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{{Infobox Writer
| name = John Ronald Reuel Tolkien
| image = Jrrt 1972 pipe.jpg
| caption = Tolkien in 1972, in his study at [[Merton Street]], Oxford. Source: ''J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography'', by [[Humphrey Carpenter]].
| birth_date = [[January 3]], [[1892]]
| birth_place = [[Bloemfontein]], [[South Africa]]
| death_date = [[September 2]], [[1973]]
| death_place = [[Bournemouth]], [[England]]
| occupation = [[author]], [[academia|academic]], [[philology|philologist]]
| genres = [[High fantasy]], [[Translation]], [[Criticism]]
| main_work = ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''
| influences = [[George MacDonald]], [[Anglo-Saxon poetry]], [[Greco-Roman mythology]], [[Norse mythology]], the [[Kalevala]], the [[Bible]]
| influenced = [[C.S. Lewis]], [[J.K. Rowling]], and other authors of [[high fantasy]].
}}
'''John Ronald Reuel Tolkien''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] ([[January 3]], [[1892]] – [[September 2]], [[1973]]) was a [[South Africa]]n-born, [[England|English]] [[Philology|philologist,]] [[English literature|writer]] and [[university]] professor who is best known as the author of ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', as well as many other works. He was an [[Oxford University|Oxford]] professor of [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon language]] ([[1925]] to [[1945]]) and [[English studies|English language and literature]] ([[1945]] to [[1959]]). He was an orthodox [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]. Tolkien was a close friend of [[C. S. Lewis]]; they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the [[Inklings]].
In addition to ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of the Rings'', Tolkien's published fiction includes ''[[The Silmarillion]]'' and other [[posthumous]]ly published books, which taken together is a connected body of tales, fictional histories, invented languages, and literary essays about an imagined world called [[Arda]], and [[Middle-earth]] (derived from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''[[Midgard|middangeard]]'', the lands inhabitable by [[Mannaz|humans]]) in particular, loosely identified as an "alternative" remote past of our own world. Tolkien applied the word ''[[legendarium]]'' to the totality of these writings. Most of the posthumously published books were compiled from Tolkien's notes by his son [[Christopher Tolkien]].
While fantasy authors such as [[William Morris]], [[Robert E. Howard]] and [[Eric Rucker Eddison|E. R. Eddison]] preceded Tolkien, the great success and enduring influence of his works have led to him being popularly identified as the "[[List of people known as father or mother of something#T|father]] of modern [[high fantasy|fantasy]] literature".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8119893978710705002|title=J. R. R. Tolkien: Father of Modern Fantasy Literature|accessdate=2006-07-20|author=Mitchell, Christopher|format=Google Video|work="Let There Be Light" series|publisher=[http://www.uctv.tv/ University of California Television]}}.</ref> In any case, Tolkien's work has had an indisputable and lasting effect on the field and related media; many fantasy settings like ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'', ''[[Warhammer Fantasy]]'' and ''[[Inheritance Trilogy|Inheritance]]'' owe much of their mythology, directly or indirectly, to him.<!--needs more work-->
Tolkien's other published fiction includes stories not directly related to [[Tolkien's legendarium|his legendarium]], some of them originally told to his children.
==Biography==
===The Tolkien Family===
As far as is known, most of Tolkien's paternal ancestors were craftsmen. The Tolkien ({{IPA|ˈtɒlkiːn}}) family had its roots in [[Saxony]] ([[Germany]]), but had been living in England since the [[18th century]], becoming "quickly and intensely English".<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 165}}</ref> The surname ''Tolkien'' is Anglicized from ''Tollkiehn'' (i.e. German ''tollkühn'', "foolhardy"; the etymological English translation would be ''dull-keen'', a [[calque]] and an ''[[oxymoron]]''). The surname ''Rashbold'' given to two characters in Tolkien's ''[[The Notion Club Papers]]'' is a [[pun]] on this.<ref>(undergraduate John Jethro Rashbold, and "old Professor Rashbold at Pembroke"; {{ME-ref|SD|page 151}}; {{ME-ref|Letters|no. 165}}</ref>
Tolkien's maternal grandparents, John and Edith Jane Suffield, lived in [[Birmingham]] and owned a shop in the city centre. The Suffield family had a business in a building called Lamb House since [[1812]]. From 1812 William Suffield ran a book and stationery shop there; Tolkien's great-grandfather, also John Suffield, was there from 1826 with a [[drapery]] and [[hosiery]] business.<ref>[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/GenerateContent?CONTENT_ITEM_ID=46417&CONTENT_ITEM_TYPE=0&MENU_ID=13150 Image of John Suffield's shop before demolition with caption] - Birmingham.gov.uk</ref>
===Childhood===
John Ronald [[Reuel]] ({{IPA|ɹuːəl}}) Tolkien was born on [[3 January]] [[1892]], in [[Bloemfontein]] in the [[Orange Free State]] (now [[Free State Province]], [[South Africa]]), to [[Arthur Tolkien|Arthur Reuel Tolkien]] (1857–1896), an English bank manager, and his wife Mabel, ''née'' Suffield ([[1870]]–[[1904]]). Tolkien had one sibling, his younger brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel, who was born on [[17 February]] [[1894]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 22}}</ref>
While living in Africa he was bitten by a [[baboon spider]] in the garden, an event which would have later parallels in his stories. Dr. Thornton S. Quimby cared for the ailing child after the rather nasty spider bite, and it is occasionally suggested that Doctor Quimby was an early model for characters such as [[Gandalf|Gandalf the Grey]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 21}}</ref> When he was three, Tolkien went to [[England]] with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a lengthy family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of [[rheumatic fever]] before he could join them.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 24}}</ref> This left the family without an income, so Tolkien's mother took him to live with her parents in Stirling Road, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to [[Sarehole]] (now in [[Hall Green]]), then a [[Worcestershire]] village, later annexed to Birmingham.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 27}}</ref> He enjoyed exploring [[Sarehole Mill]] and [[Moseley Bog]] and the [[Clent Hills]] and [[Malvern Hills]], which would later inspire scenes in his books along with other Worcestershire towns and villages such as [[Bromsgrove]], [[Alcester]] and [[Alvechurch]] and places such as his aunt's farm of Bag End, the name of which would be used in his fiction.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 113}}</ref>
[[Image:Jrrt 1905.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Ronald (left) and Hilary Tolkien in 1905 (from Carpenter's ''Biography'')]]
Mabel tutored her two sons, and Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 29}}</ref> She taught him a great deal of [[botany]], and she awakened in her son the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees. But his favourite lessons were those concerning languages, and his mother taught him the rudiments of [[Latin]] very early.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doughan|first=David|year=2002|url=http://www.tolkiensociety.org/tolkien/biography.html| title=JRR Tolkien Biography|work=Life of Tolkien|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> He could read by the age of four, and could write fluently soon afterwards. His mother got him lots of books to read. He disliked ''[[Treasure Island]]'' and ''[[The Pied Piper]]''. He thought ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]] was amusing, but also thought that Alice's adventures in it were disturbing. But he liked stories about Native Americans, and also the fantasy works by [[George MacDonald]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 22}}</ref> He attended [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]] and, while a student there, helped "line the route" for the [[coronation]] parade of King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], being posted just outside the gates of [[Buckingham Palace]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 306}}</ref> He later attended [[St. Philip's School]] and [[Exeter College, Oxford]].
