponnesian War''' (431–404 BC) was an [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] military conflict, fought by Athens and its [[Athenian empire|empire]] against the [[Peloponnesian League]], led by [[Sparta]]. Historians have traditionally divided the war into three phases. In the first, the Archidamian War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of [[Attica]], while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the [[Peloponnese]], while attempting to suppress signs of unrest in its empire. This period of the war was concluded in [[421 BC]], with the signing of the [[Peace of Nicias]]. That treaty, however, was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In [[415 BC]], Athens dispatched a [[Sicilian expedition|massive expeditionary force]] to attack [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] in [[Sicily]]; the attack failed disastrously, with the destruction of the entire force, in [[413 BC]]. This ushered in the final phase of the war, generally referred to either as the Decelean War, or the Ionian War. In this phase, Sparta, now receiving support from [[Achaemenid Dynasty|Persia]], supported rebellions in Athens' subject states in the [[Aegean Sea]] and [[Ionia]], undermining Athens' empire, and, eventually, depriving the city of naval supremacy. The destruction of Athens' fleet at [[Battle of Aegospotami|Aegospotami]] effectively ended the war, and Athens surrendered in the following year.

==Epidemiology==

The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations, Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection, while Sparta was established as the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, while Athens found itself completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 488.</ref><ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 528–33.</ref> The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society; the conflict between democratic Athens and [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] Sparta, each of which supported friendly political factions within other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world.

Marfan syndrome affects males and females equally,<ref name="marorg">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marfan.org/nmf/GetSubContentRequestHandler.do?sub_menu_item_content_id=6&menu_item_id=3|title=The role of heredity and family history|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=National Marfan Foundation|year=1999}}</ref> and the mutation shows no geographical bias. Estimates indicate that approximately 60 000 (1 in 5000, or 0.02% of the population)<ref name="marorg"/> to 200 000<ref name="mednet">{{Cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=63689|title=New, Deadly Relative of Marfan's Syndrome Discovered|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=MedicineNet.com|year=2006}}</ref> Americans have Marfan syndrome. Each parent with the condition has a 50% chance of passing it on to a child due to its [[autosomal dominant]] nature. Most individuals with Marfan syndrome have another affected family member, but approximately 15-30% of all cases are due to ''[[de novo mutation|de novo]]'' [[genetic mutation]]s<ref name="robspath">{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| ___location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}}</ref> &mdash; such spontaneous mutations occur in about 1 in 20 000 births. Marfan syndrome is also an example of [[dominant negative mutation]] and [[haploinsufficiency]].<ref name="Judge_et_al_2004">{{cite journal | last = Judge | first = Daniel P. | coauthors = Nancy J. Biery, Douglas R. Keene, Jessica Geubtner, Loretha Myers, David L. Huso, Lynn Y. Sakai, Harry C. Dietz | title = Evidence for a critical contribution of haploinsufficiency in the complex pathogenesis of Marfan syndrome. | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 114 | issue = 2 | pages = 172-181 | doi = 10.1172/JCI200420641 | id = PMID 15254584 | url = http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/114/2/172 | accessdate = 2007-02-15}}</ref><ref name="Judge_et_al_2005">{{cite journal | last = Judge | first = Daniel P. | coauthors = Harry C. Dietz | title = Marfan's syndrome. | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9501 | pages = 1965-76 | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67789-6. | id = PMID 16325700 | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16325700 | accessdate = 2007-02-15}}</ref> It is associated with [[incomplete penetrance]], therefore not all persons carrying the mutation develop the disease.

== Pathogenesis ==

Greek warfare, meanwhile, originally a limited and formalized form of conflict, transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states, complete with atrocities on a scale never before seen in Greece. Shattering religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside, and destroying whole cities, the Peloponnesian War marked the dramatic end to the fifth century golden age of Greece.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', Introduction XXIII–XXIV.</ref>

Marfan syndrome has been linked to a defect in the ''FBN1'' [[gene]] on [[chromosome]] 15,<ref>{{cite journal | author = McKusick V | title = The defect in Marfan syndrome. | journal = Nature | volume = 352 | issue = 6333 | pages = 279-81 | year = 1991 | id = PMID 1852198}}</ref> which [[Genetics|encodes]] a [[glycoprotein]] called [[fibrillin]]-1. Fibrillin is essential for the formation of the [[elastic fiber]]s found in connective tissue, as it provides the scaffolding for [[tropoelastin]].<ref name="robspath">{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| ___location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}}</ref> Elastic fibers are found throughout the body but are particularly abundant in the [[aorta]], [[ligament]]s and the [[Zonule of Zinn|ciliary zonule]]s of the eye, consequently these areas are among the worst affected. Without the structural support provided by fibrillin many connective tissues are weakened, which can have severe consequences for support and stability.

A related disease has been found in [[mouse|mice]], and the study of mouse fibrillin synthesis and secretion, and connective tissue formation, has begun to further our understanding of Marfan syndrome in humans. It has been found that simply reducing the level of normal fibrillin-1 causes a Marfan-related disease in mice.<ref name="micefib">{{cite journal | author=Lygia Pereira, ''et al.''| title=Pathogenetic sequence for aneurysm revealed in mice underexpressing fibrillin-1| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| year=1999| volume=96| issue=7| page=3819-3823| url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/7/3819}}</ref>

==Sources==

[[Transforming growth factor]] beta (TGFβ) plays an important role in Marfan syndrome. Fibrillin-1 binds TGFβ and inactivates it. In Marfan syndrome, reduced levels of fibrillin-1 allow activated TGFβ to damage the lungs and heart. A defect in the gene ''TGFβR2'' on [[chromosome]] 3, a [[receptor protein]] of TGFβ, has also been related to Marfan syndrome.<ref name="tgf2beta">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=gene&dopt=full_report&list_uids=7048|title=TGFBR2 transforming growth factor, beta receptor II|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=NCBI|year=2007|author=Entrez Gene|format=Entrez gene entry}}</ref> Marfan syndrome can often be confused with [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome]], a similar connective tissue disorder resulting from mutations in the TGFβ receptor genes ''TGFβR1'' and ''TGFβR2''.<ref name="loeysdietz">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marfan.org/nmf/GetContentRequestHandler.do?menu_item_id=84|title=Related Disorders: Loeys-Dietz |accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=National Marfan Foundation}}</ref>

