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{{WPBiography|living=yes|class=|importance=}}
{{Wiktionarypar|anti-Semitism}}
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<!-- NOTE. Please first read the section [[#Etymology and usage]] below if you intend to insert corrections -->{{dablink|This article describes the development and history of traditional anti-Semitism. A separate article exists on the more recent concept of [[New anti-Semitism]].}}
[[Image:Der ewige jude.jpg|thumb|''[[Der ewige Jude|The Eternal Jew]]'': 1937 German poster with a [[Soviet Union]] map. In his hands are "''Zuckerbrot und Peitsche''", or "cookies and [[knout]]", an allusion to a saying similar to that of "carrot and stick". The header is written in mock-[[Hebrew script]].]]
'''Anti-Semitism''' (alternatively spelled '''antisemitism''') is hostility toward or [[prejudice]] against [[Jew]]s as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range in expression from individual [[hatred]] to institutionalized, violent [[persecution]]. The highly explicit [[Nuremberg laws|ideology]] of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazism]] was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to a [[Holocaust|genocide of the European Jewry]].</br> Anti-Semitism can be broadly defined into three different forms:
* [[Religion|Religious]] based anti-Semitism, or [[anti-Judaism]]. As the name implies, it was the practice of Judaism itself which was the defining characteristic of the anti-Semitic attacks. Under this version of anti-Semitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practicing, or changed their public faith.</br>
* [[Racism|Racial]] anti-Semitism. Either a pre-cursor, or a by-product of the [[Eugenics]] movement, racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of the Jews religion/culture, with the concept that the Jews themselves were a distinct (and lesser) race of the human species. Unlike the religious version, the problem was not the Jews social beliefs, but rather genetic.</br>
* [[New anti-Semitism]] is a concept that claims that in the latter part of the 20th century, a new style of anti-semitism began to appear. The basis of this anti-Semitism is said to be more political in nature, often overlapping, and being (intentionally) confused with [[anti-Zionism]]. This form of anti-Semitism pervades [[Left-wing politics|Left]] wing politics in both Europe & North America, and is characterized by borrowing language and concepts from [[anti-Zionism]].<ref name=Chesler>[[Phyllis Chesler|Chesler, Phyllis]]. ''The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181.</ref> <ref name=Kinsella>[[Warren Kinsella|Kinsella, Warren]]. [http://www.warrenkinsella.com/words_extremism_nas.htm The New anti-Semitism], accessed March 5, 2006.</ref> <ref name=Doward>Doward, Jamie. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html "Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of anti-semitism"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', August 8, 2004.</ref> <ref name=Endelman>Endelman, Todd M. "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today" in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World'', University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65-79.</ref>.
 
{{Jew}}
==Etymology and usage==
 
[[Semite]] refers broadly to speakers of a language group which includes both [[Arab]]s and [[Jew]]s. However anti-Semitism is specifically in reference to Jews and many anti-Semites are pro-Arab.
 
[[Image:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the [[Austria]]n Jewish [[scholar]] [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize [[Ernest Renan]]'s ideas about how "[[Semitic]] races" were inferior to "[[Aryan]] races." These [[Pseudoscience|pseudo-scientific]] theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in [[Europe]] in the second half of the [[19th century]], especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was practically [[synonym]]ous with ''Jewish'', in contrast to its usage by Renan and others.
 
German political agitator [[Wilhelm Marr]] coined the related [[German language|German]] word ''Antisemitismus'' in his book ''"The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism"'' in 1879. Marr used the phrase to mean ''Jew-hatred'' or ''Judenhass'', and he used the new word ''antisemitism'' to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Anti-Semites"'' ("''Antisemiten-Liga''"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country.
 
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term "''Antisemiten''" in the ''"Neue Freie Presse"'' of January. The related word ''[[semitism]]'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term "[[Definitions of Palestine and Palestinian#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|Palestinian]]" by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as [[Jew]]s, as distinct from the religion of [[Judaism]].
 
Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms ''Semitic'' and ''Anti-Semitic'' are not [[antonym]]s. To avoid the confusion of the [[misnomer]], many scholars on the subject (such as [[Emil Fackenheim]]) now favor the unhyphenated term ''antisemitism''.<ref>[http://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf Antisemitism. The Power of Myth] (Facing History) {{PDFlink}}. Accessed August 21, 2006</ref> [[Yehuda Bauer]] articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) "Antisemitism, especially in its [[hyphen]]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no Semitism that you can be [[anti]] to."<ref name=Bauer>[[Yehuda Bauer|Bauer, Yehuda]]. [http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf "Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism"] {{PDFlink}}. Accessed March 12, 2006.</ref><ref name=Bauer2>Bauer, Yehuda. ''A History of the Holocaust'', Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4</ref>
 
The term ''anti-Semitism'' has historically referred to prejudice towards [[Jew]]s alone. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak [[Semitic language]]s (e.g. [[Arab]]s or [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]).
 
In recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs, [[Anti-Arabism]], in the context of accusations of Arab anti-Semitism; further, some, including the [[Islamic Association of Palestine]], have argued that this implies that Arabs cannot, ''by definition'', be anti-Semitic. The argument for such extension comes out of the claim that since the [[Semitic]] [[language family]] includes [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Hebrew languages|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] languages, and the historical term "Semite" refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical [[Shem]], anti-Semitism should be likewise inclusive. This usage is not generally accepted.
 
===Definitions of the term===
[[Image:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-semitic caricature (France, 1898)]]
 
Though the general definition of anti-Semitism is hostility or prejudice towards [[Jew]]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor Helen Fein's definition has been particularly influential. She defines anti-Semitism as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, [[ideology]], [[folklore]] and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilisation against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."
 
Professor Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of anti-Semitic beliefs. To anti-Semites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."
 
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define anti-Semitism. The United States Department of State defines anti-Semitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews — individually and as a group — that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm "Report on Global Anti-Semitism"''], [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], January 5, 2005.</ref>
 
In 2005, the [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC), a body of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed working definition: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the [[state of Israel]], conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm [[humanity]], and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'."
 
The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of anti-Semitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; [[Holocaust denial|denying the Holocaust]]; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be anti-Semitic, depending on the context (see [[#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|anti-Zionism]] below).<ref name=EUMC>[[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]], [http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf "Working Definition of Antisemitism"], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
 
==Religious Anti-Semetism==
===Anti-Semitism and the Christian world===
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}
 
====Anti-Judaism in the New Testament====
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of books written by various authors. Most of this collection was written by the end of the first century. The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of [[Jesus]], and all but two books ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as anti-Semitic, or have been used for anti-Semitic purposes, most notably:
 
:Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: "I know that you are descendants of [[Abraham]]; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father. They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." ([[Book of John|John]] 8:37-39, 44-47, [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]])
 
:[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the [[Holy Spirit]]. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." ([[Book of Acts|Acts]] 7:51-53, RSV)
 
:"Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie — behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you." ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 3:9, RSV).
 
Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from [[Moses]] and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. Deut 9:13-14; 31:27-29; 32:5, 20-21; 2 Kings 17:13-14; Is 1:4; Hos 1:9; 10:9). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (Mk 8:33). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by anti-Semites.
 
Drawing from the Jewish prophet [[Jeremiah]] ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 31:31-34), the [[New Testament]] taught that with the death of Jesus a [[New Covenant (theology)|new covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by Moses ([[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 8:7-13; Lk 22:20). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice [[circumcision]] and observe [[Kashrut|dietary laws]], which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first [[Gentile]] Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (Acts 11:3; 15:1ff; 16:3).
 