[[Image:jrrt 1911.jpg|left|thumb|150px|J. R. R. Tolkien in 1911 (from Carpenter's ''Biography'')]]
His mother converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in 1900 despite vehement protests by her [[Baptist]] family<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 31}}</ref> who then suspended all financial assistance to her. She died of complications due to [[diabetes]] in 1904, when Tolkien was twelve, at Fern Cottage in [[Rednal]], which they were then renting. For the rest of his life Tolkien felt that she had become a [[martyr]] for her faith, which had a profound effect on his own Catholic beliefs.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 39}}</ref> Tolkien's devout faith was significant in the conversion of [[C. S. Lewis]] to [[Christianity]], though Tolkien was greatly disappointed that Lewis chose to return to the [[Anglicanism]] of his upbringing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carpenter|first=Humphrey|year=1978|title=The Inklings|publisher=Allen & Unwin}} Lewis was brought up in the [[Church of Ireland]], and as an adult joined the [[Church of England]].</ref>
During his subsequent orphanhood he was brought up by Father Francis Xavier Morgan of the [[Birmingham Oratory]] in the [[Edgbaston]] area of Birmingham. He lived there in the shadow of [[Perrott's Folly]] and the [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] tower of [[Edgbaston Waterworks]], which may have influenced the images of the dark towers within his works. Another strong influence was the [[Romanticism|romantic]] medievalist paintings of [[Edward Burne-Jones]] and the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]; the [[Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery]] has a large and world-renowned collection of works and had put it on free public display from around 1908.
===Youth===
Tolkien met and fell in love with [[Edith Bratt|Edith Mary Bratt]] at the age of sixteen, though she was three years older. Father Francis forbade him from meeting, talking, or even corresponding with her until he was twenty-one. He obeyed this prohibition to the letter.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doughan|first=David|year=2002|url=http://www.tolkiensociety.org/tolkien/biography.html#2| title=War, Lost Tales And Academia|work = J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biographical Sketch|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref>
In [[1911]], while they were at [[King Edward's School, Birmingham|King Edward's School]], [[Birmingham]], Tolkien and three friends, Rob Gilson, Geoffrey Smith and Christopher Wiseman, formed a semi-secret society which they called "the [[TCBS|T.C.B.S.]]", the initials standing for "Tea Club and Barrovian Society", alluding to their fondness of drinking [[tea]] in Barrow's Stores near the school and, illicitly, in the school library.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|pages 53 – 54}}</ref> After leaving school, the members stayed in touch, and in December 1914, they held a "Council" in London, at Wiseman's home. For Tolkien, the result of this meeting was a strong dedication to writing poetry.
In the summer of 1911, Tolkien went on holiday in [[Switzerland]], a trip that he recollects vividly in a 1968 letter,<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 306}}</ref> noting that [[Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo's]] journey across the [[Misty Mountains]] ("including the glissade down the slithering stones into the pine woods") is directly based on his adventures as their party of twelve hiked from [[Interlaken]] to [[Lauterbrunnen]], and on to camp in the moraines <!-- In Letters 306, Tolkien spells "morains", but this is not a direct quote. Oxford English Dictionary offers standardised spelling of "moraines". ---> beyond [[Mürren]]. Fifty-seven years later, Tolkien remembers his regret at leaving the view of the eternal snows of [[Jungfrau]] and [[Silberhorn]] ("the Silvertine ([[Celebdil]]) of my dreams"). They went across the [[Kleine Scheidegg]] on to [[Grindelwald]] and across the [[Grosse Scheidegg]] to [[Meiringen]]. They continued across the [[Grimsel Pass]] and through the upper [[Valais]] to [[Brig, Switzerland|Brig]], and on to the [[Aletsch glacier]] and [[Zermatt]].
[[Image:Tolkien 1916.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Tolkien in 1916, wearing his British Army uniform in a photograph from the middle years of [[World War I|WW1]] (from Carpenter's ''Biography'')]]
On the evening of his twenty-first birthday, Tolkien wrote to Edith a declaration of his love and asked her to marry him. She replied saying that she was already engaged but had done so because she had believed Tolkien had forgotten her. The two met up and beneath a railway viaduct renewed their love; Edith returned her ring and chose to marry Tolkien instead.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|pags 67 – 69}}</ref> Following their engagement Edith converted to Catholicism at Tolkien's insistence.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 73}}</ref> They were engaged in Birmingham, in January 1913, and married in [[Warwick, England]], on [[22 March]] [[1916]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 86}}</ref>
After graduating from the [[University of Oxford]] (where he was a member of [[Exeter College, Oxford|Exeter College]]) with a first-class degree in [[English studies|English]] language in 1915, Tolkien joined the [[British Army]] effort in [[World War I]] and served as a [[second lieutenant]] in the eleventh [[battalion]] of the [[Lancashire Fusiliers]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 85}}</ref> His battalion was moved to France in 1916, where Tolkien served as a communications officer during the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]] until he came down with [[trench fever]] on [[27 October]] [[1916]] and was moved back to England on [[8 November]] [[1916]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 93}}</ref> Many of his close friends, including Gilson and Smith of the T.C.B.S., were killed in the war. Tolkien's [[Webley Revolver|Webley .455]] Service Revolver is currently on display in the [[Imperial War Museum]], [[London]] in a [[World War I]] exhibition. During his recovery in a cottage in [[Great Haywood]], [[Staffordshire, England]], he began to work on what he called ''[[The Book of Lost Tales]]'', beginning with ''[[The Fall of Gondolin]]''. Throughout 1917 and 1918 his illness kept recurring, but he had recovered enough to do home service at various camps, and was promoted to lieutenant. When he was stationed at [[Kingston upon Hull]], one day he and Edith went walking in the woods at nearby [[Roos]], and Edith began to dance for him in a clearing among the flowering hemlock: "We walked in a wood where hemlock was growing, a sea of white flowers".<ref>Following rural English usage, Tolkien used the name 'hemlock' for various plants with white flowers in umbels, resembling the [[poison hemlock]]; the flowers among which Edith danced were more probably [[cow parsley]] (''Anthriscus sylvestris'') or [[wild carrot|Queen Anne's lace]] (''Daucus carota''). See John Garth ''Tolkien and the Great War'' (HarperCollins/Houghton Mifflin 2003) and Peter Gilliver, Jeremy Marshall, & Edmund Weiner ''The Ring of Words'' (OUP 2006).</ref> This incident inspired the account of the meeting of [[Beren and Lúthien]], and Tolkien often referred to Edith as his Lúthien.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cater|first=Bill|year=[[12 April]] [[2001]]|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2001/12/04/batolk04.xml| title=We talked of love, death, and fairy tales|work =UK Telegraph|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref>
===Career===
Tolkien's only civilian job after World War I was at the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', where he worked mainly on the history and etymology of words of Germanic origin beginning with the letter ''W''.<ref>{{cite book|last= Gilliver| first=Peter|coauthors=Jeremy Marshall and Edmund Weiner|title=The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the OED|publisher=OUP| year=2006}}</ref> In [[1920]] he took up a post as [[Reader (academic rank)|Reader]] in English language at the [[University of Leeds]], and in 1924 was made a [[professor]] there, but in 1925 he returned to Oxford as Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]], with a courtesy fellowship at [[Pembroke College, Oxford|Pembroke College]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|pages 109, 114–115}}</ref>
[[Image:20 Northmoor Road, Oxford.JPG|thumb|20 [[Northmoor Road]], the former home of J.R.R. Tolkien in [[North Oxford]].]]