The Peloponnesian War was the first military conflict from which a significant volume of contemporary accounts have survived. The most famous such account is that of the Athenian, [[Thucydides]], whose ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'' covered the years from the beginning of the war until [[411 BC]]. His work, accepted as definitive by a number of historians since his time, has to a large extent shaped modern perspectives on the Peloponnesian War and the world in which it took place.<ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 442.</ref> At the beginning of the war, Thucydides was an Athenian general and statesman, a political ally of [[Pericles]]; in [[424 BC]], however, he was exiled for failing to protect a key city under his command, and his history was written at least in part during the twenty years he spent outside his native city.<ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 446.</ref>

==Symptoms==

A number of historians wrote works continuing where Thucydides' account left off; only one of these survives intact, that being [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Hellenica (Xenophon)|Hellenica]]'', which covers the period from 411 BC to [[362 BC]]. That work, although valuable as the only contemporary account of that period, has been criticized and called into question on a number of accounts by modern historians. Xenophon's work is not a history in the tradition of Thucydides, but rather a memoir, written for an audience already familiar with the events described;<ref>Xenophon, ''A History of My Times'', Penguin edition p. 31</ref> furthermore, Xenophon exhibits numerous biases in his work, and frequently omits information he finds distasteful; historians treat his work with caution.<ref>Xenophon, ''A History of My Times'', Penguin edition p. 33–46</ref>

There are no signs or symptoms that are unique to Marfan syndrome. It is usually a single apparent sign or symptom that leads doctors to look for others and eventually to diagnose the syndrome, which affects connective tissue in diverse organs and systems. Even affected individuals in the same family might exhibit various combinations and severities of symptoms.

===Skeletal system===

Other sources for the war are either written long after the war or survive only in fragmentary form. [[Diodorus Siculus]] covered the entire war in his "Historical Library," written in the 1st century BC, his work is of variable quality and reliability, but historians have found it useful as a continuous account, and one that offers a different perspective from Xenophon. Several of [[Plutarch]]'s lives deal extensively with the war; although Plutarch was primarily a biographer and moralist, modern historians have drawn useful information from these works. Modern researchers have also made use of a number of speeches, artistic works, and philosophical writings of the period, many of which touch on the events of the war at one or more points.<ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 527</ref>

The most readily visible signs may be associated with the skeletal system. Many individuals with Marfan syndrome grow to larger than normal height and have long, slender limbs, fingers, and toes. An individual's arms may be disproportionately long. In addition to affecting height and limb proportions, Marfan syndrome can produce other skeletal signs. Abnormal curvature of the [[Vertebral column|spine]] ([[scoliosis]]) is common, as is abnormal indentation ([[pectus excavatum]]) or protrusion ([[pectus carinatum]]) of the [[sternum]]. Other signs include abnormal joint flexibility, a high [[palate]], [[malocclusions]], flat feet, stooped shoulders, and unexplained [[stretch marks]] on the skin. Some people with Marfans have [[speech disorder|speech impediments]] resulting from symptomatic high palates and small jaws.

==Prelude=Eyes===

Marfan syndrome can also seriously affect the eyes and vision. [[myopia|Nearsightedness]] and [[astigmatism]] are common, but farsightedness can also result. Periodic eye exams can lead to an [[ophthalmologist]] or [[optometrist]] discovering dislocation, or [[subluxation]], of the crystalline [[lens (anatomy)|lens]] in one or both eyes ([[ectopia lentis]]) by carefully observing these structures using a [[Slit lamp|slit-lamp]] biomicroscope. This can be differentiated from the similar condition [[homocystinuria]], where the dislocation is inferonasal; in Marfan's the dislocation is superotemporal. Sometimes eye problems appear only after the weakening of connective tissue has caused [[retinal detachment|detachment of the retina]].<ref name="mayo-gen">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/marfan-syndrome/DS00540/DSECTION=2|title=Marfan Syndrome|accessdate=2007-01-12|publisher=Mayo Clinic}}</ref> Early onset [[glaucoma]] can be another complication.

===Pentecontaetia===

Thucydides famously said that the Spartans went to war in 431 BC "because they were afraid of the further growth of Athenian power, seeing, as they did, that the greater part of [[Greece|Hellas]] was under the control of Athens"<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.88.1 1.88]</ref> Indeed, the fifty years of Greek history that preceded the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War had been marked by the development of Athens as a major power in the Mediterranean world. After the defeat of the [[Achaemenid Dynasty|Persian]] invasion of Greece in [[480 BC]], Athens soon assumed the leadership of the coalition of Greek states that continued the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] with attacks on Persian-held territories in the Aegean and Ionia. What ensued was a period, referred to as the [[Pentecontaetia]] (the name given it by Thucydides), in which Athens, first as leader of the [[Delian League]], then later as ruler of what increasingly came to be recognized as an [[Athenian Empire]],<ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 371</ref> carried out an aggressive war against Persia, which had, by the middle of the century, driven the Persians from the Aegean and forced them to cede control of a vast range of territories to Athens. At the same time, Athens greatly increased its own power; a number of its formerly independent allies were reduced, over the course of the century, to the status of tribute-paying subject states; this tribute was used to support a powerful fleet and, after the middle of the century, to fund massive public works programs in Athens.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 8</ref>

===Cardiovascular system===

Friction between Athens and Peloponnesian states, including Sparta, began early in the Pentecontaetia; in the wake of the departure of the Persians from Greece, Sparta attempted to prevent the reconstruction of the walls of Athens (without the walls, Athens would have been defenseless against a land attack and subject to Spartan control), but was rebuffed.<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.89.1 1.89–93]</ref> According to Thucydides, although the Spartans took no action at this time, they "secretly felt aggrieved."<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.92.1 1.92.1]</ref>