The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple [[Judas Iscariot]] ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]14:43-46), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] governor [[Pontius Pilate]] along with Roman forces ([[Gospel of John|John]] 19:11; Acts 4:27) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (Acts 13:27); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control.
 
After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in [[Jerusalem]] as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning (Acts 7:58). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (Acts 8:3; [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 1:13-14; [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] 1:13). After his conversion, [[Paul of Tarsus|Saul]] is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities ([[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] 11:24), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., Acts 25:6-7). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (2 Corinthians 11:26; Acts 16:19ff; 19:23ff). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (Romans 8:35; [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 4:11ff; Galatians 3:4; [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] 1:5; Hebrews 10:32; [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] 4:16; Revelation 20:4).
 
There are a number of passages in the New Testament that are strongly pro-semitic and promote the Jewish nation above the rest of the world. Some famous passages include:
*John 4:22 - salvation and the knowledge of God originates from the Jews;
*Romans 1:16 - salvation is first for the Jews and then for pagans;
*Romans 11 - the Jews have been and will always be the beloved nation of God - they are enemies of the Gospel only for this reason that pagans might also be saved, but at the end of times the Jews will be the last nation to widely accept Christianity; therefore regarding onself as better than Jews (on account of them rejecting the Gospel) is pride that God himself will punish; verse 29 says that the blessing of Abraham (referring to material success such as obtaining riches) remains constantly on the Jews (regardless of their attitude towards Christianity);
 
====Early Christianity====
A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of church father [[Cyprian]] — are strongly anti-Jewish.
 
During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] said, <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.<ref name=Eusebius>[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm "Life of Constantine (Book III)"], 337 CE, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref></blockquote>
 
Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalusia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Spain, the [[Third Council of Toledo]] ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth).<ref name=Roth>Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. ''Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain'', Brill Academic, 1994.</ref> Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.
 
====Anti-Semitism in Europe (Middle Ages)====
[[Image:Talmudtrial.jpg|thumb|250px|1239. In the course of a [[disputation]], [[Pope Gregory IX]] ordered the [[Talmud]] burned (note a non-[[heresy|heretical]] book floating above the fire). A 15th century painting by [[Pedro Berruguete]].]]
 
===== Accusations of deicide =====
{{See|Deicide |Nostra Aetate}}
In the [[Middle Ages]] a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of [[Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus, a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]]. As stated in the [[Boston College]] Guide to Passion Plays, "Over the course of time, Christians began to accept... that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of [[deicide]], or God-killing. This accusation can be considered unreasonable as [[Roman]] soldiers crucified Jesus. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America."<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. [http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf "A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays"], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> This accusation was repudiated in 1964, when the Catholic Church under [[Pope Paul VI]] issued the document [[Nostra Aetate]] as a part of [[Vatican II]].
 
===== Restrictions to marginal occupations (tax collecting, moneylending, etc.) =====
 
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities, local rulers and frequently church officials who closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as local tax and rent collecting or [[moneylending]], seen in these times as a "[[The ends justify the means#necessary evil|necessary evil]]" due to the increasing population and urbanization during the [[High Middle Ages]]. Catholic doctrine of the time held that moneylending for interest was a [[sin]], and as such Jews tended to dominate this business. The [[Torah]] and later sections of the [[Hebrew Bible]] criticise [[Usury#Biblical|Usury]] but the Bible is slightly ambiguous. Jews were forced into money lending as there were few other occupations open to them. This provided support for claims that Jews are insolent, greedy, engaged in [[usury]], and in itself contributed to a negative image. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked.
 
===== The Black Death =====
{{See|Black Death}}
As the [[Black Death]] [[epidemics]] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than a half of the population, Jews were taken as [[scapegoat#Political/sociological scapegoating|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence, in particular in the Iberic peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In [[Provence]], 40 Jews were burnt in [[Toulon]] as soon as April 1348 <ref name="Black"> See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}} </ref>. "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague <!-- uncertainty about the plague being bubonic, although it is the most accepted hypothesis; irrelevant link, Black Death link more appropriate -->; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of [[Chambery]] (near [[Geneva]]) had ordered him to poison the wells in [[Venice]], [[Toulouse]], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s "confession," the Jews of [[Strasbourg]] were burned alive on February 14, 1349.<ref name=Hertzberg>[[Arthur Hertzberg|Hertzberg, Arthur]] and Hirt-Manheimer, Aron. ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'', HarperSanFrancisco, 1998, p.84. ISBN 0-06-063834-6</ref>
 
Although the [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by the [[July 6]], [[1348]] [[papal bull]] and another [[1348]] bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt in [[Strasbourg]], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city <ref name="Black"/>. Clement VI condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews (among whom were the [[flagellant]]s) had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil."
 
=====The demonizing of the Jews=====
From around the [[12th century]] through the [[19th century|19th]] there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the [[devil]]. See also [[Judensau]], [[Judeophobia]].
 
=====Blood libels=====
''Main articles: [[blood libel]], [[list of blood libels against Jews]]''
 
On many occasions, Jews were accused of a [[blood libel]], the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]]. According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of [[black magic]] would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.
 
The story of [[William of Norwich]] (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian [[monk]], while the story of [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his [[Disembowelment|entrails]] removed for some [[occult]] purpose, such as a [[haruspex|divination ritual]]. The story of [[Simon of Trent]] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by [[Pope Sixtus V]] in 1588. The cult of Simon was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in [[Russia]] and the [[Kielce pogrom]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Unproved rumours of Jews killing Christians were used to try and justify real killing of Jews by Christians.
 
More recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of [[Arab]] nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites.
 
=====Host desecration=====
[[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|150px|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration. In the first panel the hosts are stolen, in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew, in the third the Jews are arrested, and in the fourth they are burned alive.]]
Jews were sometimes falsely accused of desecrating consecrated [[Host (Holy Communion)|hosts]] in a reenactment of the [[Crucifixion]]; this crime was known as [[host desecration]] and carried the [[death penalty]].
 
=====Disabilities and restrictions=====
[[Image:BritLibCottonNeroD1Fol183vPersecutedJews.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The yellow badge Jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an English manuscript.]]
 
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the list of excluded occupations varying in different communities, and being determined largely by the political influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Frequently all occupations were barred against Jews, except money-lending and peddling—even these at times being prohibited. The number of Jews or Jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghettos]], and were not allowed to own land; and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, forced to swear special [[Oath More Judaico|Jewish Oaths]], and a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress.
 
=====Clothing=====
''Main article: [[yellow badge]], [[Judenhut]]''
 
The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215 was the first to proclaim the requirement for Jews to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a coloured piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat ([[Judenhut]]), or a robe. In many localities, members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as [[guild]] members) were prestigious, while others ostracised outcasts such as [[Leprosy|leper]]s, reformed [[heresy|heretics]] and [[Prostitution|prostitutes]]. Jews sought to evade the [[Jewish badge|badges]] by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds.
 
=====The Crusades=====
 
The [[Crusade]]s were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. They began as Catholic endeavors to recapture [[Jerusalem]] from the Muslims but developed into territorial wars.
 
