List of liberal theorists and Diavik Airport: Difference between pages

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This is an [[partial list|(partial) overview]] of individuals that contributed to the development of liberal theory on a worldwide scale and therefore are strongly associated with the liberal tradition and instrumental in the exposition of political [[liberalism]] as a [[philosophy]]. The contributors are listed in approximately chronological order, beginning from the roots of [[realism]], [[rationalism]] and [[humanism]] in the [[Renaissance]], all movements which were influential in the creation of what is thought of as liberal political theory. These include [[Desiderius Erasmus]], [[Hugo Grotius]] and [[Baruch Spinoza]] through the [[Age of Reason]]'s [[England|English]] philosopher [[John Locke]] and the [[France|Frenchman]] [[Voltaire]] and other philosophers of [[The Enlightenment]]. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late [[18th century]] as a movement towards self-government and away from [[aristocracy]]. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual and the nation, as opposed to the family and the state, as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy.

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| owner-oper = [[Diavik Diamond Mine]]s

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| coordinates = {{Coord|64|30|41|N|110|17|22|W|type:airport}}

| website = [http://www.diavik.ca/index.htm www.diavik.ca/]

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'''Diavik Airport''' {{Airport codes|||CDK2}}, is a private aerodrome in the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]] that serves the [[Diavik Diamond Mine]]. It's situated in a busy area due to the closeness of [[Ekati Airport]]. Prior permission is required to land except in the case of an emergency.

Since then liberalism has broaded to include a wide range of approaches from [[United States| Americans]] [[Ronald Dworkin]], [[Richard Rorty]] and [[Francis Fukuyama]] as well as the [[India]]n [[Amartya Sen]], the [[Peru]]vian [[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando do Soto]] and the Belgian [[Dirk Verhofstadt]]. Some of these people moved away from [[liberalism]], while others espoused other [[ideology|ideologies]] before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitute liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorist whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed at that country section of [[liberalism worldwide]]. Generally only ''thinkers'' are listed, politicians are only listed when they beside their active political work also made substantial contributions to liberal theory.

==External link==

:''It is the intention to add one or two lines of information on the theorists explaining why they are on the list with reference to the works important in this matter. More comprehensive articles can be found by clicking on the thinkers name.''

*[http://www.copanational.org/PlacesToFly/airport_view.php?pr_id=8&ap_id=1039 Page about this airport] on [[Canadian Owners and Pilots Association|COPA's]] ''Places to Fly'' airport directory

==References==

The list is divided in three sections:

*{{CFS}}

* [[#"Humanism"|Proto-liberal contributors]]

* [[#From Locke to Mill|From Locke to Mill]]

* [[#Mill and further, the development of (international) liberalism|Mill and further, the development of (international) liberalism=]]

{{Canadian Airports}}

[[Category:Airports in the Northwest Territories]]

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The following people are included:

="Humanism"=

==Niccolò Machiavelli==

[[image:Machiavelli.jpg|thumb|100px|Niccolò Machiavelli]]

'''[[Niccolò Machiavelli]]''' (Florence, 1469-1527), best known for his ''Il Principe'' was the founder of realist political philosophy, advocated republican government, citizen armies, division of power, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative - ''virtu'' - as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that "good people" would make good laws, where as people who had lost their virtu could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored "Republics" over "Principalties".

[[lmo:Diavik Airport]]

Anti-statis liberals see Machiavelli's distrust what they see as his main message:: that he spoke for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of individual freedom and voluntary choices.

[[pms:Diavik Airport]]

However, often people associate Machiavelli as a proponent of the anti-liberal idea that "the end justifies the means".

*Contributing literature:

** ''Il Principe'', 1513 ([[The Prince]], [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext98/tprnc11.txt])

** ''[[Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio]]'', 1512-1517 (Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius)

==Desiderius Erasmus==

'''[[Erasmus|Desiderius Erasmus]]''' (Netherlands, 1466-1536) was an advocate of the doctrine now known as [[humanism]], critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the [[Reformation]].

He dealt with the freedom of the will, a crucial point. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he analyzes with great cleverness and good humour the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom.

*Contributing literature

**''Lof der Zotheid'', 1509 ([[The Praise of Folly]], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1509erasmus-folly.html])

**''De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio'', 1524

==Hugo Grotius==

'''[[Hugo Grotius]]''' or '''Hugo de Groot''' (Netherlands, 1583-1645), laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law, in his book ''Mare Liberum'' (Free Seas) formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade, and in ''De jure belli ac pacis libri tres'' (Of laws of war and peace) presented a theory of just war and argued that all nations are bound by the principles of natural law.