The most serious conditions associated with Marfan syndrome involve the cardiovascular system. Undue fatigue, shortness of breath, [[heart palpitations]], [[tachycardia|racing heartbeats]], or [[angina|pain in the left chest, back, shoulder, or arm]], can bring an individual into the doctor's office. A [[heart murmur]] heard on a [[stethoscope]], an abnormal reading on an [[electrocardiogram]], or symptoms of [[angina]] can lead a doctor to order an [[echocardiogram]]. This can reveal signs of leakage or [[prolapse]] of the mitral or aortic [[heart valve|valves]] that control the flow of blood through the heart. However, the major sign that would lead a doctor to consider an underlying condition is a dilated aorta or an [[aortic aneurysm]]. Sometimes, no heart problems are apparent until the weakening of the connective tissue in the [[aorta|ascending aorta]] causes an [[aortic aneurysm]] or even [[aortic dissection]]. During pregnancy, even in the absence of preconceived cardiovascular abnormality, women with Marfan syndrome are at significant risk of acute [[aortic dissection]], which can be lethal if untreated. For this reason, women with Marfan syndrome should recieve a thorough assessment prior to conception, and [[echocardiography]] should be performed every 6-10 weeks during pregnancy, to assess the aortic root diameter. Most women however tolerate pregnancy well and safe vaginal delivery is possible.<ref name="emed">{{Cite web|url=http://www.emedicine.com/ped/fulltopic/topic1372.htm#section~Miscellaneous|title=Marfan Syndrome, special concerns|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref>

===Lungs===

Conflict between the states flared up again in 465 BC, when a [[helot]] revolt broke out in Sparta. The Spartans summoned forces from all their allies, including Athens, to help them suppress the revolt. Athens sent out a sizable contingent, but upon its arrival, this force was dismissed by the Spartans, while those of all the other allies were permitted to remain. According to Thucydides, the Spartans acted in this way out of fear that the Athenians would switch side and support the helots; the offended Athenians repudiated their alliance with Sparta.<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.102.1 1.102]</ref> When the rebellious helots were finally forced to surrender and permitted to evacuate the country, the Athenians settled them at the strategic city of [[Naupactus]] on the [[Corinthian Gulf]].<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.103.1 1.103]</ref>

Marfan syndrome is a [[risk factor]] for spontaneous [[pneumothorax]]. In spontaneous unilateral pneumothorax, air escapes from a lung and occupies the [[pleural]] space between the chest wall and a [[lung]]. The lung becomes partially compressed or collapsed. This can cause pain, shortness of breath, [[cyanosis]], and, if not treated, death. Marfan syndrome has also been associated with [[sleep apnea]] and [[idiopathic]] obstructive lung disease.

===Central nervous system===

In 459 BC, Athens took advantage of a war between its neighbor [[Megara]] and [[Corinth]], both Spartan allies, to conclude an alliance with Megara, giving the Athenians a critical foothold on the [[isthmus of Corinth]]. A fifteen year conflict, commonly known as the [[First Peloponnesian War]], ensued, in which Athens fought intermittently against Sparta, Corinth, [[Aegina]], and a number of other states. For a time during this conflict, Athens controlled not only Megara but also [[Boeotia]]; at its end, however, in the face of a massive Spartan invasion of Attica, the Athenians ceded the lands they had won on the Greek mainland, and Athens and Sparta recognized each other's right to control their respective alliance systems.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 16–18</ref> The war was officially ended by the [[Thirty Years' Peace]], signed in the winter of 446/5 BC.<ref>In the [[Hellenic calendar]], years ended at midsummer; as a result, some events cannot be dated to a specific year of the modern calendar.</ref>

Another condition that can reduce the quality of life for an individual, though not life-threatening, is [[dural ectasia]], the weakening of the connective tissue of the dural sac, the membrane that encases the [[spinal cord]]. Dural ectasia can be present for a long time without producing any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms that can occur are lower [[back pain]], leg pain, [[abdominal pain]], other neurological symptoms in the lower extremities, or [[headaches]]. Such symptoms usually diminish when the individual lies flat on his or her back. These types of symptoms might lead a doctor to order an [[X-ray]] of the [[lumbar|lower spine]]. Dural ectasia is usually not visible on an X-ray in the early phases. A worsening of symptoms and the lack of finding any other cause should eventually lead a doctor to order a upright [[MRI]] of the lower spine. Dural ectasia that has progressed to the point of causing these symptoms would appear in a upright MRI image as a dilated pouch that is wearing away at the [[lumbar vertebrae]].<ref name="mayo-gen" /> Other spinal issues associated with Marfan include degenerative disk disease and spinal cysts.

==Management==

===Breakdown of the peace===

There is no cure for Marfan syndrome, but life expectancy has increased significantly over the last few decades. The syndrome is treated by addressing each issue as it arises, and, in particular, considering prophylactic medication, even for young children, to slow progression of aortic dilation.

The Thirty Year's Peace was first tested in 440 BC, when Athens' powerful ally [[Samos Island|Samos]] rebelled from its alliance. The rebels quickly secured the support of a Persian [[satrap]], and Athens found itself facing the prospect of revolts throughout the empire. The Spartans, whose intervention would have been the trigger for a massive war to determine the fate of the empire, called a congress of their allies to discuss the possibility of war with Athens. At that congress, however, the decision was made not to intervene; the Athenians crushed the revolt, and peace was maintained.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 23–24</ref>

Regular checkups by a [[cardiologist]] are needed to monitor the health of the heart valves and the aorta. The goal of treatment is to slow the progression of aortic dilation and damage to heart valves by eliminating [[Cardiac arrhythmia|arrythmias]], minimizing the [[heart rate]], and minimizing [[blood pressure]]. [[Beta blocker]]s have been used to control [[Cardiac arrhythmia|arrythmias]] and slow the [[heart rate]]. Other medications might be needed to further minimize [[blood pressure]] without slowing the [[heart rate]], such as [[ACE inhibitors]] and [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s, also known as angiontensin receptor blockers (ARBs). If the dilation of the aorta progresses to a significant diameter [[aneurysm]], causes a dissection or a rupture, or leads to failure of the aortic or other valve, then surgery (possibly a composite aortic valve graft [CAVG] or valve-sparing procedure) becomes necessary. Although aortic graft surgery (or any vascular surgery) is a serious undertaking it is generally successful if undertaken on an elective basis. Surgery in the setting of acute aortic dissection or rupture is considerably more problematic. Elective aortic valve/graft surgery is usually considered when aortic root diameter reaches 50 millimetres, but each case needs to be specifically evaluated by a qualified cardiologist. New valve-sparing surgical techniques are becoming more common.<ref name="mayo-heart">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/marfan-syndrome/heartsurgery.html|title=Heart Surgery for Marfan Syndrome|accessdate=2007-01-12|publisher=Mayo Clinic}}</ref> As Marfan patients live longer, other vascular repairs are becoming more common, e.g. repairs of descending thoractic aortic aneurysms and aneurysms of vessels other than the aorta.