A mob of mainly untrained and uncontrolled civilians, known as the [[People's Crusade]] accompanying the first Crusade attacked the Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and put many Jews to death. Entire communities, like those of [[Treves]], [[Speyer]], [[Worms]], [[Mayence]], and [[Cologne]], were slain during the first Crusade by a mob army. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July, 1096. Before the Crusades the Jews had practically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against the Jews as against the Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the First crusade and the papacy during the Second Crusade to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III, and formed the turning-point in the medieval history of the Jews.
 
=====The expulsions from England, France, Germany, and Spain=====
''Only a few expulsions of the Jews are described in this section, for a more extended list see [[History of anti-Semitism]], and also the [[History of the Jews in England]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]], and [[History of the Jews in France|France]].''
 
The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for [[ransom]], was utilized to enrich the French crown during [[12th century|12th]]-[[14th century|14th]] centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from [[Paris]] by [[Philip Augustus of France|Philip Augustus]] in 1182, from the entirety of France by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, by [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] in 1322, by [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] in 1359, by [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] in 1394.
 
To finance his war to conquer [[Wales]], [[Edward I of England]] taxed the Jewish moneylenders. When the Jews could no longer pay, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, the Jews saw Edward abolish their "privilege" to lend money, choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a [[Yellow badge|yellow patch]]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested, over 300 of them taken to the [[Tower of London]] and executed, while others killed in their homes. ''See also:-[[History of the Jews in England#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)]].'' The complete banishment of all Jews from the country in 1290 led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of Jews from England for three and a half centuries, until 1655, when [[Oliver Cromwell]] reversed the policy.
 
In 1492, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]] issued ''General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews'' from [[Spain]] (''see also [[Spanish Inquisition]]'') and many [[Sephardi]] Jews fled to the [[Ottoman Empire]], some to the [[Land of Israel]].
 
In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on condition that Jews pay for readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution".
 
=====Anti-Judaism and the Reformation=====
[[Image:1543 On the Jews and Their Lies by Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|180px|Luther's 1543 pamphlet ''On the Jews and Their Lies'']]
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}
 
[[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]] and an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for a [[pogrom]] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According to [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], it "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to [[the Holocaust]]."<ref name=Johnson>[[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Johnson, Paul]]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1987, p.242. ISBN 5-551-76858-9</ref>
In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord."<ref name=Luther>[[Martin Luther|Luther, Martin]]. ''D. Martin Luthers Werke: kritische Gesamtausgabe'', Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1920, Vol. 51, p. 195.</ref> Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism.
''See also [[Martin Luther and the Jews|Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]''
 
====Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century (Catholicism)====
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial anti-Semitism. [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the papacy of [[Pope Pius IX]] (1846-1878), the last Pope to rule Rome. Additionally, official organizations such as the [[Jesuits]] banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''[[The Popes Against the Jews]]'' that in the 19th and 20th century the [[Roman Catholic Church]] adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the [[Weekly Standard]] for using evidence selectively. The [[Second Vatican Council]], the [[Nostra Aetate]] document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however.
 
=====Passion plays=====
[[Passion play]]s, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]], have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for [[deicide|the death of Jesus]] in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or [[pogrom]]s — on Europe's Jewish communities".<ref name=Sennott>Sennott, Charles M. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/ "In Poland, new 'Passion' plays on old hatreds"], ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', April 10, 2004.</ref> [[Time Magazine]] in its article, ''The Problem With Passion'', explains that "such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation".<ref name=Biema>Van Biema, David. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030901-477956,00.html "The Problem With Passion"], ''[[Time Magazine]]'', August 25, 2003.</ref> Although modern scholars interpret the "blood on our children" ({{bibleref|Matthew|27:25}}) as "a specific group's oath of responsibility" some audiences have historically interpreted it as "an assumption of eternal, racial guilt". This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], "Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death".<ref name=Foxman>[[Abraham Foxman|Foxman, Abraham H.]] [http://www.adl.org/ADL_Opinions/Interfaith/oped_2004012_pbp.htm "'Passion' Relies on Theme of anti-Semitism"], ''[[The Palm Beach Post]]'', January 25, 2004.</ref> The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', in its article, ''Capturing the Passion'', explains that "[h]istorically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake."<ref name=Lampman>Lampman, Jane. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0710/p11s01-lire.html?entryBottomStory "Capturing the Passion"], ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', July 10, 2003.</ref> ''[[Christianity Today]]'' in ''Why some Jews fear The Passion (of the Christ)'' observed that "Outbreaks of Christian anti-Semitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive."<ref name=Hansen>Hansen, Colin. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/2004/feb20.html "Why some Jews fear ''The Passion''"], ''[[Christianity Today]]'', 2004.</ref> The [[Religion Newswriters Association]] observed that
:"in Easter 2001, three incidents made national headlines and renewed their fears. One was a column by [[Paul Weyrich]], a conservative Christian leader and head of the [[Free Congress Foundation]], who argued that "Christ was crucified by the Jews." Another was sparked by comments from the NBA point guard and born-again Christian [[Charlie Ward]], who said in an interview that Jews were persecuting Christians and that Jews "had his [Jesus'] blood on their hands." Finally, the evangelical Christian comic strip artist [[Johnny Hart]] published a B.C. strip that showed a menorah disintegrating until it became a cross, with each panel featuring the last words of Jesus, including "[[Seven Last Words#Father forgive them.2C for they know not what they do|Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do]]." <ref name=religionlink>[http://www.religionlink.org/tip_040120a.php "'Passion' plays out locally"] February 17, 2004</ref>
 
In [[1988]], the Bishops' Committee for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs of the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] published ''Criteria for the Evaluation of Dramatizations of the Passion'', in order to ensure that Passion Plays adhere to the teaching of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and the [[Pontifical Biblical Commission]] as expressed in ''[[Nostra Aetate]]'' no. 4 ([[October 28]], [[1965]]). These criteria were summarized for the [[Archdiocese of Boston]] as <ref name =sirois> Sirois, Celia. [http://www.rcab.org/EandI/jewish/guidelines_Passion.html "Guidelines for Dramatizing the Passion of the Lord"]</ref>:
*The overriding preoccupation of any dramatization of the Passion must be, in the words of [[Ellis Rivkin]], not who killed Christ, but what killed Christ, namely, our sins.
*Those scripting a Passion play must use the best available biblical scholarship to elucidate the gospel texts which were not written to preserve historical facts so much as to proclaim the saving truth about Jesus.
*Harmonizing the four accounts of Jesus’ Passion — ''i.e''. constructing a single story of the Passion by combining elements from the four gospel versions — risks violating the integrity of the texts, each of which offers a distinct theological interpretation of Jesus ’ death.
*Because of the nature of the gospels, the choice of what gospel passages to use in the making of a Passion play must be guided by the Church’s teaching that “the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God as if this followed from Sacred Scripture” (Nostra Aetate 4). The claim that a passage is “in the Bible” does not suffice to justify its inclusion.
*As ignorance of Judaism often leads to misinterpretation of events, the complexity of the Jewish world of Jesus must be carefully researched and correctly represented; ''e.g''., it is important to know that the high priest was appointed by the Roman procurator.
*Crowd scenes must represent this rich diversity and reflect a range of responses to Jesus among the crowd as among their leaders.
*The Jewishness of Jesus and his followers must be taken seriously. They must be portrayed as Jews among Jews and not set apart by means of costuming or makeup.
*Stereotypes of Jews and Judaism (''e.g''. depicting Jews as avaricious) must be avoided. [This is especially important in portraying Judas, whose name means Jew, and who is given money for betraying Jesus.]
*The Pharisees are not mentioned in the gospel accounts of Jesus’ Passion and therefore should not be depicted as responsible for his death. The Jews most directly implicated in the death of Jesus are the Temple priests.
*Roman soldiers should be on stage throughout the play to keep before the audience the pervasive and oppressive reality of Roman occupation.
*Problematic passages, like Matthew’s “his blood be on us and on our children” (27:25), that can be misconstrued as blaming all Jews of all time for the death of Jesus, should be omitted. As a general rule in these cases, the Bishops suggest that “if one cannot show beyond reasonable doubt that the particular gospel element selected or paraphrased will not be offensive or have the potential for negative influence on the audience for whom the presentation is intended, the element cannot, in good conscience, be used” (“Criteria,” p. 12).
 