==Thomas Hobbes==

'''[[Thomas Hobbes]]''' (England, 1588-1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by "interest", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work ''Leviathan'', did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable "right of nature," the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though it is problematic to classify Hobbes himself as a liberal, his work influenced Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other later liberals.

==Baruch Spinoza==

'''[[Baruch Spinoza]]''' (Netherlands, 1632-1677) is in his ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' and ''Tractatus Politicus'' a proto-liberal defending the value of [[separation of church and state]] as well as forms of [[democracy]]. In the first mentioned book, Spinoza expresses an early criticism of religious intolerance and a defense of [[secular]] [[government]]. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing [[determinist]] who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of [[necessity]]. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way.

*Contributing literature:

** ''[[Tractatus Theologico-Politicus]]'', 1670 (Theologico-Political Treatise, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/989])

**''Tractatus Politcus'', 1677 (Political Treatise)

=From Locke to Mill=

==John Locke==

[[Image:John Locke.jpg|thumb|100px|John Locke]]

The notions of '''[[John Locke]]''' (United Kingdom, 1632-1704) of a "[[government]] with the consent of the governed" and man's [[natural rights]]—[[life]], [[liberty]], and [[Estate (law)|estate]] ([[property]]) as well on [[tolerance]], as laid down in ''A letter concerning toleration'' and ''Two treatises of government'' —had an enormous influence on the development of [[liberalism]]. Developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility.

One could argue that [[liberalism|liberal theory]] starts with Locke, influenced by the proto-liberal contributions listed above.

*Some literature:

** ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]'', 1689 [http://www.constitution.org/jl/tolerati.htm]

** ''[[The Second Treatise of Civil Government]]'', 1689 [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7370]

==John Trenchard==

'''[[John Trenchard (writer)|John Trenchard]]''' (United Kingdom, 1662-1723) was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of ''Cato's Letters''. These newspaper essays condemned [[tyranny]] and advanced principles of [[freedom of conscience]] and [[freedom of speech]] and were a main vehicle for spreading the [[concept]]s that had been developed by [[John Locke]].

*Some literature:

** ''[[Cato's Letters]]'' / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720-1723

==Charles de Montesquieu==

[[image:Charles Montesquieu.jpg|thumb|100px|Montesquieu]]

'''[[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Charles de Montesquieu]]''' (France, 1689-1755)

*Some literature:

**''De l'esprit des lois'',1748 (''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'') [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol.htm])

**''[[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]'' (together with others), 1751-1772 {Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades [http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/did/])

==Thomas Gordon==

'''[[Thomas Gordon]]''' (United Kingdom, 169?-1750) was co-author, with John Trenchard of ''Cato's Letters''. These newspaper essays condemned [[tyranny]] and advanced principles of [[freedom of conscience]] and [[freedom of speech]] and were a main vehicle for spreading the [[concept]]s that had been developed by [[John Locke]].

*Some literature:

** ''[[Cato's Letters]]'' / John Trenchard & Thomas Gordon, 1720-1723

==François Quesnay==

'''[[François Quesnay]]''' (France, 1694-1774)

*Some literature:

**''Tableau économique'', 1758

**''[[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]'' (together with others), 1751-1772 {Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades [http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/did/])

==Voltaire==

'''[[Voltaire]]''' (France, 1694-1778)

*Some literature:

**''Lettres Philosophiques sur les Anglais'', 1734 (Philosophical Letters on the English)

**''[[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]'' (together with others), 1751-1772 {Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades [http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/did/])

**''Essai sur l'histoire génerale et sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations'', 1756 (Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History)

**''Traité sur la Tolérance à l'occasion de la mort de Jean Calas'', 1763 (Treatise on Toleration In Connection with the Death of Jean Calas)

**''Dictionnaire Philosophique'', 1764 (Philosophical Dictionary)

==Benjamin Franklin==

'''[[Benjamin Franklin]]''' (United States, 1706-1790) was an inventor, scientist, writer, entrepreneur, diplomat and statesman was an advocate for free trade and the end of mercantilism, industrialization, abolition of slavery, free public libraries, democratic government and national unity. His ''Autobiography'' is also a seminal work on the life of a free individual who is self-governing in his pursuit of accomplishment, without need for an over-arching state, allegiance or religion to force adherence to basic moral and ethical principles.

*Some literature:

**''[[Progress of true science|"Progress of true science,"]] a letter to [[Joseph Priestley]]'', 1780, perhaps Franklin's most radical (but brief) work, emphasizing radical ''ideas'' that are centuries ahead of his time related to [[Natural science|natural]] [[Scientific method|scientific inquiry]], [[morality]] and [[Humanism|humanity]].