The second test of the peace, and the immediate cause of the war, came in the form of several specific Athenian actions that affected Sparta's allies, notably [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]. Athens was persuaded to intervene in a dispute between Corinth and [[Corcyra]], and, at the [[Battle of Sybota]], a small contingent of Athenian ships played a critical role in preventing a Corinthian fleet from capturing Corcyra. It is worth noting, however, that the Athenians were instructed not to intervene in the battle. The presence of Athenian warships standing off from the engagement was enough to dissuade the Corinthians from exploiting their victory, thus sparing much of the routed Corcyraean fleet. Following this, Athens placed [[Battle of Potidaea|Potidaea]], a tributary ally of Athens but an old colony of Corinth, under siege. The Corinthians, outraged by these actions, began to lobby Sparta to take action against Athens. Meanwhile, the Corinthians were unofficially aiding Potidaea by sneaking contingents of men into the besieged city to help defend it. This was a direct violation of the Thirty Year's Peace which (among other things) outlined that the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League respect the autonomy and internal affairs of one another.

The skeletal and ocular manifestations of Marfan syndrome can also be serious, although not life-threatening. These symptoms are usually treated in the typical manner for the appropriate condition. This can also affect height, arm length, and life span. The [[Nuss procedure]] is now being offered to people with Marfan syndrome to correct 'sunken chest' or ([[pectus excavatum]]).<ref name="chkd">{{Cite web|url=http://www.chkd.org/services/nussprocedure/Overview.aspx|title=Overview of the Nuss Procedure for Pectus Excavatum|accessdate=2007-01-12|publisher=Children's Hospital of The King's Daughters}}</ref> Because Marfan may cause spinal abnormalities that are asymptomatic, any spinal surgery contemplated on a Marfan patient should only follow detailed imaging and careful surgical planning, regardless of the indication for surgery.

A further source of provocation was an Athenian decree, issued in 433/2 BC, imposing stringent trade sanctions on Megara (once more a Spartan ally after the conclusion of the First Peloponnesian War). These sanctions, known as the [[Megarian decree]], were largely ignored by Thucydides, but modern economic historians have noted that forbidding Megara to trade with the prosperous Athenian empire would have been disastrous for the Megarans, and have accordingly considered the decree to be a contributing factor in bringing about the war.<ref>Fine, ''The Ancient Greeks'', 454–6</ref>

Clinical trials have been conducted of the drug [[acetazolamide]] in the treatment of symptoms of [[dural ectasia]]. The treatment has demonstrated significant functional improvements in some sufferers.<ref name="spine">{{Cite web|url=http://www.spineuniverse.com/displayarticle.php/article922.html|title=Dural Ectasia in the Marfan Spine: Symptoms and Treatment|accessdate=2007-01-12|publisher=Scoliosis Research Society}}</ref> Other medical treatments, as well as physical therapy, are also available.

In the context of these events, the Spartans called a conference of the Peloponnesian League at Sparta in 432 BC. This conference was attended by Athenian representatives as well as those from the members of the league, and became the scene of a debate between the Athenians and the Corinthians. Thucydides reports that the Corinthians condemned Sparta's inactivity up to that point, warning the Spartans that if they continued to remain passive while the Athenians were energetically active, they would soon find themselves outflanked and without allies.<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.68.1 1.68–71]</ref> The Athenians, in response, reminded the Spartans of their record of military success and opposition to Persia, and warned them of the dangers of confronting such a powerful state.<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian War'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+1.73.1 1.73–75]</ref> Undeterred, a majority of the Spartan assembly voted to declare that the Athenians had broken the peace, essentially declaring war.<ref>Kagan, ''The Peloponnesian War'', 45.</ref>

Treatment of a spontaneous [[pneumothorax]] is dependant on the volume of air in the pleural space and the natural progression of the individual's condition. A small pneumothorax might resolve without active treatment in 1 to 2 weeks. Recurrent pneumothoraxes might require chest surgery. Moderately sized pneumothoraxes might need [[Chest tube|chest drain]] management for several days in hospital. Large pneumothoraxes are likely to be medical emergencies requiring emergency decompression.

==The "Archidamian War"==

[[Image:Pelopennesian War, Walls Protecting the City, 431 B.C..JPG|thumb|left|275px|The walls surrounding Athens]]

Sparta and its allies, with the exception of Corinth, were almost exclusively land based powers, able to summon large land armies which were very nearly unbeatable (thanks to the legendary Spartan forces). The Athenian Empire, although based in the peninsula of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]], spread out across the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]]; Athens drew its immense wealth from tribute paid from these islands. Athens maintained its empire through naval power. Thus, the two powers were relatively unable to fight decisive battles.

Research in laboratory [[mouse|mice]] has suggested that the [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]] [[losartan]], which appears to block TGF-beta activity, can slow or halt the formation of aortic aneurysms in Marfan syndrome.<ref name="scimag">{{Cite journal | last = Habashi | first = Jennifer P. | coauthors = Daniel P. Judge, Tammy M. Holm, Ronald D. Cohn, Bart L. Loeys, Timothy K. Cooper, Loretha Myers, Erin C. Klein, Guosheng Liu, Carla Calvi, Megan Podowski, Enid R. Neptune, Marc K. Halushka, Djahida Bedja, Kathleen Gabrielson, Daniel B. Rifkin, Luca Carta, Francesco Ramirez, David L. Huso, and Harry C. Dietz | date = [[April 7]], [[2006]] | title = Losartan, an AT1 Antagonist, Prevents Aortic Aneurysm in a Mouse Model of Marfan Syndrome | volume = 312 | issue = 5770 | pages = 117 - 121 | doi = 10.1126/science.1124287 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/312/5770/117 | abstract = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5770/117 | news = http://www.news-medical.net/?id=17249}}</ref> A large [[clinical trial]] sponsored by the [[National Institutes of Health]] comparing the effects of losartan and [[atenolol]] on the aortas of Marfan patients is scheduled to begin in early 2007, coordinated by Johns Hopkins.<ref name="trial">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marfan.org/nmf/GetSubContentRequestHandler.do?sub_menu_item_content_id=147&menu_item_id=91|title=Atenolol vs. Losartan in Individuals with Marfan Syndrome Clinial Trial|accessdate=2007-01-12|publisher=National Marfan Foundation}}</ref>

The Spartan strategy during the first war, known as the Archidamian War after Sparta's king [[Archidamus II]], was to invade the land surrounding Athens. While this invasion deprived Athens of the productive land around their city, Athens itself was able to maintain access to the sea, and did not suffer much. Many of the citizens of Attica abandoned their farms and moved inside the [[long walls]], which connected Athens to its port of [[Piraeus]]. The Spartans also occupied Attica for periods of only three weeks at a time; in the tradition of earlier [[hoplite]] warfare the soldiers expected to go home to participate in the harvest. Moreover, Spartan slaves, known as [[helots]], needed to be kept under control, and could not be left unsupervised for long periods of time. The longest Spartan invasion, in 430 BC, lasted just forty days.