During his time at Pembroke, Tolkien wrote ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and the first two volumes of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', largely at 20 [[Northmoor Road]] in [[North Oxford]], where a [[blue plaque]] can now be found. He also assisted Sir [[Mortimer Wheeler]] in the unearthing of a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[Asclepieion]] at [[Lydney Park]], [[Gloucestershire]], in [[1928]].<ref>See ''The Name Nodens'' (1932)</ref> Of Tolkien's academic publications, the [[1936]] lecture "[[Beowulf: the Monsters and the Critics]]" had a lasting influence on [[Beowulf]] research.<ref>{{ME-ref|Biography|page 143}}</ref> Lewis E. Nicholson noted that the article Tolkien wrote about Beowulf is "widely recognized as a turning point in Beowulfian criticism", noting that Tolkien established the primacy of the poetic nature of the work as opposed to the purely linguistic elements.<ref>{{cite web|last= Ramey|first=Bill| year= [[March 30]] [[1998]]|url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/billramey/beowulf.htm| title=The Unity of Beowulf: Tolkien and the Critics|work = Wisdom's Children|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref> He also revealed in his famous article how highly he regarded Beowulf; "Beowulf is among my most valued sources…" And indeed, there are many influences of Beowulf found in the ''Lord of the Rings''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kennedy|first=Michael|year=2001|url=http://www.triode.net.au/~dragon/tilkal/issue1/beowulf.html|title=Tolkien and Beowulf- Warriors of Middle-earth|work=Amon Hen|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> When Tolkien wrote, the consensus of scholarship deprecated ''Beowulf'' for dealing with childish battles with monsters rather than realistic tribal warfare; Tolkien argued that the author of ''[[Beowulf]]'' was addressing human destiny in general, not as limited by particular tribal politics, and therefore the monsters were essential to the poem. (Where ''Beowulf'' does deal with specific tribal struggles, as at [[Finnsburg]], Tolkien argued firmly against reading in fantastic elements.)<ref>Tolkien: ''[[Finn and Hengest]]''. Chiefly, p.4 in the Introduction by [[Alan Bliss]]; for the parenthesis, the discussion of ''Eotena'', ''passim''.</ref>
In [[1945]], he moved to [[Merton College, Oxford]], becoming the Merton Professor of English Language and Literature, in which post he remained until his retirement in [[1959]]. Tolkien completed ''The Lord of the Rings'' in [[1948]], close to a decade after the first sketches. During the 1950s, Tolkien spent many of his long academic holidays at the home of his son John Francis in [[Stoke-on-Trent]]. Tolkien had an intense dislike for the side effects of [[industrialization]] which he considered a devouring of the English countryside. For most of his adult life, he eschewed [[automobile]]s, preferring to ride a [[bicycle]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 64, 131, etc.}}</ref> This attitude is perceptible from some parts of his work such as the forced industrialization of [[Shire (Middle-earth)|The Shire]] in ''The Lord of the Rings''.
[[Image:Jrrt 1972 tree.jpg|thumb|180px|The last known photograph of Tolkien, taken [[9 August]] [[1973]], next to one of his favourite trees (a ''[[Pinus nigra]]'') in the Botanic Garden, Oxford]]
[[W. H. Auden]] was a frequent correspondent and long-time friend of Tolkien's, initiated by Auden's fascination with ''The Lord of the Rings'': Auden was among the most prominent early critics to praise the work. Tolkien wrote in a [[1971]] letter, "I am […] very deeply in Auden's debt in recent years. His support of me and interest in my work has been one of my chief encouragements. He gave me very good reviews, notices and letters from the beginning when it was by no means a popular thing to do. He was, in fact, sneered at for it."<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 327}}</ref>
Tolkien and Edith had four children: John Francis Reuel ([[17 November]] [[1917]] – [[22 January]] [[2003]]), Michael Hilary Reuel (October 1920–1984), [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher John Reuel]] (born 21 November 1924) and Priscilla Anne Reuel (born 1929). Tolkien was a very devoted family man, shown by the fact that he sent his children letters from Father Christmas when they were young. There were more characters added each year, such as the Polar Bear, Father Christmas' helper, the Snow Man, FC's gardener, Ilbereth the elf, his secretary, and various other minor characters. The major characters would write and tell of all the news from the North Pole.
===Retirement and old age===
During his life in retirement, from [[1959]] up to his death in [[1973]], Tolkien increasingly turned into a figure of public attention and literary fame. The sale of his books was so profitable that he regretted he had not taken early retirement.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doughan|first=David|year=2002|url=http://www.tolkiensociety.org/tolkien/biography.html|title=JRR Tolkien Biography|work=Life of Tolkien|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref> While at first he wrote enthusiastic answers to reader inquiries, he became more and more suspicious of emerging [[Tolkien fandom]], especially among the [[hippie]] movement in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Meras|first=Phyllis|year=[[15 January]] [[1967]]|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-gandalf.html|title="Go, Go, Gandalf"|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> In a [[1972]] letter he deplores having become a [[cult]]-figure, but admits that
<blockquote>even the nose of a very modest idol (younger than [[Chu-Bu and Sheemish|Chu-Bu]] and not much older than [[Chu-Bu and Sheemish|Sheemish]]) cannot remain entirely untickled by the sweet smell of incense!<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 336}} [[Chu-Bu and Sheemish]] are idols in a 1912 story by [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]])</ref></blockquote>
Fan attention became so intense that Tolkien had to take his phone number out of the public directory,<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 332}}</ref> and eventually he and Edith moved to [[Bournemouth]] on the south coast. Tolkien was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] at [[Buckingham Palace]] on [[28 March]] [[1972]].
[[Image:Tolkiengrab.jpg|thumb|right|The grave of J. R. R. and Edith Tolkien, [[Wolvercote Cemetery]], [[Oxford]].]]
Edith Tolkien died on [[November 29]] [[1971]], at the age of eighty-two, and Tolkien had the name [[Lúthien]] engraved on the stone at [[Wolvercote Cemetery]], [[Oxford]]. When Tolkien died twenty-one months later on [[September 2]] [[1973]], at the age of eighty-one, he was buried in the same grave, with [[Beren (character)|Beren]] added to his name, so that the engravings now read:
:''Edith Mary ur mom Tolkien · Luthien · 1889 – 1971''
:''John Ronald Reuel Tolkien · Beren · 1892 – 1973''
Posthumously named after Tolkien are the Tolkien Road in [[Eastbourne]], [[East Sussex]], and the [[asteroid]] [[2675 Tolkien]]. Tolkien Way in [[Stoke-on-Trent]] is named after Tolkien's son, Fr. John Francis Tolkien, who was the priest in charge at the nearby Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady of the Angels and St. Peter in Chains.<ref>{{cite web|title=People of Stoke-on-Trent|url=http://www.thepotteries.org/people/tolkien_john.htm|accessdate=2005-03-13}}</ref> There is also a [[professorship]] in his name at Oxford.
==Views==
Tolkien was a devout Roman Catholic, and in his religious and political views he was mostly conservative, in the sense of favouring established conventions and orthodoxies over innovation and modernization. Tolkien's devout faith was significant in the conversion of [[C. S. Lewis]] from [[atheism]] to [[Christianity]], though Tolkien was greatly disappointed that Lewis chose to return to [[Anglicanism]],<ref>Lewis was brought up in the [[Church of Ireland]], and as an adult joined the [[Church of England]]. {{cite book|last=Carpenter|first=Humphrey|year=1978|title=The Inklings|publisher=Allen & Unwin}}</ref> rather than becoming a Roman Catholic like himself. Tolkien became supportive of [[Francisco Franco]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]] when he learned the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republicans]] were destroying churches and killing priests and nuns.<ref name=Franco>{{ME-ref|Biography|page{{fact}}}}, {{ME-ref|Letters|no.{{fact}}}}</ref> He believed that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] was less dangerous than the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]: he wrote in a letter during the [[Munich Crisis]] that he believed that the Soviets were ultimately responsible for the problems and that they were trying to play the British and the French against Hitler.<ref name=Munich>{{ME-ref|Biography| page{{fact}}}}, {{ME-ref|Letters|no.{{fact}}}}</ref>
Though some people's perceptions of Tolkien as a [[racism|racist]] have been a matter of scholarly discussion,<ref>[http://tolkien.slimy.com/faq/External.html#Racist Was Tolkien a racist? Were his works?] from the Tolkien Meta-FAQ by Steuard Jensen. Last retrieved 2006-11-16.</ref> statements made by Tolkien during his lifetime would seem to disprove such accusations. He regarded [[Nazism|Nazi]] "race-doctrine" and [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] as "pernicious and unscientific".<ref>When German publishers inquired whether he was of [[Aryan race|Aryan]] origin, he declined to answer, instead stating: "... I regret that I appear to have no ancestors of that gifted [Jewish] people." He gave his publishers a choice of two letters to send; these quotations are from the less tactful one, which was not sent. {{ME-ref|Letters|no. 30}}</ref> He also called the "treatment of colour" (i.e. [[apartheid]]) in his birthplace [[South Africa]] horrifying,<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 29}}</ref> and spoke out against it in a valedictory address to the University of Oxford in 1959.<ref>"I have the hatred of [[apartheid]] in my bones; and most of all I detest the segregation or separation of Language and Literature. I do not care which of them you think White." — published in ''[[The Monsters and the Critics]]'' (1983). ISBN 0-04-809019-0</ref>
Tolkien, having lost most of his friends in the trenches of World War I, was opposed to war in general,{{ME-fact}} stating near the end of the war that the [[Allies]] were no better than their opponents, behaving like [[Orc]]s in their calls for a complete destruction of Germany{{ME-fact}}. He was horrified by the [[atomic bomb]]ings of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]], referring to its creators as "lunatics" and "babel builders".<ref name="atom">{{ME-ref|Letters|no.{{fact}}}}</ref> He also was known to be forever embittered towards Nazism for appropriating the Germanic heritage which he had dedicated his life to studying and preserving, and perverting it to fit their own bigoted model of Aryan racial supremacy, a school of thought to which he had never subscribed, and which he surmised would forever taint Germanic culture by association. His writings also evidence a strong respect for nature, and he wrote disparagingly of the wanton destruction of forests and wildlife.