==David Hume==

'''[[David Hume]]''' (United Kingdom, 1711-1776)

*Some literature:

**''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'', 1751

==Jean-Jacques Rousseau==

'''[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]''' (France, 1712-1778) promulgated the idea that men were naturally free, but had to be educated to live in society, but that this did not represent an argument for [[Political absolutism|absolutism]], but instead for a natural liberty and a "national will" which could be directed to improvement of the society. He is famous for the quote "men are born free, but are everywhere in chains", and urging that Europeans throw off the restrictions that they lived under, and substitute, instead, a self-governing moral basis.

However, Rousseau's notion of freedom was essentially collectivist (see [[general will]]), and not at all at odds with the basic classical liberal position of [[individual rights]].

*Some literature:

**''[[Social Contract|Du Contrat Social]]'', 1762 (The Social Contract [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/socon.htm])

==Denis Diderot==

'''[[Denis Diderot]]''' (France, 1713-1784)

*Some literature:

**''[[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]'' (together with others), 1751-1772 {Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades [http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/did/])

==Jean le Rond d'Alembert==

'''[[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]]''' (France, 1717-1783)

*Some literature:

**''[[Encyclopédie|Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]'' (together with others), 1751-1772 {Encyclopaedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades [http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/did/])

==Samuel Adams==

'''[[Samuel Adams]]''' (United States, 1722-1803)

==Richard Price==

'''[[Richard Price]]''' (United Kingdom, 1723-1791)

*Some literature:

**''Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt'', 1771

**''Observations on Reversionary Payments'', 1771

**''Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America'', 1776

==Anders Chydenius==

[[Image:Anders Chydenius.jpg|100px|thumb|Anders Chydenius]]

'''[[Anders Chydenius]]''' (Finland, 1729-1803)

His book ''Den Nationale Winsten'' proposed roughly same the ideas as [[Adam Smith]]'s ''Wealth of Nations'', a decade earlier, including foundations of [[liberalism]] and [[capitalism]] and (roughly) the ''[[invisible hand]]''. He demanded complete economic and individual freedom, including the freedom of religion (although he was a priest), worker's rights to freely move and choose their professions and employers, the freedom of speech and trade and abolitions of all privileges and price and wage controls.

He was also a succesfull politian, his achievements include the freedom of the press in [[Sweden]].

*Some literature:

**''Americanska Näfwerbåtar'', 1753 (''American birchbark canoes'')

**''Källan Til Rikets Wan-Magt'', 1765 (''The cause of the weakness of the Kingdom'')

**''Den Nationnale Winsten'', 1765 (''[[The National Gain]]'') [http://www.chydenius.net/historia/teokset/e_kansallinen_johdanto.asp])

==Adam Smith==

[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|100px|thumb|Adam Smith]]

'''[[Adam Smith]]''' (United Kingdom, 1723-1790)

*Some literature:

**''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'', 1776 [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/wealthofnations/toc.htm]

**''The Theory of Moral Sentiments'', 1759

==William Blackstone==

'''[[Sir William Blackstone]]''' (United Kingdom 1723-1780)

*Some literature:

**''Commentaries on the Laws of England''

==Immanuel Kant==

[[Image:kant.jpg|100px|thumb|Immanuel Kant]]

'''[[Immanuel Kant]]''' (Germany, 1724-1804)

*Some literature:

** ''[[Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals|Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten]]'', 1785 (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals[http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/metaphys-of-morals.txt])

** ''[[Critique of Practical Reason|Kritik der praktischen Vernunft]]'', 1788 (Critique of Practical Reason [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt])

** ''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'', 1793 (On the common saying: this may be true in theory but it does not apply in practice)

** ''Zum ewigen Frieden'', 1795 (Perpetual Peace[http://www.sgipt.org/politpsy/vorbild/kant_zef.htm])

** ''Metaphysik der Sitten'', 1797 (Metaphysics of Morals [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/intro-to-metaphys-of-morals.txt])

==Anne Robert Jacques Turgot==

'''[[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Anne Robert Jacques Turgot]]''' (France, 1727-1781)

*Some literature:

** ''Le Conciliateur'', 1754

** ''Lettre sur la tolérance civile'', 1754

** ''Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses'', 1766

** '' Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains'', 1770

==Edmund Burke==

'''[[Edmund Burke]]''' (United Kingdom 1729-1797, politician) contributed to liberal theory by emphasizing the importance of rationality in politics, self-interest as the basis for government and moderation against extremes. Also considered important by [[Conservatism]] for his belief in the respect for tradition.