Genetic counseling and specialized clinics are available at many academic medical centers for affected persons and family members.

The Athenian strategy was initially guided by the ''[[strategos]],'' or general, [[Pericles]], who advised the Athenians to avoid open battle with the far more numerous and better trained Spartan hoplites, relying instead on the fleet. The Athenian fleet, the most dominant in Greece, went on the offensive, winning victories at [[Battle of Naupactus (429 BC)|Naupactus]] (now known as "Návpaktos"). In [[430 BC|430]], however, an outbreak of a [[Plague of Athens|plague]] hit Athens. The plague ravaged the densely packed city, and in the long run, was a significant cause of its final defeat. The plague wiped out over 30,000 citizens, sailors and soldiers and even Pericles and his sons. Roughly one quarter of the Athenian population died. Athenian manpower was correspondingly drastically reduced and even foreign mercenaries refused to hire themselves out to a city riddled with plague. The fear of plague was so widespread that the Spartan invasion of Attica was abandoned, their troops being unwilling to risk contact with the diseased enemy.

==Well known people==

After the death of Pericles, the Athenians turned somewhat against his conservative, defensive strategy and to the more aggressive strategy of bringing the war to Sparta and its allies. Rising to particular importance in Athenian democracy at this time was [[Cleon]], a leader of the hawkish elements of the Athenian democracy. Led militarily by a clever new general [[Demosthenes (general)|Demosthenes]] (not to be confused with the later Athenian orator [[Demosthenes]]), the Athenians managed some successes as they continued their naval raids on the Peloponnese. Athens stretched their military activities into [[Boeotia]] and [[Aetolia]], and began fortifying posts around the Peloponnese. One of these posts was near [[Pylos]] on a tiny island called [[Sphacteria]], where the course of the first war turned in Athens's favour. The post off Pylos struck Sparta where it was weakest: its dependence on the helots. Sparta was dependent on a class of slaves, known as helots, to tend the fields while its citizens trained to become soldiers. The helots made the Spartan system possible, but now the post off Pylos began attracting helot runaways. In addition, the fear of a general revolt of helots emboldened by the nearby Athenian presence drove the Spartans to action. Demosthenes, however, outmanoeuvred the Spartans and trapped a group of Spartan soldiers on Sphacteria as he waited for them to surrender. Weeks later, though, Demosthenes proved unable to finish off the Spartans. After boasting that he could put an end to the affair in the Assembly, the inexperienced Cleon won a great victory at the [[Battle of Pylos]] and the related [[Battle of Sphacteria]] in [[425 BC]]. The Athenians captured between 300 and 400 Spartan hoplites. The hostages gave the Athenians a valuable bargaining chip.

Below is a list of prominent figures known or believed to have had Marfan syndrome:

* [[Euell Gibbons]], outdoorsman & health food proponent.

* [[Flo Hyman]], silver medal in Women's Volleyball (1984 Olympics)<ref name="flo">{{Cite web|url=http://www.volleyhall.org/hyman.html|title=Flo Hyman|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=Volleyball Hall of Fame}}</ref>

* [[Jonathan Larson]], Tony Award-winning playwright ([[Rent (musical)|Rent]]); he died in 1996 of [[aortic dissection]] on the eve of his musical's premiere<ref name="larson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wnbc.com/drmaxgomez/5421112/detail.html|title=Marfan's Syndrome Is Deadly, Elusive|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=WNBC.com}}</ref>

* [[Robert Johnson (musician)|Robert Johnson]], blues singer and guitarist<ref name="robertj">{{Cite journal | last = Connel | first = David | date = [[September 2]], [[2006]] | title=Retrospective blues: Robert Johnson—an open letter to Eric Clapton | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 333 | issue = 7566 | pages = 489 | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1557967|accessdate=2007-01-11}}</ref>

*[[Mike Dunleavy]], professional basketball player for the [[Portland Trailblazers]]

* [[Vincent Schiavelli]], actor<ref name="schiavelli">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marfan.org/nmf/PreviewPressReleaseInfoRequestHandler.do?press_release_id=24|title=NMF Mourns the Loss of its Honorary Co-Chair, Vincent Schiavelli|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=National Marfan Foundation}}</ref>

* [[Sir John Tavener]],<ref name="bbc">Richard Morrison, ''99 Names for God: John Tavener turns his back on Orthodoxy'', BBC Music, November 2004, page 30</ref> contemporary British composer

* Bradford Cox, frontman of the punk rock band [[Deerhunter]]<ref name="deerhunter">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pitchforkmedia.com/article/feature/43085-interview-deerhunter|title=Pitchfork Feature: Interview: Deerhunter}}</ref>

* [[Joey Ramone]], of the punk rock band [[The Ramones]].

===Spurious or conjectural claims===

After the battle, [[Brasidas]], a Spartan general, raised an army of allies and helots and went for one of the sources of Athenian power, capturing the Athenian colony of [[Amphipolis]], which happened to control several nearby [[silver]] mines which the Athenians were using to finance the war. It is worth noting here that Thucydides the historian was a general at this time for Athens, and it was due to his failure to stop Brasidas capturing Amphipolis that he was ostracised. Thucydides arrived too late to reinforce the troops already defending Amphipolis, and as such was blamed for its fall. In subsequent battles, both Brasidas and Cleon were killed (see [[Battle of Amphipolis]]). The Spartans and Athenians agreed to exchange the hostages for the towns captured by Brasidas, and signed a truce.

There are a number of historical persons believed to have suffered from Marfan's syndrome, but as proper Marfan diagnosis was not available before well into the 20th century most such claims can only be considered as speculation based on sparse medical records and pictures.