Tolkien also once described himself as an [[anarchism|anarcho]]-[[monarchism|monarchist]].<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. {{ME-fact}}}}</ref><!--this is real. Anyone with the Letters book?-->
His love of myths and devout faith came together in his assertion that [[mystery religion|pagan myths of death and rebirth]] were, what Tolkien believed to be, the divine echoes of "the Truth."<ref>[http://www.leaderu.com/humanities/wood-biography.html Wood, Ralph C., Biography of J. R. R. Tolkien]</ref>
==Writing==
[[Image:Jrrt lotr cover design.jpg|thumb|350px|Cover design for the three volumes of ''The Lord of the Rings'' by Tolkien]]
Beginning with ''[[The Book of Lost Tales]]'', written while recuperating from illness during [[World War I]], Tolkien devised several themes that were reused in successive drafts of his ''[[legendarium]]''. The two most prominent stories, the tales of [[Beren and Lúthien]] and that of [[Túrin]], were carried forward into long narrative poems (published in ''[[The Lays of Beleriand]]''). Tolkien wrote a brief summary of the legendarium these poems were intended to represent, and that summary eventually evolved into ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', an epic history that Tolkien started three times but never published. Tolkien hoped to publish it along with the ''Lord of the Rings'', but publishers (both Allen & Unwin and Collins) got cold feet; moreover printing costs were very high in the post-war years, leading to the ''Lord of the Rings'' being published in three books.<ref>Hammond, Wayne G. ''J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography'', London: January [[1993]], Saint Pauls Biographies, ISBN 1-873040-11-3, American edition ISBN 0-938768-42-5</ref> The story of this continuous redrafting is told in the posthumous series ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]''. From around [[1936]], he began to extend this framework to include the tale of ''The Fall of [[Númenor]]'', which was inspired by the legend of [[Atlantis]].
Tolkien was strongly influenced by English history and legends which he often confessed his love for, but he also drew influence from Celtic - i.e. Scottish and Welsh - history and legends as well from many other European countries, namely Scandinavia and Germany. He was also influenced by [[Anglo-Saxon literature]], [[Germanic mythology|Germanic]] and [[Norse mythology|Norse]] mythologies, [[Finnish mythology]] and the [[Bible]].<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=Day|authorlink=David Day (Canadian)|year=[[1 February]] [[2002]]|title=[[Tolkien's Ring]]|___location = New York|publisher=Barnes and Noble|id = ISBN 1-58663-527-1}}</ref> The works most often cited as sources for Tolkien's stories include ''[[Beowulf]]'', the ''[[Kalevala]]'', the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'', the ''[[Volsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Hervarar saga]]''.<ref>As described by Christopher Tolkien in ''Hervarar Saga ok Heidreks Konung'' (Oxford University, Trinity College). B. Litt. thesis. 1953/4. [Year uncertain], ''The Battle of the Goths and the Huns'', in: Saga-Book (University College, London, for the Viking Society for Northern Research) 14, part 3 (1955-6) [http://www.tolkiensociety.org/tolkien/bibl4.html]</ref> Tolkien himself acknowledged [[Homer]], [[Sophocles]], and the ''Kalevala'' as influences or sources for some of his stories and ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Handwerk|first=Brian|year=[[March 1]], [[2004]]|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/12/1219_tolkienroots.html| title=Lord of the Rings Inspired by an Ancient Epic|work = National Geographic News|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref> His borrowings also came from numerous Middle English works and poems. A major philosophical influence on his writing is [[Alfred the Great|King Alfred's]] Anglo-Saxon version of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius']] ''[[Consolation of Philosophy]]'' known as the ''[[Lays of Boethius]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gardner|first=John|year=[[23 October]] [[1977]]|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1977/10/23/books/tolkien-silmarillion.html| title=The World of Tolkien|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref> Characters in ''The Lord of the Rings'' such as [[Frodo Baggins|Frodo]], [[Treebeard]], and [[Elrond]] make noticeably Boethian remarks. Also, [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic theology and imagery]] played a part in fashioning his creative imagination, suffused as it was by his deeply religious spirit.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bofetti|first=Jason|year=November 2001|url=http://www.crisismagazine.com/november2001/feature7.htm| title=Tolkien's Catholic Imagination|work = Crisis Magazine|accessdate=2006-08-30}}</ref>
In addition to his [[mythopoeia|mythopoetic compositions]], Tolkien enjoyed inventing fantasy stories to entertain his children.<ref>{{cite web|last=Phillip|first=Norman|year=2005|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-mag67.html| title=The Prevalance of Hobbits|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> He wrote annual Christmas letters from [[Father Christmas]] for them, building up a series of short stories (later compiled and published as ''[[The Father Christmas Letters]]''). Other stories included ''[[Mr. Bliss]]'', ''[[Roverandom]]'', ''[[Smith of Wootton Major]]'', ''[[Farmer Giles of Ham]]'' and ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]''. ''Roverandom'' and ''Smith of Wootton Major'', like ''[[The Hobbit]]'', borrowed ideas from his ''legendarium''. ''Leaf by Niggle'' appears to be an autobiographical allegory, in which a "very small man", Niggle, works on a painting of a tree, but is so caught up with painstakingly painting individual leaves or elaborating the background, or so distracted by the demands of his neighbour, that he never manages to complete it.<ref>{{cite web|author =Site Editor|year=2005|url=http://www.tolkienlibrary.com/reviews/leafbyniggle.htm| title=Leaf by Niggle - a symbolic story about a small painter|work = Leaf by Niggle|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref>
Tolkien never expected his fictional stories to become popular, but he was persuaded by [[C.S. Lewis]] to publish a book he had written for his own children called ''[[The Hobbit]]'' in 1937.<ref>{{cite web|author =Times Editorial Staff|year=[[3 September]] [[1973]]|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-obit.html| title=J.R.R. Tolkien Dead at 81: Wrote "The Lord of the Rings"|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> However, the book attracted adult readers as well, and it became popular enough for the publisher, [[George Allen & Unwin]], to ask Tolkien to work on a sequel.