On [[January 6]], [[2004]], the Consultative Panel on Lutheran-Jewish Relations of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] similarly issued a statement urging any Lutheran church presenting a Passion Play to adhere to their ''Guidelines for Lutheran-Jewish Relations'', stating that "the New Testament . . . must not be used as justification for hostility towards present-day Jews," and that "blame for the death of Jesus should not be attributed to Judaism or the Jewish people." <ref name=elca>[http://www.bc.edu/research/cjl/meta-elements/texts/cjrelations/news/News_Jan2004.htm#ELCA "Lutheran Statement on The Passion of the Christ"] January 6, 2004</ref>
 
In 2003 and 2004 some compared [[Mel Gibson]]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on [[The Passion of the Christ]]. See also [[Mel Gibson DUI incident]]. Despite such fears, there have been no publicized anti-Semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence. However, the film's reputation for anti-semitism led to the movie being distributed and well-received throughout the Muslim world, even in nations that typically suppress public expressions of Christianity.
 
==Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world==
''Anti-Semitism within Islam is discussed in the article on [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Semitism in the Arab World is discussed in the article on [[Arabs and anti-Semitism]]''
 
The [[Qur'an]], [[Islam]]'s holy book, accuses the [[Jew]]s of corrupting the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Muslims refer to Jews and [[Christian]]s as a "[[People of the book]]"; Islamic law demands that when under Muslim rule they should be treated as [[dhimmi]]s - from the Arab term ''ahl adh-dhimma''. The writer [[Bat Ye'or]] introduced the modern word ''Dhimmitude'' as a generic indication of this Islamic attitude. Dhimmis were granted protection of life (including against other Muslim states), the right to residence in designated areas, worship, and work or trade, and were exempted from military service, and Muslim religious duties, personal law and tax on certain conditions such as paying the poll ([[jizyah]]) and land taxes as set by Muslim authorities. At the same time they were subject to various restrictions in relation to Muslims and Islam (for example, Muslim men could marry Jewish women and own Jewish slaves, but the opposite was not true), the Qur'an or [[Muhammad]] (such as desecrating scriptures or defaming the Prophet), and [[proselyte|proselytizing]]. At times Jews were subjected to a number of other restrictions on dress, riding horses or camels, carrying arms, holding public office, building or repairing places of worship, mourning loudly, wearing shoes outside a Jewish ghetto, etc.
 
In the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] traditional Islamic judeophobia eventually merged with modern European anti-Semitism. Antagonism and violence increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic motives and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazism|Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.<ref name=Gruen>Gruen, George E. [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm "The Other Refugees: Jews of the Arab World"], ''The Jerusalem Letter'', [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]], June 1, 1988.</ref>
 
[[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] [[propaganda]] in the [[Middle East]] frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of [[the Holocaust]] to [[Demonization|demonize]] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, [[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. Arabic- and Turkish-edition of Hitler's Mein Kampf and the Protocols of Zion have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media. The Protocols have even inspired TV series (in Lebanon and Iran) showing rabbis ritually slaughtering (throat cutting) Christian children.
 
==Racial anti-Semitism==
{{main|Racial anti-Semitism}}
 
Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation of the Jews]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti-Semitism, a combination of growing [[nationalism]], the rise of [[eugenics]], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist anti-Semitism.
 
==New anti-Semitism==
{{main|New anti-Semitism}}
In recent years some scholars of history, psychology, religion, and representatives of Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the ''new anti-Semitism'', which is associated with the Left, rather than the Right, and which uses the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel to attack the Jews more broadly.
 
===Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism===
[[Anti-Zionism]] is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view (both historically and in current debates) all expressing some form of opposition to [[Zionism]]. A large variety of commentators—politicians, journalists, academics and others—believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to anti-Semitism. In turn, critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with anti-Semitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticism, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.
 
===European Commission definition===
The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance has proposed a ''[http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf Working Definition of Antisemitism]'' outlining some of the ways in which anti-Zionism may cross the line into anti-Semitism. "Examples of the ways in which anti-Semitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include:
* denying the Jewish people right to [[self-determination]], e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor;
* applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation;
* using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; and
* holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel."
 
==Earliest anti-Semitism==
The earliest occurrence of Anti-Semitism has been the subject of debate among scholars. Professor Peter Schafer of the [[Free University of Berlin|Freie University of Berlin]] has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the [[Greeks|Greek]] retelling of ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest [[Manetho]], Schafer suggests that anti-Semitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone".<ref name=Schafer>Schafer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', Harvard University Press, 1997, p 208.</ref> The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]] has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the [[Durham University|University of Durham]].<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M. G. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)'', University of California, 1999.</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in [[Alexandria]] in 38 CE in ''[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html Flaccus]'', in which thousands of Jews died. In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as [[misanthropy|misanthropes]].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem. ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill, 2003.</ref> Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not [[anti-Judaism]] unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone. Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Anti-Semitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, p 27-43.</ref> The 150 BCE suppression of Jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians, as recounted in [[1 Maccabees]], then qualifies as anti-Judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by Bohak. There are other examples of [[History of anti-Semitism#Ancient animosity towards Jews|ancient animosity towards Jews]] that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of anti-semitism.
 
The New Testament mentions the edict of [[Claudius]] expelling all the Jews from the city of Rome (Acts 18:2). [[Suetonius]] in his biography of the Emperor (ca. 120 AD) writes about the same decree issued probably around 49 AD and according to the Roman historian the reason was disturbances on account of Chrestus<ref>''"Since the Jews were constantly causing disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [Claudius] expelled them from Rome"'' (Suetonius, ''Lives of the Caesars'', Claudius 5.25.4); in original: ''"Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit"'' (G. Suetonius Tranquillus, ''De Vita Caesarum'' 5.25.4)</ref> (which may possibly be read as an allusion to [[Christ]]).
 
==Anti-Semitism and specific countries==
===United States===
[[Image:KKK holocaust a zionist hoax.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]]: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial]]
{{see|History of the Jews in the United States}}
Jews were often condemned by [[populist]] politicians alternately for their left-wing politics, or their perceived wealth, at the turn of the century. {{fact}} Anti-semitism grew in the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father [[Charles Coughlin]], a radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned "the Jews," and [[Henry Ford]] reprinted [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] in his newspaper.
 