* [[Akhenaten]], Egyptian Pharaoh, who was the father of King [[Tutankhamun]] (spurious claim based on early Amarna art style. Tutankhamun, who didn't have syndrome, was also portrayed this way)<ref name="pharaoh">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marfan.ca/pharaoh.html|title=Did Akhenaten Suffer from Marfan's Syndrome?|accessdate=2007-01-11|publisher=Canadian Marfan Association}}</ref>

== Peace of Nicias ==

{{main|Peace of Nicias}}

* [[Osama bin Laden]] may suffer from Marfan Syndrome (speculation based on tall size, use of cane and rumoured heart-disease; almost certainly in error)<ref>http://archive.salon.com/people/feature/2001/11/09/marfan/index.html</ref>

With the death of [[Cleon]] and [[Brasidas]], zealous war hawks for both nations, the Peace of Nicias was able to last for some six years. However, it was a time of constant skirmishing in and around the Peloponnese. While the Spartans refrained from action themselves, some of their allies began to talk of revolt. They were supported in this by [[Argos]], a powerful state within the Peloponnese that had remained independent of [[Lacedaemon]]. With the support of the Athenians, the Argives succeeded in forging a coalition of democratic states within the Peloponnese, including the powerful states of [[Mantinea]] and [[Elis]]. Early Spartan attempts to break up the coalition failed, and the leadership of the Spartan king [[Agis II|Agis]] was called into question. Emboldened, the Argives and their allies, with the support of a small Athenian force under [[Alcibiades]], moved to seize the city of [[Tegea]], near Sparta.

* [[Charles de Gaulle]] (conjectural)<ref>http://archive.salon.com/people/feature/2001/11/09/marfan/index.html</ref>

The [[Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)|Battle of Mantinea]] was the largest land battle fought within Greece during the Peloponnesian War. The Lacedaemonians, with their neighbors the Tegeans, faced the combined armies of [[Argos]], [[Athens]], [[Mantinea]], and [[Arcadia]]. In the battle, the allied coalition scored early successes, but failed to capitalize on them, which allowed the Spartan elite forces to defeat the forces opposite them. The result was a complete victory for the Spartans, which rescued their city from the brink of strategic defeat. The democratic alliance was broken up, and most of its members were reincorporated into the [[Peloponnesian League]]. With its victory at Mantinea, Sparta pulled itself back from the brink of utter defeat, and re-established its hegemony throughout the Peloponnese.

* [[Nicollo Paganini]] (Conjectural) <ref>[http://tafkac.org/celebrities/paganini_stories_myths.html], main reference being an article in the AMA journal by Dr. Myron R. Shoenfeld dated 2 January, 1978.</ref>

== Sicilian Expedition ==

{{main|Sicilian Expedition}}

* It was once believed that [[Abraham Lincoln]] suffered from Marfan Sydrome, although recent research has argued that he probably didn't.

In the 17th year of the war, word came to Athens that one of their distant allies in [[Sicily]] was under attack from [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. The people of Syracuse were ethnically [[Dorians|Dorian]] (as were the Spartans), while the Athenians, and their ally in Sicilia, were [[Ionia|Ionian]]. The Athenians felt obliged to assist their ally.

* [[Johnny Appleseed]], a pioneer nurseryman in America living during the 18th century; he has become an almost mythical popular culture icon in America.

The Athenians did not act solely from altruism: rallied on by [[Alcibiades]], the leader of the expedition, they held visions of conquering all of Sicily. Syracuse, the principal city of Sicily, was not much smaller than Athens, and conquering all of Sicily would have brought Athens an immense amount of resources. In the final stages of the preparations for departure, the [[hermai]] (religious statues) of Athens were mutilated by unknown persons, and Alcibiades was charged with religious crimes. Alcibiades demanded that he be put on trial at once, so that he may defend himself before the expedition. The Athenians however allowed Alcibiades to go on the expedition without being tried (many believed in order to better plot against him). After arriving in Sicily, Alcibiades was recalled back to Athens for trial. Fearing that he would be unjustly condemned, Alcibiades defected to Sparta and [[Nicias]] was placed in charge of the mission. After his defection, Alcibiades informed the Spartans that the Athenians planned to use Sicily as a springboard for the conquest of all of [[Italy]], and to use the resources and soldiers from these new conquests to conquer all of the Peloponnese.

==Related disorders==

The Athenian force consisted of over 100 ships and some 5,000 infantry and light-armored troops. Cavalry was limited to about 30 horses, which proved to be no match for the large and highly trained Syracusan cavalry. Upon landing in Sicily, several cities immediately joined the Athenian cause. Instead of attacking at once, Nicias procrastinated and the campaigning season of 415 BC ended with Syracuse scarcely damaged. With winter approaching, the Athenians were then forced to withdraw into their quarters, and they spent the winter gathering allies and preparing to destroy Syracuse. The delay allowed the Syracusans to send for help from Sparta, who sent their general [[Gylippus]] to Sicily with reinforcements. Upon arriving, he raised up a force from several Sicilian cities, and went to the relief of Syracuse. He took command of the Syracusan troops, and in a series of battles defeated the Athenian forces, and prevented them from invading the city.

The following disorders have similar signs and symptoms of Marfan syndrome:

*[[Arachnodactyly|Congenital Contractural Arachnodactyly (CCA) or Beals Syndrome]]

Nicias then sent word to Athens asking for reinforcements. Demosthenes was chosen and led another fleet to Sicily, joining his forces with those of Nicias. More battles ensued and again, the Syracusans and their allies defeated the Athenians. Demosthenes argued for a retreat to Athens, but Nicias at first refused. After additional setbacks, Nicias seemed to agree to a retreat until a bad omen, in the form of a [[lunar eclipse]], delayed any withdrawal. The delay was costly and forced the Athenians into a major sea battle in the Great Harbor of Syracuse. The Athenians were thoroughly defeated. Nicias and Demosthenes marched their remaining forces inland in search of friendly allies. The Syracusan cavalry rode them down mercilessly, eventually killing or enslaving all who were left of the mighty Athenian fleet.