Even though he felt uninspired on the topic, this request prompted Tolkien to begin what would become his most famous work: the epic three-volume novel ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' (published 1954–55). Tolkien spent more than ten years writing the primary narrative and appendices for ''The Lord of the Rings'', during which time he received the constant support of the [[Inklings]], in particular his closest friend Lewis, the author of ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''. Both ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' are set against the background of ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', but in a time long after it.
[[Image:JRRT logo.svg|thumb|right|200px|Tolkien's insignia. Found on most released Tolkien-books today.]]Tolkien at first intended ''The Lord of the Rings'' to be a children's tale in the style of ''The Hobbit'', but it quickly grew darker and more serious in the writing.<ref>{{cite web|author =Times Editorial Staff|year=[[5 June]] [[1955]]|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-oxford.html| title=Oxford Calling|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> Though a direct sequel to ''The Hobbit'', it addressed an older audience, drawing on the immense [[back story]] of [[Beleriand]] that Tolkien had constructed in previous years, and which eventually saw posthumous publication in ''[[The Silmarillion]]'' and other volumes. Tolkien's influence weighs heavily on the [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] genre that grew up after the success of ''The Lord of the Rings''.
Tolkien continued to work on the history of Middle-earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher]] (with some assistance from [[Guy Gavriel Kay]], later a well-known fantasy author in his own right) organized some of this material into one volume, published as ''The Silmarillion'' in 1977. In 1980 Christopher Tolkien followed this with a collection of more fragmentary material under the title ''[[Unfinished Tales]]'', and in subsequent years he published a massive amount of background material on the creation of Middle-earth in the twelve volumes of ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]''. All these posthumous works contain unfinished, abandoned, alternative and outright contradictory accounts, since they were always a work in progress, and Tolkien only rarely settled on a definitive version for any of the stories. There is not even complete consistency to be found between ''The Lord of the Rings'' and ''The Hobbit'', the two most closely related works, because Tolkien was never able to fully integrate all their traditions into each other. He commented in 1965, while editing ''The Hobbit'' for a third edition, that he would have preferred to completely rewrite the entire book.<ref>{{cite web|last= Martinez |first=Michael|year=[[7 December]] [[2004]]|url=http://www.merp.com/essays/MichaelMartinez/michaelmartinezsuite101essay122| title=Middle-earth Revised, Again|work = Merp.com|accessdate=2006-03-13}}</ref>
The John P. Raynor, [[S.J.]], Library at [[Marquette University]] in [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], preserves many of Tolkien's original manuscripts, notes and letters; other original material survives at [[Oxford University|Oxford's]] [[Bodleian Library]]. Marquette has the manuscripts and proofs of ''The Lord of the Rings'' and ''The Hobbit'', and other manuscripts, including ''Farmer Giles of Ham'', while the Bodleian holds the ''Silmarillion'' papers and Tolkien's academic work.<ref>{{cite web|author =McDowell, Edwin |year=[[4 September]] [[1983]]|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-revisited.html| title=Middle-earth Revisited|work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref>
''The Lord of the Rings'' became immensely popular in the 1960s and has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the [[twentieth century]], judged by both sales and reader surveys.<ref>{{cite web|author= Seiler, Andy |year= [[16 December]] [[2003]]|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2003-12-12-lotr-main_x.htm| title='Rings' comes full circle|work = USA Today|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> In the 2003 "[[Big Read]]" survey conducted by the [[BBC]], ''The Lord of the Rings'' was found to be the "Nation's Best-loved Book". Australians voted ''The Lord of the Rings'' "[[My Favourite Book]]" in a 2004 survey conducted by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|Australian ABC]].<ref>{{cite web|author= Cooper, Callista |year= [[December 5]], [[2005]]|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200512/s1523327.htm| title=Epic trilogy tops favorite film poll|work = ABC News Online|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> In a 1999 poll of [[Amazon.com]] customers, ''The Lord of the Rings'' was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium".<ref>{{cite web|author= O'Hehir, Andrew |year= [[4 June]] [[2001]]|url=http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2001/06/04/tolkien/| title=The book of the century|work = Salon.com|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> In 2002 Tolkien was voted the ninety-second "[[100 Greatest Britons|greatest Briton]]" in a poll conducted by the BBC, and in 2004 he was voted thirty-fifth in the [[SABC3's Great South Africans]], the only person to appear in both lists. His popularity is not limited just to the English-speaking world: in a 2004 poll inspired by the UK’s "Big Read" survey, about 250,000 Germans found ''The Lord of the Rings'' (''[[:de:Der Herr der Ringe|Der Herr der Ringe]]'') to be their favourite work of literature.<ref>{{cite web|author =Diver, Krysia|year=[[5 October]] [[2004]]|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/10/04/1096871805007.html?from=storyrhs| title=A lord for Germany|work =The Sydney Morning Herald|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref>
In September 2006, Christopher Tolkien, who had spent 30 years working on his father's unpublished manuscripts, announced that ''[[The Children of Húrin]]'' has been edited into a completed work for publication in 2007. J. R. R. Tolkien had first written what he called the ''[[Húrin]]'s [[saga]]'' (and later ''the [[Narn i Chîn Húrin|Narn]]'') in 1918, and rewritten it several times, including as an epic poem, but never completed his mature, novelistic version. Extracts from the latter had been published before by Christopher Tolkien in "Unfinished Tales", with other texts appearing in ''The Silmarillion'' and his later literary investigations of ''The History of Middle-earth''. {{Cquote|It has seemed to me for a long time that there was a good case for presenting my father's long version of the legend of ''The Children of Hurin'' as an independent work, between its own covers.<ref name=tcoh>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5358880.stm Statement by CJRT]</ref>}}
==Languages==
:''See also: [[Languages of Middle-earth]]''
Both Tolkien's academic career and his literary production are inseparable from his love of [[language]] and [[philology]]. He specialized in [[Ancient Greek]] philology in college, and in 1915 graduated with [[Old Icelandic]] as special subject. He worked for the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] from 1918, and is credited with having worked on a number of W words, including [[walrus]], over which he struggled mightily.<ref>Winchester, Simon (2003). ''The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary.'' Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-9654996-3-4</ref> In 1920, he went to [[Leeds]] as Reader in English Language, where he claimed credit for raising the number of students of [[linguistics]] from five to twenty. He gave courses in [[Old English]] [[heroic verse]], history of English, various Old English and [[Middle English]] texts, Old and Middle English philology, introductory [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] philology, [[Gothic language|Gothic]], Old Icelandic, and [[Middle Welsh language|Medieval Welsh]]. When in 1925, aged thirty-three, Tolkien applied for the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon, he boasted that his students of Germanic philology in Leeds had even formed a "[[Viking revival|Viking Club]]".<ref>(Letter dated 27 June 1925 to the Electors of the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon, University of Oxford, {{ME-ref|Letters|no. 7}}</ref>
Privately, Tolkien was attracted to "things of [[race|racial]] and linguistic significance", and he entertained notions of an inherited taste of language, which he termed the "native tongue" as opposed to "cradle tongue" in his 1955 lecture ''[[English and Welsh]]'', which is crucial to his understanding of race and language. He considered [[West Midlands (region)|west-midland]] Middle English his own "native tongue", and, as he wrote to [[W. H. Auden]] in 1955,<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters| no. 163}}</ref> "I am a West-midlander by blood (and took to early west-midland Middle English as a known tongue as soon as I set eyes on it)"
Parallel to Tolkien's professional work as a philologist, and sometimes overshadowing this work, to the effect that his academic output remained rather thin, was his affection for the construction of [[artificial language]]s. The best developed of these are [[Quenya]] and [[Sindarin]], the etymological connection between which formed the core of much of Tolkien's ''legendarium''. Language and grammar for Tolkien was a matter of [[aesthetics]] and [[euphony]], and Quenya in particular was designed from "phonaesthetic" considerations; it was intended as an "Elvenlatin", and was phonologically based on Latin, with ingredients from [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and Greek.<ref name = "letter144">{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 144, 25 April 1954, to Naomi Mitchison}}</ref> A notable addition came in late 1945 with [[Adûnaic]] or [[Númenórean]], a language of a "faintly [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] flavour", connected with Tolkien's [[Atlantis]] legend, which by ''[[The Notion Club Papers]]'' ties directly into his ideas about inheritability of language, and via the "[[Second Age]]" and the story of [[Eärendil]] was grounded in the legendarium, thereby providing a link of Tolkien's twentieth-century "real primary world" with the legendary past of his Middle-earth.