In 1939 a [[Roper]] poll found that only thirty-nine percent of Americans felt that Jews should be treated like other people. Fifty-three percent believed that "Jews are different and should be restricted" and ten percent believed that Jews should be deported.<ref name=Smitha>Smitha, Frank E. [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch22.htm "Roosevelt and Approaching War: The Economy, Politics and Questions of War, 1937-38"], accessed [[March 12]] [[2006]].</ref> Several surveys taken from 1940 to 1946 found that Jews were seen as a greater threat to the welfare of the United States than any other national, religious, or racial group. [http://etd-submit.etsu.edu/etd/theses/available/etd-0322102-113418/unrestricted/Greear040102.pdf#search='charles%20coughlin%20Jews']
It has been estimated that 190,000 - 200,000 Jews could have been saved during the [[Second World War]] had it not been
for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by [[Breckinridge Long]] and others.<ref name=PBS>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/peopleevents/pandeAMEX90.html "Breckinridge Long (1881-1958)"], [[Public Broadcasting System]] (PBS), accessed [[March 12]] [[2006]].</ref>
 
In a speech at an [[America First Committee|America First]] rally on [[September 11]] [[1941]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]] entitled "Who Are the War Agitators?", [[Charles Lindbergh]] claimed that three groups had been "pressing this country toward war": the Roosevelt Administration, the [[United Kingdom|British]], and the Jews - and complained about what he insisted was the Jews' "large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio and our government." {{fact}}
 
Unofficial anti-Semitism was also widespread in the first half of the century. For example, to limit the growing number of Jewish students between 1919-1950s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed [[Numerus clausus#Numerus clausus in the United States|Numerus clausus]]. These included [[Harvard University]], [[Columbia University]], [[Cornell University]], and [[Boston University]]. In 1925 [[Yale University]], which already had such admissions preferences as "character", "solidity", and "physical characteristics" added a program of [[legacy preference]] admission spots for children of Yale alumni, in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of Jews in the student body. This was soon copied by other Ivy League and other schools, and admissions of Jews were kept down to 10% through the 1950s. Such policies were for the most part discarded during the early 1960s.
 
Some extreme [[cults]] also support conspiracy theories regarding Jews as dominating and taking over the world. These cults are often vitriolic and severely anti-semititic. For instance, the [[Necedah Shrine]] Cult from the 1950s on to the mid 1980's, has [[Mary Ann Van Hoof]] receiving anti-semitic "visions" from the [[Virgin Mary]] telling her that the Rothschilds, a prominent Jewish banking family, are "mongrel yids(Jews)" bent on dominating the entire world economy through international banking. Most of the worlds problems, from poverty to world wars, are the cause of International Banking jews and their "satanic secret society," according to Van Hoof.[http://www.jesusphoto.org/devilfish1.jpg]
 
American anti-Semitism underwent a modest revival in the late twentieth century. The [[Nation of Islam]] under [[Louis Farrakhan]] claimed that Jews were responsible for slavery, economic exploitation of black labor, selling alcohol and drugs in their communities, and unfair domination of the economy. Jesse Jackson issued his infamous "Hymietown" remarks during the 1984 Presidential primary campaign.
 
According to ADL surveys begun in 1964, African-Americans are "significantly more likely" than white Americans to hold anti-Semitic beliefs, although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti-Semitic stereotypes.<ref name=ADL> [http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp "Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America: Highlights from an ADL Survey - November 1998"], [[Anti-Defamation League]], accessed [[March 12]] [[2006]].</ref>
 
Actor and director [[Mel Gibson]] has been accused of anti-semitism based upon the remarks of his father, [[Hutton Gibson]], the release of his controversial film [[The Passion of the Christ]] and remarks allegedly made upon his arrest for drunken driving. <ref>
http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-me-gibson30jul30,1,422264.story?track=rss&ctrack=1&cset=true
http://www.tmz.com/2006/08/01/bulletin-gibson-im-not-an-anti-semite/
http://www.tmz.com/2006/07/28/gibsons-anti-semitic-tirade-alleged-cover-up/
http://cdn.digitalcity.com/tmz_documents/gibson_wm_docs_072806.pdf
http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/07/29/gibson.statement/index.html
http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com/archives/009243.php</ref>
 
===Europe===
The summary of a 2004 poll by the "Pew Global Attitudes Project" noted, "Despite concerns about rising anti-Semitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia."<ref name=Pew>[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=206 "A Year After Iraq War: Mistrust of America in Europe Even Higher, Muslim Anger Persists"], [[Pew Research Center|Pew Global Attitudes Project]], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
 
However, according to 2005 survey results by the ADL,<ref name=ADL2>[http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASInt_13/4726_13.htm "ADL Survey in 12 European Countries Finds Anti-Semitic Attitudes Still Strongly Held"], Anti-Defamation League, 2005, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> anti-Semitic attitudes remain common in Europe. Over 30% of those surveyed indicated that Jews have too much power in business, with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary, and over 40% in Poland and Spain. The results of religious anti-Semitism also linger and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%.<ref name=flashmap>[http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/question_1.html Flash Map of Attitudes Toward Jews in 12 European Countries (2005)], Philo. Sophistry, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
 
The Vienna-based European Union Monitoring Centre (EUMC), for 2002 and 2003, identified France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and The Netherlands as EU member countries with notable increases in incidents. As these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti-Semitic acts, and are engaged in combating anti-Semitism, their data was readily available to the EUMC. Governments and leading public figures condemned the violence, passed new legislation, and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts.{{fact}}
 
In Western Europe, traditional far-right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against Jews and Jewish properties; disadvantaged and disaffected Muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents. In Eastern Europe, with a much smaller Muslim population, skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti-Semitic incidents. Anti-Semitism remained a serious problem in Russia and Belarus, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, with most incidents carried out by ultra-nationalist and other far-right elements. The stereotype of Jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti-Semitic aggression.
 
====Denmark====
In [[1813]], Denmark had gone bankrupt and people were looking for a scapegoat. A German anti-Semitic book, translated into Danish, provoked a flood of polemical articles both for and against the Jews. {{fact}}
 
In [[1819]] a series of anti-Jewish riots in Germany spread to several neighboring countries including Denmark, resulting in mob attacks on Jews in Copenhagen and many provincial towns. These riots were known as [[Hep Hep Riots|Hep! Hep! Riots]], from the derogatory rallying cry against the Jews in Germany. Riots lasted for five months during which time shop windows were smashed, stores looted, homes attacked, and Jews physically abused.
 
However, during World War II, Denmark was very uncooperative with the Nazi occupation on Jewish matters. Danish officials repeatedly insisted to the German occupation authorities that there was no "Jewish problem" in Denmark. As a result, even ideologically committed Nazis such as Reich Commissioner [[Werner Best]] followed a strategy of avoiding and deferring discussion of Denmark's Jews. When Denmark's German occupiers began planning the deportation of the 8,000 or so Jews in Denmark to [[Nazi concentration camps]], many Danes and Swedes took part in a collective effort to evacuate the roughly 8,000 Jews of Denmark by sea to nearby Sweden (see also [[Rescue of the Danish Jews]]).
 
====France====
[[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Defacement of a Jewish cemetery in France, 2004.]]
{{see|History of the Jews in France}}
 
Antisemitism was particularly virulent in [[Vichy France]] during [[World War II|WWII]]. The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps.
 