*[[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]]

*[[Homocystinuria]]

*[[Loeys-Dietz syndrome]]

*[[MASS phenotype]]

*[[Stickler syndrome]]

The following conditions that can result from having Marfan syndrome may also occur in people without any known underlying disorder:

== The Second War ==

<div style="width:30%; float:left; padding:0 3% 0 0; border:none; overflow:hidden; clear:left;">

The Lacedaemonians were not content with simply sending aid to Sicily; they also resolved to take the war to the Athenians. On the advice of Alcibiades, they fortified [[Decelea]], near Athens, and prevented the Athenians from making use of their land year round. The fortification of Decelea prevented the shipment of supplies overland to Athens, and forced all supplies to be brought in by sea at increased expense. Perhaps worst of all, the nearby silver mines were totally disrupted, with as many as 20,000 Athenian [[slaves]] freed by the Spartan hoplites at Decelea. With the treasury and emergency reserve fund of 1,000 talents dwindling away, the Athenians were forced to demand even more tribute from her subject allies, further increasing tensions and the threat of further [[rebellion]] within the Empire.

*[[Aortic aneurysm|Aortic aneurysm or dilitation]]

*[[Arachnodactyly]]

*[[Bicuspid aortic valve]]

*[[Cysts]]

*[[Craniosynostosis]]

*[[Cystic medial necrosis]]

*[[Dural ectasia]]

*[[Ectopia lentis]]

</div>

<div style="width:30%; float:left; padding:0 3% 0 0; border:none; overflow:hidden; ">

*[[Flat feet]]

*[[Gigantism]]

*[[Glaucoma]]

*[[Hernias]]

*[[Hyperflex|Hypermobility of the joints]]

*[[Malocclusion]]

*[[Mitral valve prolapse]]

*[[Myopia]]

</div>

<div class="editmode" style="width:30%; float:left; padding:0 3% 0 0; border:none; overflow:hidden; ">

*[[COPD|Obstructive lung disease]]

*[[Osteoarthritis]]

*[[Pectus carinatum]] or [[pectus excavatum|excavatum]]

*[[Pneumothorax]]

*[[Retinal detachment]]

*[[Scoliosis]]

*[[Sleep apnea]]

*[[Stretch marks]]

</div><br clear="left" />

==References==

The Corinthians, the Spartans, and others in the Peloponnesian League sent more reinforcements to Syracuse, in the hopes of driving off the Athenians; but instead of withdrawing, the Athenians sent another hundred ships and another 5,000 troops to Sicily. Under Gylippus, the Syracusans and their allies were able to decisively defeat the Athenians on land; and Gylippus encouraged the Syracusans to build a navy, which was able to defeat the Athenian fleet when they attempted to withdraw. The Athenian army, attempting to withdraw overland to other, more friendly Sicilian cities, was divided and defeated; the entire Athenian fleet was destroyed, and virtually the entire Athenian army was sold off into slavery.

Following the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, it was widely believed that the end of the Athenian Empire was at hand. Her treasury was nearly empty, her docks were depleted, and the flower of her youth was dead or imprisoned in a foreign land. They underestimated the strength of the Athenian Empire, but the beginning of the end was indeed at hand.

=== Athens recovers ===

Following the destruction of the Sicilian Expedition, Lacedaemon encouraged the revolt of Athens's tributary allies, and indeed, much of Ionia rose in revolt against Athens. The Syracusans sent their fleet to the Peloponnesians, and the Persians decided to support the Spartans with money and ships. Revolt and faction threatened in Athens itself.

The Athenians managed to survive for several reasons. First, their foes were severely lacking in vigor. Corinth and Syracuse were slow to bring their fleets into the Aegean, and Sparta's other allies were also slow to furnish troops or ships. The Ionian states that rebelled expected protection, and many rejoined the Athenian side. The Persians were slow to furnish promised funds and ships, frustrating battle plans. Perhaps most importantly, Spartan officers were not trained to be diplomats, and were insensitive and politically inept.

At the start of the war, the Athenians had prudently put aside some money and 100 ships that were to be used only as a last resort.

These ships were now released, and served as the core of the Athenians' fleet throughout the rest of the war. An oligarchical revolution occurred in Athens, in which a group of 400 seized power. A peace with Sparta might have been possible, but the Athenian fleet, now based on the island of [[Samos Island|Samos]], refused to accept the change. In [[411 BC]] this fleet engaged the Spartans at the [[Battle of Syme]]. The fleet appointed [[Alcibiades]] their leader, and continued the war in Athens's name. Their opposition led to the reinstitution of a democratic government in Athens within two years.

Alcibiades, while condemned as a traitor, still carried weight in Athens. He prevented the Athenian fleet from attacking Athens; instead, he helped restore democracy by more subtle pressure. He also persuaded the Athenian fleet to attack the Spartans at the [[battle of Cyzicus]] in [[410 BC|410]]. In the battle, the Athenians obliterated the Spartan fleet, and succeeded in re-establishing the financial basis of the Athenian Empire.

Between 410 and 406, Athens won a continuous string of victories, and eventually recovered large portions of its empire. All of this was due, in no small part, to Alcibiades.

=== Lysander triumphs, Athens surrenders ===

[[Image:Pelopennesian War, Key Actions in each Phase, 431 - 404 B.C..JPG|200px|thumb|left|The Key actions of each phase]]

Faction triumphed in Athens: following a minor Spartan victory by their skillful general [[Lysander]] at the naval [[battle of Notium]] in [[406 BC]]. [[Alcibiades]] was not re-elected general by the Atheneans and he exiled himself from the city. He would never again lead Atheneans in battle. Athens was then victorious at the naval [[battle of Arginusae]]. The Spartan fleet under [[Callicratidas]] lost 70 ships and the Athenians lost 25 ships. But, due to bad weather, the Athenians were unable to rescue their stranded crews or to finish off the Spartan fleet. Despite their victory, these failures caused outrage in Athens and led to a [[Battle of Arginusae#Trial of the generals|controversial trial]]. The trial resulted in the execution of six of Athen’s top naval commanders. Athen’s naval supremacy would now be challenged without several of its most able military leaders and a demoralized navy.

Unlike some of his predecessors the new Spartan general, Lysander, was not a member of the Spartan royal families and was also formidable in naval strategy; he was an artful diplomat, who had even cultivated good personal relationships with the Persian prince Cyrus, the son of [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]]. Seizing its opportunity, the Spartan fleet sailed at once to the [[Hellespont]], the source of Athens' [[cereal|grain]]. Threatened with starvation, the Athenian fleet had no choice but to follow. Through cunning strategy, Lysander totally defeated the Athenian fleet, in [[405 BC]], at the [[battle of Aegospotami]], destroying 168 ships and capturing some three or four thousand Athenian sailors. Only 12 Athenian ships escaped, and several of these sailed to [[Cyprus]], carrying the "[[strategos]]" (General) [[Conon]], who was anxious not to face the judgment of the [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|Assembly]].