Tolkien considered languages inseparable from the mythology associated with them, and he consequently took a dim view of [[auxiliary language]]s: in 1930 a congress of Esperantists were told as much by him, in his lecture ''[[A Secret Vice]]'', "Your language construction will breed a mythology", but by 1956 he concluded that "[[Volapük]], [[Esperanto]], [[Ido]], [[Novial]], &c, &c, are dead, far deader than ancient unused languages, because their authors never invented any Esperanto legends".<ref name = "letter180">{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 180}}</ref>
The popularity of Tolkien's books has had a small but lasting effect on the use of language in fantasy literature in particular, and even on mainstream dictionaries, which today commonly accept Tolkien's revival of the spellings ''dwarves'' and ''elvish'' (instead of ''dwarfs'' and ''elfish''), which had not been in use since the mid-1800s and earlier. Other terms he has coined such as ''[[eucatastrophe]]'' are mainly used in connection with Tolkien's work.
==Works inspired by Tolkien==
{{main|Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien}}
In a 1951 letter to [[Milton Waldman]], Tolkien writes about his intentions to create a ''"body of more or less connected legend"'', of which
{{Cquote|The cycles should be linked to a majestic whole, and yet leave scope for other minds and hands, wielding paint and music and drama.<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 131}}</ref>}}
The hands and minds of many artists have indeed been inspired by Tolkien's legends. Personally known to him were [[Pauline Baynes]] (Tolkien's favourite illustrator of ''[[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]]'' and ''[[Farmer Giles of Ham]]'') and [[Donald Swann]] (who set the music to ''[[The Road Goes Ever On]]''). Queen [[Margrethe II of Denmark]] created illustrations to ''The Lord of the Rings'' in the early 1970s. She sent them to Tolkien, who was struck by the similarity they bore in style to his own drawings.<ref>{{cite web|author= Thygesen, Peter |year= Autumn, 1999|url= http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3760/is_199910/ai_n8868143| title=Queen Margrethe II: Denmark's monarch for a modern age|work = Scandinavian Review|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref>
But Tolkien was not fond of all the artistic representation of his works that were produced in his lifetime, and was sometimes harshly disapproving.
In 1946, he rejected suggestions for illustrations by [[Horus Engels]] for the German edition of the ''Hobbit'' as ''"too [[The Walt Disney Company|Disnified]]"'',
{{Cquote|Bilbo with a dribbling nose, and Gandalf as a figure of vulgar fun rather than the [[Odin]]ic wanderer that I think of.<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 107}}</ref>}}
He was sceptical of the emerging [[Tolkien fandom|fandom]] in the [[United States]], and in 1954 he returned proposals for the dust jackets of the American edition of ''The Lord of the Rings'':
{{Cquote|Thank you for sending me the projected 'blurbs', which I return. The Americans are not as a rule at all amenable to criticism or correction; but I think their effort is so poor that I feel constrained to make some effort to improve it.<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 144}}</ref>}}
And in 1958, in an irritated reaction to a proposed movie adaptation of ''The Lord of the Rings'' by [[Morton Grady Zimmerman]] he writes,
{{Cquote|I would ask them to make an effort of imagination sufficient to understand the irritation (and on occasion the resentment) of an author, who finds, increasingly as he proceeds, his work treated as it would seem carelessly in general, in places recklessly, and with no evident signs of any appreciation of what it is all about.<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 207}}</ref>}}
He went on to criticize the script scene by scene (''"yet one more scene of screams and rather meaningless slashings"''). But Tolkien was in principle open to the idea of a movie adaptation. He sold the film, stage and merchandise rights of ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of the Rings'' to [[United Artists]] in 1968, while, guided by scepticism towards future productions, he forbade that [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] should ever be involved:
{{Cquote|It might be advisable […] to let the Americans do what seems good to them — as long as it was possible […] to veto anything from or influenced by the Disney studios (for all whose works I have a heartfelt loathing).<ref>{{ME-ref|Letters|no. 13}}</ref>}}
United Artists never made a film, though at least [[John Boorman]] was planning a film in the early seventies. It would have been a live-action film which apparently would have been more to Tolkien's liking than an animated film. In 1976 the rights were sold to [[Tolkien Enterprises]], a division of the [[Saul Zaentz]] Company, and the [[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|first movie adaptation]] (an animated [[rotoscoping]] film) of ''The Lord of the Rings'' appeared only after Tolkien's death (in 1978, directed by [[Ralph Bakshi]]). The screenplay was written by the fantasy writer [[Peter S. Beagle]]. This first adaptation, however, only contained the first half of the story that is ''The Lord of the Rings''.<ref>{{cite web|author= Canby, Vincent |year= [[15 November]] [[1978]]|url= http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/specials/tolkien-lordfilm.html| title= Film: 'The Lord of the Rings' From Ralph Bakshi |work = New York Times|accessdate=2006-03-12}}</ref> In 1977 an animated TV production of ''The Hobbit'' was made by [[Rankin-Bass]], and in 1980 they produced an animated film titled ''The Return of the King'', which covered some of the portion of ''The Lord of the Rings'' that Bakshi was unable to complete. In 2001–3, [[New Line Cinema]] released ''The Lord of the Rings'' as a [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|trilogy of live-action films]] directed by [[Peter Jackson]]. They were extremely successful: performing well in the [[box office]] and winning numerous [[Oscars]], and rekindling the books' fame.
Several [[Led Zeppelin]] songs include references to Tolkien's work including Ramble On (for example one line refers to "...the darkest depths of Mordor" and "Gollum the evil one"), and the "Battle of Evermore" (which features a reference to the Ringwraiths). Many other bands were inspired by Tolkien's work, such as [[Blind Guardian]] and [[Battlelore]]; an extensive list can be found at: http://www.tolkien-music.com
==Bibliography==
===Fiction and poetry===
''See also: [[List of poems by J. R. R. Tolkien|Poems by J. R. R. Tolkien]].''
* 1936 ''[[Songs for the Philologists]]'', with [[E.V. Gordon]] et al.
* 1937 ''[[The Hobbit|The Hobbit or There and Back Again]]'', ISBN 0-618-00221-9 ([[Houghton Mifflin|HM]]).
* 1945 ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]'' (short story)
* 1945 ''[[The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun]]'', published in ''Welsh Review''
* 1949 ''[[Farmer Giles of Ham]]'' (medieval fable)
* 1953 ''[[The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son]]'' (a play written in alliterative verse), published with the accompanying essays ''Beorhtnoth's Death'' and ''Ofermod'', in ''Essays and Studies by members of the English Association'', volume 6.
* ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''
** 1954 ''[[The Fellowship of the Ring (book)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'': being the first part of ''The Lord of the Rings'', ISBN 0-618-00222-7 (HM).
** 1954 ''[[The Two Towers (book)|The Two Towers]]'': being the second part of ''The Lord of the Rings'', ISBN 0-618-00223-5 (HM).
** 1955 ''[[The Return of the King (book)|The Return of the King]]'': being the third part of ''The Lord of the Rings'', ISBN 0-618-00224-3 (HM).