*Some literature:

** [http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv1c1.html ''Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents''] 1770

** [http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv1c1.html ''On American Taxation''] 1774

** [http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv1c1.html ''On Conciliation with the Colonies''] 1775

** [http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv1c1.html ''Speech to the Electors of Bristol''] 1774

** [http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Burke/brkSWv2c1.html ''Reflections on the Revolution in France''] 1790

==Joseph Priestley==

'''[[Joseph Priestley]]''' (United Kingdom/United States, 1733-1804)

*Some literature:

** ''Essay on the First Principles of Government'', 1768

** ''The Present State of Liberty in Great Britain and her Colonies'', 1769

** ''Remarks on Dr Blackstone's Commentaries'', 1769

** ''Observations on Civil Liberty and the Nature and Justice of the War with America'', 1772

==August Ludwig von Schlözer==

'''[[August Ludwig von Schlözer]]''' (Germany, 1735-1809)

==Patrick Henry==

'''[[Patrick Henry]]''' (United States, 1736-1799)

*Some literature:

** ''Liberty or Death'', 1775 [http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/henry.html]

==Thomas Paine==

[[Image:ThomasPaine_2.jpg|thumb|100px|Thomas Paine]]

'''[[Thomas Paine]]''' (United Kingdom/United States, 1737-1809)

*Some literature:

** ''[[Rights of Man]]'', 1791 [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3742]

==Thomas Jefferson==

'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]''' (United States, 1743-1826) was the third [[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]] and author of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. He also wrote [[Notes on the State of Virginia]]. Most of his ideas were not original, but he was an important champion of inalienable individual rights, including the freedom of religion and the abolition of slavery (in which he did not succeed). His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) [[French Revolution]].

==Marquis de Condorcet==

'''[[Marquis de Condorcet]]''' (France, 1743-1794)

*Some literature:

**''Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrés de l'esprit humain'', 1795 (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind)

==Jeremy Bentham==

'''[[Jeremy Bentham]]''' (United Kingdom, 1748-1832)

Classical liberal, an early advocate of [[utilitarianism]], [[animal welfare]] and women's rights. He had many students all around the world, including [[John Stuart Mill]] and several political leaders. His followers were called [[filosophical radicals]]. Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment, also on children, the right for divorce, free prices, free trade and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a [[libertarian]]: he supported inheritance tax, restrictions on monopol power, pensions, health insurance and other social security, but called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention.

==Emmanuel Sieyès==

'''[[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès]]''' (France, 1748-1836)

==James Madison==

'''[[James Madison]]''' (United States, 1751-1836) was co-Author, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay of ''The Federalist Papers'', and one of the architects of both the American Constitution of 1787, as well as the Bill of Rights (1789). Later President of the United States (1809-1817).

*Some literature:

** ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' / Alexander Hamilton, John Jay & James Madison, 1787 [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed.htm]

==Alexander Hamilton==

'''[[Alexander Hamilton]]''' (United States, 1755-1804)

*Some literature:

** ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' / Alexander Hamilton, John Jay & James Madison, 1787 [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed.htm]

==Anne Louise Germaine de Staël==

'''[[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël]]''' (France, 1766-1817)

*Some literature:

** ''De l’influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations'', 1796

** ''Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la république en France'', 1798

** ''Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française'', 1813

** ''Appel aux souverains réunis à Paris pour en obtenir l’abolition de la traite des nègres'', 1814

==Benjamin Constant==

'''[[Benjamin Constant]]''' (France, 1767-1830)

*Some literature:

** ''De l'esprit de conquête et l'usurpation'' (On the spirit of conquest and on usurpation), 1814

** "The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns," 1816 http://tinyurl.com/avqep

==Jean-Baptiste Say==

'''[[Jean-Baptiste Say]]''' (France, 1767-1832)

*Some literature:

** ''Traité d'économie politique'' (Treatise on Political Economy), 1803

==Wilhelm von Humboldt==

[[Image:WilhelmvonHumboldt.jpg|thumb|100px|Wilhelm von Humboldt]]

'''[[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]''' (Germany, 1767-1835)

*Some literature:

** ''Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen'' (On the Limits of State Action), 1792

==David Ricardo==

'''[[David Ricardo]]''' (United Kingdom, 1772-1823)

==James Mill==

'''[[James Mill]]''' (United Kingdom, 1773-1836)

*Some literature:

**''Elements of Political Economy'', 1821

==Friedrich List==

'''[[Friedrich List]]''' (Germany, 1789-1846)

*Some literature:

**'' Das Nationale System der Politischen Okonomie'', 1841

==Johan Rudolf Thorbecke==

The Dutch statesman '''[[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]]''' (Netherlands, 1798-1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more or less democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy. His main theoretical work was ''Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap'' (1844). He became prime minister in 1848, thus starting numerous reforms in Dutch politics.