Today, despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the indigenous population,<ref name=tns>[http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes/pol/080605_antisemitisme_r.htm "L'antisémitisme en France"], Association Française des Amis de l'Université de Tel Aviv, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern,<ref name=Thiolay>Thiolay, Boris. [http://www.lexpress.fr/info/societe/dossier/juifsfr/dossier.asp "Juif, et alors?"], ''[[L'Express (France)|L'Express]]'', June 6, 2005.</ref> as is tension between the Jewish and Muslim populations of France, both the largest in Europe. However, according to a poll by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, 71% of French Muslims had positive views of Jews, the highest percentage in the world [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/23/muslims.west/]). According to the National Advisory Committee on Human Rights, antisemitic acts account for a majority— 72% in all in 2003— of racist acts in France.<ref name=communique>[http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/rubriques/a/a5_communiques/2005_07_25_antisemite "Communiqués Officiels: Les actes antisémites"], Ministère de l'Intérieur et de l'Aménagement du territoire, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
 
In July, 2005 the Pew Global Attitudes Project found that 82% of French people questioned had favorable attitudes towards Jews, the second highest percentage of the countries questioned. The Netherlands was highest at 85%.<ref name=pew0805>{{cite web
|url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248
|title=Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics
|publisher=Pew Global Attitude Project
|date=2005-07-14
|accessed=2006-07-10}}</ref>
 
[[Holocaust denial]] and anti-Semitic speech are prohibited under the 1990 [[Gayssot Act]].
 
====Norway====
Jews were prohibited from living or entering Norway by paragraph 2 of the [[Constitution of Norway|Constitution]], which originally read, ''"The evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and [[monk]]ish orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm."'' In 1851 the last sentence was struck, and in 1897, the next to last sentence was removed.{{fact}}
 
====Poland====
{{see|History of the Jews in Poland}}
 
In 1264, Duke [[Boleslaus of Greater Poland|Boleslaus the Pious]] from [[Greater Poland]] legislated a [[Statute of Kalisz|charter]] for Jewish residence and protection, hoping that Jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the Polish economy. This charter, which encouraged money-lending, was a slight variation of the 1244 charter granted by the King of [[Austria]] to the Jews. By the sixteenth century, Poland had become the center of European Jewry and the most tolerant of all European countries regarding the matters of faith, although there were still occasionally violent anti-Semitic incidents.
 
At the onset of the seventeenth century, however, the tolerance began to give way to increased anti-Semitism. Elected to the Polish throne King [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]] of the Swedish [[House of Vasa]], a strong supporter of the [[counter-reformation]], began to undermine the principles of the [[Warsaw Confederation]] and the religious tolerance in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], revoking and limiting privileges of all non-Catholic faiths. In 1628 he banned publication of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] books, including the [[Talmud]].<ref name=jonesd>Jones, Derek. [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Polcen16c.html "Censorship in Poland: From the Beginnings to the Enlightenment"], ''Censorship: A World Encyclopedia'', Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000.</ref> Acclaimed twentieth century historian [[Simon Dubnow]], in his ''[[magnum opus]]'' ''History of the Jews in Poland and Russia'', detailed:
:"''At the end of the 16th century and thereafter, not one year passed without a blood libel trial against Jews in Poland, trials which always ended with the execution of Jewish victims in a heinous manner..."'' (ibid., volume 6, chapter 4).
 
In the 1650s the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth ([[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]]) and the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] of the [[Cossack]]s resulted in vast depopulation of the Commonwealth, as over 30% of the ~10 million population has perished or emigrated. In the related 1648-55 pogroms led by the Ukrainian uprising against Polish nobility ([[szlachta]]), during which approximately 100,000 Jews were slaughtered, Polish and [[Ruthenian]] peasants often participated in killing Jews (''The Jews in Poland'', Ken Spiro, 2001). The besieged szlachta, who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened, typically abandoned the loyal peasantry, townsfolk, and the Jews renting their land, in violation of "rental" contracts.
 
In the aftermath of the Deluge and Chmielnicki Uprising, many Jews fled to the less turbulent [[Netherlands]], which had granted the Jews a protective charter in 1619. From then until the [[Nazism|Nazi]] deportations in 1942, the Netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for Jews in Europe, excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other European countries at the time, and becoming one of the few Jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of Europe. Many Jews also fled to England, open to Jews since the mid-seventeenth century, in which Jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted.
Historian Berel Wein notes:
:"''In a reversal of roles that is common in Jewish history, the victorious Poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless Jews of the area, accusing them of collaborating with the [[Cossack]] invader!... The Jews, reeling from almost five years of constant hell, abandoned their Polish communities and institutions..."'' (''Triumph of Survival'', 1990).
 
Throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century, many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry, townsfolk and Jews. Threat of mob violence was a specter over the Jewish communities in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the time. On one occasion in 1696, a mob threatened to massacre the Jewish community of Posin, [[Vitebsk]]. The mob accused the Jews of murdering a Pole. At the last moment, a peasant woman emerged with the victim's clothes and confessed to the murder. One notable example of actualized riots against Polish Jews is the rioting of 1716, during which many Jews lost their lives. Later, in 1723, the Bishop of [[Gdańsk]] instigated the massacre of hundreds of Jews.
 
The legendary [[Abraham ben Abraham|Walentyn Potocki]], a Polish nobleman who converted to Judaism, is said to have been burned by [[auto da fe]] on May 24, 1749. In 1757, at the instigation of [[Jacob Frank]] and his followers, the Bishop of [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] forced the Jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi-Christian Frankists. Among the other charges, the Frankists claimed that the [[Talmud]] was full of heresy against Catholicism. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] judges determined that the Frankists had won the debate, whereupon the Bishop levied heavy fines against the Jewish community and confiscated and burned all Jewish Talmuds. Polish anti-Semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by Issac de Pinto as follows: "''Polish Jews... who are deprived of all the privileges of society... who are despised and reviled on all sides, who are often persecuted, always insulted.... That contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour....''" ([[Issac de Pinto]], philosopher and economist, in a 1762 letter to [[Voltaire]]).
 
On the other hand, it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was a relative haven for Jews when compared to the period of the [[partitions of Poland]] and the PLC's destruction in 1795 (see [[Anti-Semitism#Russia and the Soviet Union|Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union]], below).
 
Anti-Jewish sentiments continued to be present in Poland, even after the country regained its independence. One notable manifestation of these attitudes includes [[Numerus clausus#numerus clausus in Poland|numerus clausus]] rules imposed, by almost all Polish universities in the 1930's. [[William W. Hagen]] in his ''Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland'' article in ''Journal of Modern History (July, 1996): 1-31'', details:
:"''In Poland, the semidictatorial government of [[Józef Piłsudski|Piłsudski]] and his successors, pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right, implemented many anti-Semitic policies tending in a similar direction, while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in 1939.... In the 1930s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on Jewish export firms... and, increasingly, on university admission itself. In 1921-22 some 25 percent of Polish university students were Jewish, but in 1938-39 their proportion had fallen to 8 percent.''"
 
While there are many examples of Polish support and help for the Jews during World War II and the Holocaust, there are also numerous examples of anti-Semitic incidents, and the Jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the Christian Poles. The Polish Institute for National Memory identified twenty-four [[pogroms]] against Jews during World War II, the most notable occurring at the village of [[Jedwabne]] in 1941 (see [[massacre in Jedwabne]]).
 