Facing starvation and disease from the prolonged siege, Athens surrendered in [[404 BC]], and her allies soon surrendered as well. The democrats at [[Samos Island|Samos]], loyal to the bitter last, held on slightly longer, and were allowed to flee with their lives. The surrender stripped Athens of her walls, her fleet, and all of her overseas possessions. Corinth and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] demanded that Athens should be destroyed and all its citizens should be enslaved. However the Spartans announced their refusal to destroy a city that had done a good service at a time of greatest danger to Greece, and took Athens into their own system. Athens was "to have the same friends and enemies" as Sparta.

By doing so the victorious Spartans proved to be the most clement state that fought Athens and at the same time they turned to be her saviour, as neither Corinth nor Thebes at the time could challenge their decision.

==Aftermath==

For a short period of time, Athens was ruled by the '[[Thirty Tyrants]]' and democracy was suspended. This was a [[reactionary]] regime set up by Sparta. The [[Oligarchy|oligarchs]] were overthrown and democracy was restored by [[Thrasybulus]] in 403 BC.

Although the power of Athens was broken, it made something of a recovery as a result of the [[Corinthian War]] and continued to play an active role in Greek politics. Sparta was in turn humbled by Thebes at the [[Battle of Leuctra]] in [[371 BC]], but it was all brought to an end a few years later when [[Philip II of Macedon]] conquered all of Greece.

The war continues to fascinate later generations, both because of the way it engulfed the Greek world, and because the democracy of Athens lost to the far more militant Sparta. Also, the insight Thucydides provides into the motivations of its participants is deeper than what is known about any other war in ancient times.

==Notes==

{{reflist|2}}

==External links==

== References and further reading==

*[http://marfanworld.org/ International Federation of Marfan Syndrome Organisations]

===Classical authors===

*[http://www.marfan.org/ National Marfan Foundation (USA)]

* [[Diodorus Siculus]]

*[http://www.marfan.org.za/diagnosis.html Marfan diagnosis criteria]

* [[Plutarch]]

*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disease/Marfan.html National Institute for Health Marfan syndrome page (USA)]

* [[Thucydides]], ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]''

*[http://www.medicinenet.com/marfan_syndrome/index.htm Marfan Syndrome Center at medicinenet.com]

* [[Xenophon]], ''[[Hellenica]]''

*[http://marfansyndrome.researchtoday.net/ Marfan Syndrome Research] - recent literature on Marfan Syndrome

*[http://www.supportmarfan.com Marfan support]

===Modern authors===

*[http://www.marfan.ca/ Canadian Marfan Association]

* Bagnall, Nigel. ''The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta, And The Struggle For Greece''. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-312-34215-2).

*[http://www.marfan.org.uk/ Marfan Association UK]

* Cawkwell, G.L. ''Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War''. London: Routledge, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-16430-3; paperback, ISBN 0-415-16552-0).

*[http://www.marfan.org.mx/ Marfan de Mexico]

* Hanson, Victor Davis. ''A War Like No Other: How the Athenians and Spartans Fought the Peloponnesian War''. New York: Random House, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4000-6095-8); New York: Random House, 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-8129-6970-7).

*[http://www.marfan.no/ Norwegian Marfan Organization]

* Heftner, Herbert. ''Der oligarchische Umsturz des Jahres 411 v. Chr. und die Herrschaft der Vierhundert in Athen: Quellenkritische und historische Untersuchungen''. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2001 (ISBN 3-631-37970-6).

*[http://www.marfanlife.net Marfan Life blog] - mostly links to news articles about Marfan Syndrome

* Hutchinson, Godfrey. ''Attrition: Aspects of Command in the Peloponnesian War''. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-86227-323-5).

*[http://www.marfanlife.net/lists/ Marfan-List] - email discussion list for people and families with Marfan Syndrome

* [[Donald Kagan|Kagan, Donald]]:

*[http://www.marfan.org.za/ South African Marfan Syndrome Organisation] - support group for Africa

**''The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War''. Ithaca, NY: [[Cornell University#Cornell University Press|Cornell University Press]], 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-0501-7); 1989 (paperback, ISBN 0-8014-9556-3).

*[http://www.medstudents.com.br/original/revisao/marfan/marfan.htm Eye Findings in Marfan's syndrome]

**''The Archidamian War''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-0889-X); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-8014-9714-0).

**''The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-1367-2); 1991 (paperback, ISBN 0-8014-9940-2).

**''The Fall of the Athenian Empire''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-1935-2); 1991 (paperback, ISBN 0-8014-9984-4).

**''The Peloponnesian War''. New York: Viking, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-670-03211-5); New York: Penguin, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-14-200437-5); a one-volume version of his earlier tetralogy.

* Kallet, Lisa. ''Money and the Corrosion of Power in Thucydides: The Sicilian Expedition and its Aftermath''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-22984-3).

* Krentz, Peter. ''The Thirty at Athens''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-1450-4).

* ''The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War'', edited by Robert B. Strassler. New York: [[The Free Press]], 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-684-82815-4); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-684-82790-5).

== External links ==

{{Commonscat}}

[[Category:Wars involving ancient Greece]]

[[Category:Peloponnesian War|*]]

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[[sv:Marfans syndrom]]

[[he:המלחמה הפלופונסית]]

[[uk:Синдром Марфана]]

[[la:Bellum Peloponnesiacum]]

[[lb:Peloponnesesche Krich]]

[[lt:Peloponeso karas]]

[[nl:Peloponnesische oorlog]]

[[ja:ペロポネソス戦争]]

[[no:Peloponneskrigen]]

[[pl:Wojny peloponeskie]]

[[pt:Guerra do Peloponeso]]

[[ru:Пелопоннесская война]]

[[scn:Guerra dû Peloponnesu]]

[[sk:Peloponézske vojny]]

[[sr:Пелопонески рат]]

[[sh:Peloponeski rat]]

[[fi:Peloponnesolaissota]]

[[sv:Peloponnesiska kriget]]

[[uk:Пелопонеська війна]]

[[zh:伯罗奔尼撒战争]]