==Frédéric Bastiat==

'''[[Frederic Bastiat|Frédéric Bastiat]]''' (France, 1801-1850)

*Some literature:

**''La Loi'' (The Law), 1850

**''Harmonies économiques'' (Economic Harmonies), 1850

**''Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas'' (What is Seen and What is Not Seen), 1850

==Harriet Martineau==

'''[[Harriet Martineau]]''' (United Kingdom, 1802-1876)

*Some literature:

**''Illustrations of Political Economy'', 1832-1834

**''Theory and Practice of Society in America'', 1837

**''The Martyr Age of the United States'', 1839

==Ralph Waldo Emerson==

'''[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]''' (United States, 1803-1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only in so far as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics.

*Some literature:

** ''Self-Reliance''

** ''Circles''

** ''Politics''

** ''The Nominalist and the Realist''

==Alexis de Tocqueville==

'''[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]''' (France, 1805-1859)

*Some literature:

**''[[Democracy in America|De La Démocratie en Amérique]]'', 1831-1840 (Democracy in America, [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DETOC/home.html])

**''L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution'', 1856

==William Lloyd Garrison==

'''[[William Lloyd Garrison]]''' (United States, 1805-1879)

*Some literature:

**Articles advocating abolition of slavery in the newspaper''[[The Liberator]]'', 1831-1866

=Mill and further, the development of (international) liberalism=

:''See for the somehwat different development of a American liberalism after World War II the section on [[#Theorist influential to American liberalism in modern times|American liberal theory]]. American liberal theorists who also had influence on liberalism outside the United States are included in this section.''

==John Stuart Mill==

[[Image:JohnStuartMill.JPG|thumb|100px|John Stuart Mill]]

'''[[John Stuart Mill]]''' (United Kingdom, 1806-1873) is one of the first champions of modern "liberalism" as such, his work on [[political economy]] and [[logic]] helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's [[utilitarianism]], he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the "highest normative principle" of morals as:

''Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.''

*Some literature:

**''On Representative Government'', 1862

**''[[On Liberty]]'', 1868 [http://www.bartleby.com/130/]

==Abraham Lincoln==

'''[[Abraham Lincoln]]''' (United States, 1809-1865) is best known as the President of the United States from 1861-1865. He argued for the theory of political equality and the supremacy of natural law over present political arrangements. Most famous for his debates with Stephen Douglas, Second Inaugural Address and Gettysburg Address, as well as the Emancipation Proclamation - which converted the American Civil War into a struggle to end slavery.

==Juan Bautista Alberdi==

'''[[Juan Bautista Alberdi]]''' (Argentina, 1810-1884)

*Some literature:

**''Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina'' (Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), 1852

**''Sistema económico y rentistico de la Confederación Argentina, según su Constitución de 1853'', 1854

==Jakob Burkhardt==

'''[[Jakob Burkhardt]]''' (Switzerland, 1818-1897) State as derived from cultural and economic life

*Some literature:

**''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy''

==Herbert Spencer==

'''[[Herbert Spencer]]''' (United Kingdom, 1820-1903)

*Some literature:

**''Social Statics'', 1851

**''First Principles'', 1862

**''The Man versus the State'', 1884

**''Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative'', 1892

==Thomas Hill Green==

'''[[Thomas Hill Green]]''' (United Kingdom, 1836-1882)

==Carl Menger==

'''[[Carl Menger]]''' (Austria, 1840-1921)

*Some literature:

**''Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre'' (Principles of Economics), 1871

**''Untersuchungen über die Methode der Sozialwissenschaften und der Politischen Ökonomie insbesondere'' (Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences: with special reference to economics), 1883

**''Irrthumer des Historismus in der deutschen Nationalokonomie'' (The Errors of Historicism in German Economics), 1884

**''Zur Theorie des Kapitals'' (The Theory of Capital), 1888

==William Graham Sumner==

'''[[William Graham Sumner]]''' (United States, 1840-1910)

*Some literature:

**''Socialism'', 1878

**''The Argument Against Protective Tariffs'', 1881

**''Protective Taxes and Wages'', 1883

**''The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over'', 1883

**''State Interference'', 1887

**''Protectionism: the -ism which teaches that waste makes wealth'', 1887

**''The Forgotten Man, and Other Essays'', 1917

==Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.==

'''[[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]]''' (United States, 1841-1935) was a jurist and writer. He wrote the influential book on legal theory ''The Common Law'', which traced the creation of individual rights from familial rights common under Roman and Feudal law, and presented the "objective" theory of judicial interpretation. Specifically that the standard for intent and culpability should be that of the "reasonable man", and that individuals can be said to objectively intend the reasonable consequences of their actions.