* 1962 ''[[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book''
* 1964 ''[[Tree and Leaf]]'' (''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'' and ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]'' in book form)
* 1966 ''[[The Tolkien Reader]]'' (''[[The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son]]'', ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'', ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]'', ''[[Farmer Giles of Ham]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]]'')
* 1967 ''[[The Road Goes Ever On]]'', with [[Donald Swann]]
* 1967 ''[[Smith of Wootton Major]]''
===Academic and other works===
* 1922 ''[http://www.archive.org/details/middleenglishvoc00tolkuoft A Middle English Vocabulary]'', [[Oxford]], [[Clarendon Press]], 168 pp.
* 1925 ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'', co-edited with [[E.V. Gordon]], [[Oxford University Press]], 211 pp.; Revised edition 1967, [[Oxford]], [[Clarendon Press]], 232 pp.
* 1925 ''Some Contributions to Middle-English Lexicography'', published in ''The Review of English Studies'', volume 1, no. 2, pp. 210-215.
* 1925 ''[[The Devil's Coach Horses]]'', published in ''The Review of English Studies'', volume 1, no. 3, pp. 331-336.
* 1929 ''[[Ancrene Wisse and Hali Meiðhad]]'', published in ''Essays and Studies by members of the English Association'', Oxford, volume 14, pp. 104-126.
* 1932 ''[[The Name 'Nodens']]'', concerning the name [[Nodens]], published in ''Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric, Roman, and Post-Roman Site in Lydney Park, Gloucestershire'', Oxford, University Press for The Society of Antiquaries.
* 1932–34 ''[[Sigelwara Land]]'' parts I and II, in ''Medium Aevum'', Oxford, volume 1, no. 3 (December 1932), pp. 183-196 and volume 3, no. 2 (june 1934), pp. 95-111.
* 1934 ''Chaucer as a Philologist: [[The Reeve's Prologue and Tale|The Reeve's Tale]]'', in ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', London, pp. 1-70 (rediscovery of dialect humour, introducing the [[Hengwrt manuscript]] into textual criticism of [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'')
* 1937 ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics|Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics]]'', London, Humphrey Milford, 56 pp. (publication of his 1936 lecture on [[Beowulf]] criticism)
* 1939 ''The Reeve's Tale: version prepared for recitation at the 'summer diversions''', Oxford, 14 pp.
* 1939 ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'' (1939 [[Andrew Lang lecture]]) - concerning Tolkien's philosophy on fantasy, this lecture was a shortened version of an essay later published in full in 1947.
* 1944 ''[[Sir Orfeo]]'', Oxford, The Academic Copying Office, 18 pp. (an edition of the medieval poem)
* 1947 ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'' (essay - published in ''Essays presented to Charles Williams'', Oxford University Press) - first full publication of an essay concerning Tolkien's philosophy on fantasy, and which had been presented in shortened form as the 1939 [[Andrew Lang lecture]].
* 1953 ''Ofermod'' and ''Beorhtnoth's Death'', two essays published with the poem ''The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth, Beorhthelm's Son'' in ''Essays and Studies by members of the English Association'', volume 6.
* 1953 ''Middle English "Losenger": Sketch of an etymological and semantic enquiry'', published in ''Essais de philologie moderne: Communications présentées au Congrès International de Philologie Moderne (1951)'', Les Belles Lettres.
* 1962 ''[[Ancrene Wisse]]: The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle'', Early English Text Society, [[Oxford University Press]].
* 1963 ''[[English and Welsh]]'', in ''Angles and Britons: O'Donnell Lectures'', University of Cardiff Press.
* 1964 Introduction to ''[[Tree and Leaf]]'', with details of the composition and history of ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]'' and ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]''.
* 1966 Contributions to the ''[[Jerusalem Bible]]'' (as translator and [[lexicographer]])
* 1966 Foreword to the Second Edition of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', with Tolkien's comments on the varied reaction to his work, his motivation for writing the work, and his opinion of [[allegory]].
* 1966 ''Tolkien on Tolkien'' (autobiographical)
===Posthumous publications===
''See [[Tolkien research]] for essays and text fragments by Tolkien published posthumously in academic publications and forums.''
* 1975 ''[[Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings]]'' (edited version) - published in ''[[A Tolkien Compass]]'' by [[Jared Lobdell]]. Written by Tolkien for use by translators of ''The Lord of the Rings'', a full version was published in 2004 in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion]]'' by [[Wayne Hammond]] and [[Christina Scull]].
* 1975 Translations of ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'', ''[[Pearl (poem)]]'' and ''[[Sir Orfeo]]''
* 1976 ''[[The Father Christmas Letters]]''
* 1977 ''[[The Silmarillion]]'' ISBN 0-618-12698-8 (HM).
* 1979 ''Pictures by J. R. R. Tolkien''
* 1980 ''[[Unfinished Tales]] of Númenor and Middle-earth'' ISBN 0-618-15405-1 (HM).
* 1980 ''Poems and Stories'' (a compilation of ''[[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]]'', ''The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son'', ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'', ''[[Leaf by Niggle]]'', ''[[Farmer Giles of Ham]]'' and ''[[Smith of Wootton Major]]'')
* 1981 ''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien]]'' (eds. [[Christopher Tolkien]] and [[Humphrey Carpenter]])
* 1981 ''The Old English "Exodus" Text'' translation and commentary by J. R. R. Tolkien; edited by [[Joan Turville-Petre]]. Clarendon Press, Oxford
* 1982 ''[[Finn and Hengest]]: The Fragment and the Episode''
* 1982 ''[[Mr. Bliss]]''
* 1983 ''[[The Monsters and the Critics]]'' (an essay collection)
** ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics|Beowulf: the Monsters and the Critics]]'' (1936)
** ''[[On Translating Beowulf]]'' (1940)
** ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'' (1947)
** ''[[A Secret Vice]]'' (1930)
** ''[[English and Welsh]]'' (1955)
* 1983–1996 ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]'':<ol type="I"><li>''[[The Book of Lost Tales|The Book of Lost Tales 1]]'' (1983)</li><li>''[[The Book of Lost Tales|The Book of Lost Tales 2]]'' (1984)</li><li>''[[The Lays of Beleriand]]'' (1985)</li><li>''[[The Shaping of Middle-earth]]'' (1986)</li><li>''[[The Lost Road and Other Writings]]'' (1987)</li><li>''[[The History of The Lord of the Rings|The Return of the Shadow]]'' (The History of ''The Lord of the Rings'' vol. 1) (1988)</li><li>''[[The History of The Lord of the Rings|The Treason of Isengard]]'' (The History of ''The Lord of the Rings'' vol. 2) (1989)</li><li>''[[The History of The Lord of the Rings|The War of the Ring]]'' (The History of ''The Lord of the Rings'' vol. 3) (1990)</li><li>''[[The History of The Lord of the Rings|Sauron Defeated]]'' (The History of ''The Lord of the Rings'' vol. 4, including [[The Notion Club Papers]]) (1992)</li><li>''[[Morgoth's Ring]]'' (The Later Silmarillion vol. 1) (1993)</li><li>''[[The War of the Jewels]]'' (The Later Silmarillion vol. 2) (1994)</li><li>''[[The Peoples of Middle-earth]]'' (1996)</li></ol>
** ''Index'' (2002)
* 1995 ''[[J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator]]'' (a compilation of Tolkien's art)
* 1998 ''[[Roverandom]]''
* 2002 ''[[A Tolkien Miscellany]]'' - a collection of previously published material
* 2002 ''Beowulf and the Critics'' ed. Michael D.C. Drout (''Beowulf: the monsters and the critics'' together with editions of two drafts of the longer essay from which it was condensed.)
* 2004 ''[[Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings]]'' (full version) - published in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion]]'' by [[Wayne Hammond]] and [[Christina Scull]]. Written by Tolkien for use by translators of ''The Lord of the Rings'', an edited version had been published in 1975 in ''[[A Tolkien Compass]]'' by [[Jared Lobdell]].