After the end of World War II the remaining anti-Jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by Communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals, which pinnacled in the [[March 1968 events]]. These sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the [[communist]] rule in Poland in 1989, which has resulted in a re-examination of events between Jewish and Christian Poles, with a number of incidents, like the massacre at Jedwabne, being discussed openly for the first time. Violent anti-semitism in Poland in 21st century is marginal<ref name=major>[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/graph-7.jpg "Major Violent Incidents in 2004: Breakdown by Country"], The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> compared to elsewhere, but there are very few Jews remaining in Poland. Still, according to recent (June 7, 2005) results of research by [[B'nai Brith]]s [[Anti-Defamation League]], Poland remains among the European countries (with others being Italy, Spain and Germany) with the largest percentages of people holding anti-Semitic views.
 
Poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti-semitism. In 2004, the Polish government approved a National Action Program against racism, including anti-semitism. Additionally the Polish Catholic Church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with Judaism.
 
====Germany====
[[Image:Dstsatan.jpg|thumb|200px|Der Stürmer: "Satan". The caption reads: "The Jews are our misfortune."]]
{{see|History of the Jews in Germany}}
{{seealso|Holocaust}}
 
From the early Middle Ages to the 18th century, the Jews in Germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance. Though the 19th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the Jews, [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation]] followed in 1848, so that, by the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated in Europe. The situation changed in the early 1930's with the rise of the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and their explicitly anti-Semitic program. [[Hate speech]] which referred to [[Jew]]ish citizens as "dirty Jews" became common in anti-Semitic pamphlets and [[newspaper]]s such as the ''[[Völkischer Beobachter]]'' and ''[[Der Stürmer]]''. Additionally, blame was laid on German Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] (see ''[[Dolchstosslegende]]'').
<!-- Image with disputed fair-use status removed: [[Image:Der Giftpilz - Gott des Juden - Nazi propaganda.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nazi propaganda for German children from [[Julius Streicher]]'s publication [http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/thumb.htm ''Der Giftpilz'' (Toadstool)], 1938. The caption reads: "The God of the Jew is Money. And to gain money, he will commit the greatest crimes…."]] -->
 
Anti-Jewish propaganda expanded rapidly. Nazi cartoons depicting "dirty Jews" frequently portrayed a dirty, physically unattractive and badly dressed "talmudic" Jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]]. Articles attacking Jewish Germans, while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent Jewish individuals, also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas, such as [[blood libel]].
 
The Nazi anti-Semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech. Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in the [[Nuremberg Laws]] which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition based on descent, rather than any religious definition of who was a Jew. Sporadic violence against the Jews became widespread with the [[Kristallnacht]] riots, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses and places of worship, killing hundreds across Germany and Austria.
 
The anti-Semitic agenda culminated in the [[genocide]] of the Jews of Europe, known as the [[Holocaust]].
 
====Russia and the Soviet Union====
[[Image:Iudaism bez prikras 63-7.gif|right|thumb|"Judaism Without Embellishments" by Trofim Kichko, published by the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963: "It is in the teachings of Judaism, in the Old Testament, and in the Talmud, that the Israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds, racist theories, and expansionist designs..."]]
{{see|History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union}}
{{seealso|Pogrom}}
 
The [[Pale of Settlement]] was the Western region of [[Imperial Russia]] to which Jews were restricted by the Tsarist [[Ukase]] of 1792. It consisted of the territories of former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], annexed with the existing numerous Jewish population, and the [[Crimea]] (which was later cut out from the Pale).
 
During 1881-1884, 1903-1906 and 1914-1921, waves of anti-Semitic [[pogrom]]s swept Russian Jewish communities. At least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Russian [[okhranka]]. Although there is no hard evidence for this, the Russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms, for instance during the three-day [[Kishinev pogrom|First Kishinev pogrom]] of 1903.
 
During this period the [[May Laws]] policy was also put into effect, banning Jews from rural areas and towns, and placing strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed into higher education and many professions. The combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass Jewish emigration, and by 1920 more than two million Russian Jews had emigrated, most to the [[United States]] while some made [[aliya]] to the [[Land of Israel]].
 
One of the most infamous anti-Semitic tractates was the Russian okhranka literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', created in order to blame the Jews for Russia's problems during the period of revolutionary activity.
<!--After the [[October Revolution|Socialist Revolution]], [[Lenin]] worked hard to combat Anti-Semitism in Russia. In a radio speech held in 1919, Lenin said: ''The tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organised pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews.'' [...] ''It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism.''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/x10.htm]-->
<!--One speech is not "working hard" - this is pure original research. If Lenin "worked hard" against it, please bring some reliable source who says he did.-->
 
Even though many [[Old Bolsheviks]] were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and established the [[Yevsektsiya]] to achieve this goal. By the end of the 1940s the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, including Yevsektsiya.
 
[[Stalin]]'s anti-Semitic campaign of 1948-1953 against so-called "[[rootless cosmopolitans]]," destruction of the [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], the fabrication of the "[[Doctors' plot]]," the rise of "[[Zionology]]" and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the [[Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public]] were officially carried out under the banner of "anti-Zionism," but the use of this term could not obscure the anti-Semitic content of these campaigns, and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West and domestically. See also: [[Jackson-Vanik amendment]], [[Refusenik (Soviet Union)|Refusenik]], [[Pamyat]].
 
Today, anti-Semitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are common in Russia, and there are a large number of anti-Semitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading ''Pravda'' to declare in 2002 that "Anti-semitism is booming in Russia."<ref name=Litvinovich>Litvinovich, Dmitri. [http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/07/30/33489.html "Explosion of anti-Semitism in Russia"], ''[[Pravda (Slovakia)|Pravda]]'' July 30, 2002.</ref> Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti-Semitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded.
 
Though the government of [[Vladimir Putin]] takes an official stand against anti-semitism, some political parties and groups are explicitly anti-Semitic, in spite of a Russian law (Art. 282) against fomenting racial, ethnic or religious hatred. In 2005, a group of 15 [[Duma]] members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia. In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist ''Rodina'' party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism &mdash; the investigation was actually launched, but halted amid international outcry.{{fact}}
 
====Sweden====
With relatively few Jews and a large immigrant population, Swedish right-wing groups are traditionally xenophobic and antisemitic. In January 2001, two Israeli Jews were beaten by two Palestinians in Stockholm. One of them required medical attention. On 19 September a Jewish youth was assaulted by a skinhead in the Stockholm subway. The attacker was arrested. At least 16 telephone threats were received by the Göteborg Jewish community. A Göteborg rabbi was also the target of several bomb threats, forcing the police to evacuate his building, and in March a fake bomb in a suitcase was planted at the entrance of the Göteborg Jewish Community Center. Also in March, a rabbi and his son were harassed in Stockholm by two men who shouted antisemitic slurs. In June the wall of the old Jewish cemetery in Malmö was smeared with antisemitic graffiti.
 
===Asia===
====Japan====
{{main|Antisemitism in Japan}}
Originally [[Japan]], with no Jewish population, had no anti-Semitism, however, Nazi ideology and propaganda left its influence on Japan during World War II, and the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' were subsequently translated into Japanese. Today, anti-Semitism and belief in Jewish manipulation of Japan and the world remains despite the small size of the Jewish community in Japan. Books about Jewish conspiracies are best sellers. According to a 1988 survey, 8% of Japanese had read one of these books.{{fact}}
 
====Pakistan====
The founding of the Islamic state of Pakistan immediately prior to the creation Israel in the Levant created insecurity among Pakistan's Jews. After Israel's independence in 1948, violent incidents occurred against Pakistan's small Jewish community of about 2,000 [[Bene Israel]] Jews. The synagogue in Karachi was
attacked, as were individual Jews. The persecution of Jews resulted in their exodus to India, Israel, and the UK. The [[Peshawar]] Jewish community ceased to exist[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Pakistan.html].
 