==Lujo Brentano==

[[Image:Lujo Brentano.png|thumb|100px|Lujo Brentano]]

'''[[Ludwig Joseph Brentano]]''' (Germany, 1844-1931)

==Tomás Masaryk==

'''[[Tomás Masaryk|Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk]]''' (Czechoslovakia, 1850-1937)

==Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk==

'''[[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]''' (Austria, 1851-1914)

*Some literature:

**''Kapital und Kapitalzins'' (Capital and Interest), in three volumes, 1884, 1889 and 1909

**''Die Positive Theorie des Kapitals'' (The positive theory of capital and its critics), in three volumes, 1895 and 1896

**''Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems'' (Karl Marx and the Close of his system),1898

==Louis Brandeis==

'''[[Louis Brandeis]]''' (1856-1941)

==Thorstein Veblen==

'''[[Thorstein Veblen]]''' (1857-1926) is best known as the author of ''Theory of the Leisure Class''. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and "cut throat competition". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled conspicuous consumption.

==John Dewey==

'''[[John Dewey]]''' (United States, 1859-1952)

*Some literature:

**''Liberalism and Social Action'', 1935

**''Democracy and Education'' [http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/etext97/dmedu10.txt]

==Friedrich Naumann==

'''[[Friedrich Naumann]]''' (Germany, 1860-1919)

==Max Weber==

'''[[Max Weber]]''' (Germany, 1864-1920) was a theorist of state power, the relationship of culture to economics and founder of what is now called "sociology". Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in "protestant" values. Weber was along with [[Friedrich Naumann]] active in the [[National Social Union]] and later in the [[German Democratic Party]].

*Some literature:

**''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus]]'',1904 (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism [http://www.ne.jp/asahi/moriyuki/abukuma/weber/world/ethic/pro_eth_frame.html])

==Leonard Hobhouse==

'''[[Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse]]''' (United Kingdom, 1864-1929)

*Some literature:

** ''Liberalism'', 1911 [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1911hobhouse.html]

==Benedetto Croce==

'''[[Benedetto Croce]]''' (Italy, 1866-1952)

*Some literature:

**''Che cosa è il liberalismo'', 1943

==Walther Rathenau==

'''[[Walther Rathenau]]''' (Germany, 1867-1922)

==William Beveridge==

'''[[William Beveridge]]''' (United Kingdom, 1879-1973)

*Some literature:

**''Full Employment in a Free Society'', 1944

**''Why I am a liberal'', 1945

==Ludwig von Mises==

'''[[Ludwig von Mises]]''' (Austria/United States, 1881-1973)

*Some literature:

**''Socialism'', 1922

**''Liberalism'', 1927

**''Human Action'', 1949

==John Maynard Keynes==

The economist '''[[John Maynard Keynes]]''' (United Kingdom, 1883-1946) is best known for his work on monetary theory and [[macroeconomics]], which was an attempt to restructure private sector capitalist economies in the wake of the lessons of [[World War I]] and [[The Great Depression]]. He proposed policies which included short term intervention in the market, statistical econometrics as an important instrument of social policy, and an active use of government power. He was sharply critical of using economics for purely nationalist goals, or economic punishment as a means of attaining political ends, as well as the architect of the [[Bretton-Woods]] system. Keynes was an active member of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|British Liberal Party]].

*Some literature:

**''[[The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money]]'', 1936 [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/keynes/general-theory/]

** ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''

==José Ortega y Gasset==

'''[[José Ortega y Gasset]]''' (Spain, 1883-1955)

*Some literature:

**''La rebelión de las masas'' (The Rebellion of the Masses), 1930

==Salvador de Madariaga==

'''[[Salvador de Madariaga]]''' (Spain, 1886-1978)

==Upton Sinclair==

While '''[[Upton Sinclair]]''' (United States, 1878-1968) himself was a socialist, his novels and writings attacking the excesses of corporations and industrialization, particularly ''The Jungle'' would have a tremendous influence towards persuading the public and political classes that regulation of products and labor standards was essential.

==Will Durant==

'''[[Will Durant]]''' 1885-1981 with [[Ariel Durant]] 1898-1981

*Some literature:

**''[[The Story of Philosophy]]'', 1926

**''[[The Story of Civilization]]'' published in eleven volumes from 1935-1975

==Adolf Berle==

'''[[Adolf Berle]]''' (United States, 1895-1971) was author of ''The Modern Corporation and Private Property'', detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy.