* 2007 ''[[The Children of Húrin]]''
* 2007 ''[[The History of The Hobbit]]''
===Audio recordings===
* 1967 ''Poems and Songs of Middle-earth'', Caedmon TC 1231
* 1975 ''JRR Tolkien Reads and Sings his The Hobbit & The Lord of the Rings'', Caedmon TC 1477, TC 1478 (based on an August, 1952 recording by George Sayer)
==See also==
* ''[[The Hobbit]]''
* ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''
* ''[[The Silmarillion]]''
* [[Middle-earth]]
* [[Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien]]
* [[Inklings]]
* [[Tolkien Estate]]
* [[Tolkien research]]
* [[Tolkien fandom]]
* [[Tolkien (disambiguation)#Tolkien family tree|Tolkien family tree]]
==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}
===General references===
* ''Biography'': {{cite book
| first = Humphrey
| last = Carpenter
| authorlink = Humphrey Carpenter
| year = 1977
| title = Tolkien: A Biography
| ___location = New York
| publisher = Ballantine Books
| id = ISBN 0-04-928037-6
}}
* ''Letters'': {{cite book
| author = Carpenter, Humphrey and Tolkien, Christopher (eds.)
| year = 1981
| title = [[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien]]
| ___location = London
| publisher = [[George Allen & Unwin]]
| id = ISBN 0-04-826005-3
}}
==Further reading==
A small selection of books about Tolkien and his works:
* {{cite book
| editor = Anderson, Douglas A., Michael D. C. Drout and Verlyn Flieger
| year = 2004
| title = Tolkien Studies, An Annual Scholarly Review Vol. I
| publisher = West Virginia University Press
| id = ISBN 0-937058-87-4
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Finding God in the Lord of the Rings
| first = Kurt D. | last = Bruner
| coauthors = Jim Ware
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 0-8423-8555-X
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Inklings: C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and Their Friends
| first = Humphrey
| last = Carpenter
| year = 1979
| id = ISBN 0-395-27628-4
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2003
| title = Tolkien the Medievalist
| editor = Chance, Jane
| ___location = London, New York
| publisher = Routledge
| id = ISBN 0-415-28944-0
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2004
| title = Tolkien and the Invention of Myth, a Reader
| editor = Chance, Jane
| ___location = Louisville
| publisher = University Press of Kentucky
| id = ISBN 0-8131-2301-1
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Defending Middle-earth: Tolkien, Myth and Modernityc
| first = Patrick
| last = Curry
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0-618-47885-X
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2006
| title = J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment
| editor = Drout, Michael D. C.
| ___location = New York City
| publisher = Routledge
| id = ISBN 0-415969425.
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends
| first = Colin | last = Duriez
| coauthors = David Porter
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 1-902694-13-9
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Tolkien and C.S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship
| first = Colin | last = Duriez
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 1-58768-026-2
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2000
| title = Tolkien's Legendarium: Essays on The History of Middle-earth
| editor = Flieger, Verlyn and [[Carl F. Hostetter]]
| ___location = Westport, Conn
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| id = ISBN 0-313-30530-7. DDC 823.912. LC PR6039.
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Atlas of Middle-earth
| last = Fonstad
| first = Linda Wynn
| year = 1991
| ___location = Boston
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin
| id = ISBN 0-618-126996
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Tolkien and the Great War
| last = Garth
| first = John
| year = 2003
| publisher = Harper-Collins
| id = ISBN 0-00-711953-4
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Shores of Middle-Earth
| last = Giddings | first = Robert
| coauthors = Elizabeth Holland
| year = 1981
| publisher = University Publications of America
| id = ISBN 0-313-27059-7
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary
| first = Peter | last = Gilliver
| coauthors = Jeremy Marshall, Edmund Weiner
| year = 2006
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-861069-6
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Meditations on Middle-earth: New Writing on the Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien
| first = Karen | last = Haber
| year = 2001
| publisher = St. Martin's Press
| id = ISBN 0-312-27536-6
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2003
| title = Tolkien and Politics
| editor = Harrington, Patrick
| ___location = London, England
| publisher = Third Way Publications Ltd.
| id = ISBN 0-9544788-2-7
}}
* {{cite book
| editor = Lee, S. D., and E. Solopova
| year = 2005
| title = The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| id = ISBN 1-4039-4671-X
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Timothy R.
| last = O'Neill
| year = 1979
| title = The Individuated Hobbit: Jung, Tolkien and the Archetypes of Middle-earth
| ___location = Boston
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company
| id =ISBN 0-395-28208-X
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Joseph
| last = Pearce
| year = 1998
| title = Tolkien: Man and Myth
| ___location = London
| publisher = [[HarperCollinsPublishers]]
| id = ISBN 0-00-274018-4
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Michael
| last = Perry
| year = 2006
| title = Untangling Tolkien: A Chronology and Commentary for The Lord of the Rings
| ___location = Seattle
| publisher = [[Inkling Books]]
| id = ISBN 1-58742-019-8
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 2003
| title = El profesor de los Anillos
| editor = Pytrell, Ariel
| ___location = Buenos Aires, Argentina
| publisher = Mondragón Argentina
| id = ISBN 987-20607-0-3
}}
* {{cite book
| author= [[Shippey, T. A.]]
| year = 2000
| title = J. R. R. Tolkien — Author of the Century
| ___location = Boston, New York
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company
| id =ISBN 0-618-12764-X, ISBN 0-618-25759-4 (pbk)
}}
* {{cite book
| first =Barbara
| last = Strachey
| year = 1981
| title = [[Journeys of Frodo]]: an Atlas of The Lord of the Rings
| ___location = London, Boston
| publisher = Allen & Unwin
| id = ISBN 0-04-912016-6
}}
* {{cite book
| first = John & Priscilla
| last = Tolkien
| year = 1992
| title = The Tolkien Family Album
| ___location = London
| publisher = HarperCollins
| id = ISBN 0-261-10239-7
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Michael
| last = White
| year = 2003
| title = Tolkien: A Biography
| publisher = New American Library
| id = ISBN 0-451-21242-8
}}
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-JRRTolkien.ogg|2005-12-13}}
{{commons|J. R. R. Tolkien}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.tolkiensociety.org/tolkien/biography.html Tolkien Biography] (The Tolkien Society)
* [http://www.nordals.hi.is/Apps/WebObjects/HI.woa/wa/dp?detail=1004508&name=nordals_en_greinar_og_erindi ''Tolkien and Iceland: the Philology of Envy''. Tom Shippey's lecture at the University of Iceland]. Last accessed [[17 October]], [[2005]].
* [http://archive.salon.com/audio/2000/10/05/tolkien_elvish/ 1952 audio recording of Tolkien reciting a poem in Quenya (Galadriel's lament from ''The Fellowship of the Ring'')]
* [http://www.salon.com/audio/2000/10/05/tolkien/index.html 1952 audio recording of Tolkien reading an excerpt from ''The Two Towers'' (from "Of Herbs and Stewed Rabbit")]
* [http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/ The Encyclopedia of Arda]
* [http://orlabs.oclc.org/SRW/search/NameFinder?query=local.pnkey+exact+%22tolkien,%20j%20r%20r$john%20ronald%20reuel$1892%201973%22 WorldCat Identities page for 'Tolkien, J. R. R. 1892-1973 (John Ronald Reuel)']
* {{IBList|id=54|name=J.R.R. Tolkien|type=author}}
* {{imdb name|id=0866058|name=J.R.R. Tolkien}}
* {{dmoz|Arts/Literature/Genres/Fantasy/Authors/T/Tolkien,_J._R._R./}}
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[[Category:1892 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:J. R. R. Tolkien| ]]
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[[Category:British military personnel of World War I]]
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[[Category:English linguists]]
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[[Category:Fellows of Merton College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Fellows of Pembroke College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Inklings]]
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[[Category:Marquette University]]
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[[Category:People commemorated by blue plaques]]
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[[Category:People from Bloemfontein]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic writers]]
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