Pakistani cricket icon Imran Khan's marriage to Jemima Goldsmith in 1996 caused furor in Pakistan and Khan was accused of acting as an agent of the "Jewish Lobby". Egyptian newspapers in Pakistan made other anti-Semitic accusations against Khan. After Khan complained, the stories were retracted[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Pakistan.html].
 
India's establishment of diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992 have given rise to anti-Semitism in Pakistani media, usually combined with anti-Zionist rhetoric. India has been referred to as a "Zionist Threat"[http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/pakistan/pakistan.htm].
 
Pakistan-based Islamic terrorist group [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] have also expressed anti-Semitic views. Their propaganda arm has declared the Jews to be "Enemies of Islam", Israel to be the "Enemy of Pakistan"[http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2001/01/05/stories/040555ra.htm].
 
====India====
India is home to several communities of [[Indian Jews|Jews]]. There have been no anti-Semitic incidents from other Indians in the nearly 3-millenium history of Indian Jewry. In 2006, a restaurant opened in the Indian city of Mumbai named "Hitler's Cross" which raised the ire of the small but well-to-do and representative community of Jews in Mumbai. Several Jewish advocacy groups, as well as Israeli dipolmats, expressed outrage at this name[http://www.newkerala.com/news4.php?action=fullnews&id=12400][http://www.adl.org/PresRele/HolNa_52/4879_52.htm]. The restaurant owner, Puneet Sablok, consulted with Jewish groups in Mumbai and agreed to change the name [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-08-24-hitlerrestaurant_x.htm] and profusely apologized to the Jewish community for unintentionally offending them. The [[Anti-Defamation League]] of B'naii B'rith has praised this effort[http://www.adl.org/PresRele/HolNa_52/4880_52.htm].
 
==Anti-Semitism in the 21st century==
According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years (but see fn.31 below). Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death.
 
On [[January 1]], [[2006]], Britain's chief [[rabbi]], Sir [[Jonathan Sacks]], warned that what he called a "[[tsunami]] of anti-Semitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's [[Radio Four]], Sacks said that anti-Semitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in France. He also said that: "People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."<ref name=Gillan>Gillan, Audrey. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html "Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred"], ''Guardian'', January 2, 2006.</ref>
 
Much of the new European anti-Semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Israeli-Arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current anti-Semitism comes from militant Islamist and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.<ref name=roth>[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/general-analysis.htm "Annual Reports: General Analysis, 2004"], The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>
 
Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders — for instance, comparing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians to Nazi Germany's treatment of Jews. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.
 
On [[April 3]], [[2006]], the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]] announced its finding that incidents of anti-Semitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended that the [[U.S. Department of Education]]'s [[Office for Civil Rights]] protect college students from anti-Semitism through vigorous enforcement of [[Title VI]] of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and further recommended that [[United States Congress|Congress]] clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>[[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]]: [http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/050306FRUSCCRRCAS.pdf Findings and Recommendations Regarding Campus Anti-Semitism] {{PDFlink}}. April 3, 2006</ref>''
 
==See also==
{{commons|Category:Anti-Semitism}}
* [[Jew]]s and [[Judaism]]
** [[Jewish history]]
* Other articles on anti-Semitism:
** [[History of anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]]
** [[Anti-globalization and Anti-Semitism]]
** [[Arabs and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
** [[New anti-Semitism]]
** [[Persecution of Jews]]
** [[Anti-Semitism and animal rights]]
* Related topics:
** [[Allophilia]]
** [[Anti-Zionism]]
** [[Judeophobia]]
** [[Self-hating Jew]]
** [[Racism]]
* Topics related to religious anti-Semitism:
** [[Anti-Judaism]]
** [[Spanish Inquisition]]
** [[Blood libel]]
*** [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis trial]] in Russia
** [[Host desecration]]
** [[Edgardo Mortara]]
* Anti-semitic laws, policies, and government actions
** [[Pogrom]]s in Russia
** [[May Laws]] in Russia
** [[Polish 1968 political crisis]]
** [[Dreyfus Affair]] in France
** [[Farhud]] in Iraq
** [[General Order № 11 (1862)]] of [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
** [[Historical revisionism (negationism)]]
* [[Nazism|Nazi]] Germany and the [[The Holocaust]]
** [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany]]
** [[Holocaust denial]]
* Anti-semitic websites
** [[Jew Watch]]
** [[Radio Islam]]
** [[Institute for Historical Review]]
* Organizations working against anti-Semitism
** [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]]
** [[Anti-Defamation League]]
** [[Jewish Defense League]]
* Other concepts
** [[Religious persecution]]
** [[Persecution of Christians]]
** [[Persecution of Muslims]]
** [[Persecution of Hindus]]
** [[Persecution of atheists]]
 
==Notes==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
 
==References==
* Bodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.
* Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001.
* Chanes, Jerome A. ''[[Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook]]'', ABC-CLIO, 2004.
* Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
* Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.
* [[Raul Hilberg|Hilberg, Raul]]. ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
* [[Deborah Lipstadt|Lipstadt, Deborah]]. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994.
* McKain, Mark. ''[[Anti-Semitism: At Issue (2005)|Anti-Semitism: At Issue]]'', Greenhaven Press, 2005.
* Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. [http://www.scarecrowpress.com/ISBN/0810858622 Dictionary of Antisemitism], The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007
* Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985.
* Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
 
==Further reading==
* [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Global Anti-Semitism] (ADL compilation of modern day anti-semitism happening around the world.)
* [http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism]
* [http://www.antisemitism.org.il/ Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism] (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
* [http://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism and responses]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/ The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism] hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report)
* [http://www.shma.com/nov02/pierre.htm Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism]
* [http://www.masada2000.org/Who-Us.html An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut]
* [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis of Anti-Semitism by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]]''
* [http://www.coe.int/t/E/human_rights/ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
* [http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/ State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy]
* [http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews_today.html Jews in Poland today]
* [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism]
* [http://memri.org/ The Middle East Media Research Institute] - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism] at [http://www.zionism-israel.com] Zionism and Israel Information Center.
* [http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism] A mini study with extensive links and resources.
* [http://www.pinteleyid.com If Not Together, How?]: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
*[http://www.vintagepostcards.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Category_Code=ethnjua Vintage Postcards with an Anti-Jewish theme]
 
==External links==
* [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Special Focus: Antisemitism]
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/HistoryJewishPersecution.htm 2,000 Year Timeline of Jewish Persecution]
* [http://www.languedoc-france.info/articles/a_jews.htm Anti-Semitism in the Christian tradition]
* [http://www.washtimes.com/op-ed/20060813-104614-1505r.htm Anti-Semitism for dummies] Op-ed piece by a Jewish columnist, arguing that hating Jews hurts the haters: they lose the benefits that come via cooperation
* [http://www.endtimepilgrim.org/antisemchurch.htm Antisemitism in Church History]
 
[[Category:Anti-Semitism|*]]
[[Category:Jews|Anti-Semitism]]
 
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