*Some literature with [[Gardiner Means]]:

**''The Modern Corporation and Private Property''

==Wilhelm Röpke==

'''[[Wilhelm Röpke]]''' (Germany, 1899-1966)

*Some literature:

**''International Economic Disintegration'', 1942

**''The Social Crisis of Our Time'', 1942

**''Civitas Humana'', 1944

**''International Order and Economic Integration'', 1945

**''The Solution of the German Problem'', 1946

==Bertil Ohlin==

'''[[Bertil Ohlin]]''' (Sweden, 1899-1979)

*Some literature:

**''Interregional and International Trade'', 1933

==Friedrich Hayek==

[[Image:FvonHayek.jpg|thumb|100px|Friedrich von Hayek]]

'''[[Friedrich Hayek]]''' (Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899-1992)

*Some literature:

**''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', 1944 [http://www.mises.org/TRTS.htm]

**''The Constitution of Liberty'', 1960

**''Law, Legislation and Liberty'', in three volumes, 1973, 1976 and 1979

==Karl Popper==

'''[[Karl Popper|Karl Raimund Popper]]''' (Austria/United Kingdom, 1902-1994)

*Some literature:

**''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'', 1945

**''The Poverty of Historicism'', 1961

==Alan Paton==

'''[[Alan Paton]]''' (South Africa, 1903-1988) contributed with his book ''Cry, The beloved country'' to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the [[South African Liberal Party]] was banned by the [[apartheid]] government.

*Some literature:

**''Cry, The Beloved Country'', 1948

==John Hicks==

'''[[John Hicks]]''' (United Kingdom, 1904-1989) is known for his work in [[macro-economics]] and [[social choice theory]]. His macro-economic work produced the [[ISLM]] model of macro-economics, which would be the basis for much theory since then, including the work of [[Paul Krugman]] and [[Robert Mundell]]. In the area of social choice he argued for the necessity of placing freedom of choice in balance against social welfare to produce the best practical outcomes.

==Raymond Aron==

'''[[Raymond Aron]]''' (France, 1905-1983)

*Some literature:

**''Essais sur les libertés'', 1965

**''Démocratie et totalitarisme'', 1965

==Simone de Beauvoir==

'''[[Simone de Beauvoir]]''' (France 1908-1986) argued in her book [[The Second Sex]] that women were treated as legal and social inferiors, and that this was morally untenable. She was influential in the [[Women's Liberation]] movement.

*Some literature:

** ''[[The Second Sex]]''

==John Kenneth Galbraith==

'''[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]''' (Canadian who worked in the United States, 1908- )

*Some literature:

**''The Affluent Society'', 1958

**''The Liberal Hour'', 1960

==Isaiah Berlin==

[[Image:IsaiahBerlin.jpg|thumb|100px|Isaiah Berlin]]

'''[[Isaiah Berlin]]''' (Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909-1997)

*Some literature:

**''Two Concepts of Liberty'', 1958

**''Four Essays on Liberty'', 1969

**''From Hope and Fear Set Free'', 1978

==Milton Friedman==

'''[[Milton Friedman]]''' (United States, 1912- )

*Some literature:

**''Capitalism and Freedom'', 1962

**''[[Free to Choose]]'', 1980

**''Tyranny of the Status quo'', 1984

**''Economic Freedom, Human Freedom, Political Freedom'', 1992

==Arthur Schlesinger Jr.==

'''[[Arthur Schlesinger Jr.]]''' (United States, 1917- ) is an historian and philosopher of history, who chronicled the presidency of [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] and theorized on the importance of [[progressive politics | progressive moments]] in advancing liberalism.

*Some literature:

**''The Age of Roosevelt''

**''The Cycles in American History''

==James Buchanan==

'''[[James M. Buchanan|James Buchanan]]''' (United States, 1919- )

*Some literature:

**''The Calculus of Consent'' / James Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, 1962

**''The Limits of Liberty'', 1975

**''Democracy in Deficit'' / James Buchanan & Richard E. Wagner, 1977

**''The Power to Tax'' / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1980

**''The Reason of Rules'' / James Buchanan & Geoffrey Brennan, 1985

==John Rawls==

'''[[John Rawls]]''' (United States, 1921-2002)

*Some literature:

**''[[A Theory of Justice]]'', 1972

**''Political Liberalism'', 1996

**''The Law of Nations''

==Murray Newton Rothbard==

'''[[Murray Rothbard]]''' (United States, 1926-1995) was one of the foremost advocators of [[liberty]] and freedom in the late 20th Century. He has been associated with many different movements throughout his life, notably with [[Ayn Rand]] and, later, the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] of United States. For the most part, Rothbard preached [[Austrian Economics]], arguing against government involvement in both the economy and in personal life. His influence is felt strongly today in the libertarian and [[anarcho-capitalist]] movements, as well right wing organisations in general.

==Gore Vidal==

'''[[Gore Vidal]]''' (United States, 1925- )

==Noam Chomsky==

The work of '''[[Noam Chomsky]]''' (United States, 1928 - ) work on "Universal Grammar" was seen as the first significant challenge to the ''behaviorist'' school of thought in psychology, which argued that all behaviors were merely the result of punishment and reward. Chomsky argued that the mind is cognitive, and therefore contains mental states and awareness, linking him to the liberal tradition of the dignity and uniqueness of the individual above and beyond environmental influences. In addition to his theories on linguistics, he has also become well known for his books and lectures that are critical of American foreign policies, such as financial support to [[Israel]]. In the political sense, he is not a liberal, but styles himself an [[anarchist]].

==Ralf Dahrendorf==

'''[[Ralf Dahrendorf]]''' (Germany/United Kingdom, 1929- )

*Some literature:

** ''Die Chancen der Krise: über die Zukunft des Liberalismus'', 1983

** ''Fragmente eines neuen Liberalismus'', 1987

==Karl-Hermann Flach==

The journalist '''[[Karl-Hermann Flach]]''' (Germany, 1929-1973) was in his book ''Noch eine Chance für die Liberalen'' one of the main theorist of the new social liberal principles of the [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)]]. He places liberalism clearly as the opposite of [[conservatism]] and opened the road for a government coalition with the social democrats.

==Joseph Raz==

'''[[Joseph Raz]]''' (United Kingdom)

*Some literature:

** ''The Morality of Freedom''

==Ronald Dworkin==

'''[[Ronald Dworkin]]''' (United States, 1931- )

==Richard Rorty==

'''[[Richard Rorty]]''' (United States, 1931- )

==Amartya Sen==

'''[[Amartya Sen]]''' (India, 1933- ) is an economist whose early work was based on [[Kenneth Arrow]]'s General Possibility Theorum, and on the impossibility of both complete [[pareto optimality]] and solely procedural based rights. Won [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences]] for his work on [[famine]], [[welfare economics]] and [[social choice theory]]. Advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice.

*Some literature:

** ''Development as Freedom''

==Robert Nozick==

'''[[Robert Nozick]]''' (United States, 1938-2002)

*Some literature:

** ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'', 1974

==Hernando de Soto==

The economist '''[[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]]''' (Peru, 1941- ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being "dead capital" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called "squatter's rights", are an important innovation.

*Some literature:

** ''The Other Path'', 1986

** ''The Mystery of Capital'', 2000

==Bruce Ackerman==

'''[[Bruce Ackerman]]''' (United States)

*Some literature:

** ''We, The People''

==Joseph Stiglitz==

The economist '''[[Joseph Stiglitz]]''' was awarded a [[Nobel Prize]] for his work on market failures caused by [[imperfect information]]. While this work is rather dry to a non-economist it demonstrates how states can give great benefits to their populations with a light hand and avoid socialist policies like nationalisation. He is best known politically for his work first as an adviser to international institutions like the [[World Trade Organisation]], and then as a commentator supportive of their principles but critical of their practices. (United States, 1943- )

*Some literature

**Globalisation and its Discontents

==Martha Nussbaum==

'''[[Martha Nussbaum]]''' (United States, 1947-present) elaborates the Rawlsian [[Theory of Justice]]. For her, Rawls's Liberty Principle is only meaningful if viewed in terms of substantial freedoms, i.e. real opportunities based on personal and social circumstance. Likewise, [[inequality]] in the Difference Principle has to be clarified in terms of capabilities.

==Francis Fukuyama==

'''[[Francis Fukuyama]]''' (United States, 1952- )

Fukuyama is best known as the author of the [[controversial book]] ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', in which he argues that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on [[liberal democracy]] after the end of the [[Cold War]].

However, Fukuyama is not a liberal but a (neo)conservative, even called a bio-[[Luddite]] or [[bioconservative]].

*Some literature:

**''The End of History and the Last Man'', 1992

**''Trust'', 1995

**''The Great Disruption'', 1999

**''Our Posthuman Future'', 2002

**''State-Building'', 2004

==Dirk Verhofstadt==

In his book ''Het menselijk liberalisme'' '''[[Dirk Verhofstadt]]''' (Belgium, 1955- ) outlines a social liberal response to anti-globalism. Dirk Verhofstadt is brother of Belgian prime minister [[Guy Verhofstadt]], member of the [[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]] and of Liberales [http://www.liberales.be], an independent think tank within the liberal movement. Its members consider liberalism as a progressive movement supporting individual freedom, justice and human rights. Liberales reacts against narrow minded conservatism related to social economic, ecological and ethical issues supported by compartmentalized parties and structures.

*Some literature:

**''Het einde van het BRT-monopolie'', 1982

**''Het menselijk liberalisme. Een antwoord op het antiglobalisme'', 2002

**''Pleidooi voor individualisme'', 2004

==Will Kymlicka==

'''[[Will Kymlicka]]''' (Canada, 1962- ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority [[nationalism]] are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book ''Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights'' he argues that certain "collective rights" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles.

[[Category:liberalism]]

[[category:lists of people]]

[[cs:Seznam liberálních myslitelů]]