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'''John Seeley''' is the name of:
{{Hinduism small}}
'''Hinduism''' ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|hi|हिन्दू धर्म}}, ''' {{IAST|Hindū Dharma}}''', also known as {{lang|sa|सनातन धर्म}}, '''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}''') is a [[religion]] that originated on the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. Hinduism encompasses many religious beliefs, practices, and denominations. Most Hindus believe in a supreme cosmic spirit called [[Brahman]], who is worshipped in many forms, represented by individual deities such as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. Hinduism centers around a variety of practices that are meant to help one experience the divinity that is everywhere and realize the true nature of the Self.
*[[John E. Seeley]] (1810–1875), U.S. Representative from New York
Hinduism is the [[Major world religions|third largest religion]] in the world, with approximately 1 [[billion]] adherents (2005 figure), of whom about 890 [[million]] live in [[India]].<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html Adherents]</ref> Other countries with large Hindu populations include [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], with [[Nepal]] being the only country with Hinduism as its official religion (see article [[Hinduism by country]]).
*Sir [[John Robert Seeley]] (1834–1895), English essayist and historian
Hinduism is considered to be the oldest living religion in the world.<ref>[http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/extra/bl-intro-origin.htm An Introduction to Hinduism], "The Origin of Hinduism" on About.com</ref><ref>[http://bharatvani.org/books/civilization/partI4.htm Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations] by David Frawley (Vamadeva Shastri)</ref> Unlike most other major religions, Hinduism has no single founder<ref>Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005</ref><ref>Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994.</ref> and is based on a number of religious texts developed over many centuries that contain spiritual insights and practical guidance for religious life. Among such texts, the [[Veda]]s are the most ancient. Other scriptures include the eighteen [[Puranas]] and the epic poems [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], which is contained within the [[Mahabharata]], is a widely studied scripture that summarizes the spiritual teachings of the [[Vedas]].<ref>See Gītā Dhyānam </ref>
{{hndis|name=Seeley, John}}
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== Core concepts ==
Modern Hinduism evolved from the ancient [[Vedic]] tradition (''Vaidika parampar{{Unicode|ā}}'').
Prominent themes in Hinduism include ''[[Dharma]]'' (individual ethics, duties and obligations), ''[[Samsara|{{Unicode|Samsāra}}]]'' (rebirth), ''[[Karma]]'' (right action), and ''[[Moksha|{{Unicode|Moksha}}]]'' (salvation).
[[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] all share some traits in common with Hinduism, as all these religions originated in India, and all focus on self-improvement for the ultimate purpose of attaining personal spiritual experience.
== God & the soul==
{{POV-section}}
===God: both principle and person===
Hinduism is sometimes called a [[polytheistic]] religion, but strictly speaking, this is not accurate. Hinduism believes in One God, but asserts that the One God can appear to humans in multiple names and forms.<ref name="isbn1884852025">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>
====Brahman====
According to the monotheistic and pantheistic theologies of Hinduism, God is, in the highest sense, One: beyond form, infinite, and eternal. God is changeless and is the very source of consciousness. God is beyond time, space, and causation and yet permeates everything and every being. God is beyond gender.<ref name="baskar1">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility''</ref> When God is thought of as this infinite principle, God is called [[Brahman]]. Brahman is the Absolute reality: it is pure existence and knowledge. Brahman does not exist; it is existence itself. It is not all-knowing; it is knowledge itself.
However, when human beings try to think of the infinite God, they project the limitations of their finite minds on God. The human mind cannot think other than in human terms. Therefore, it projects human limitations, such as personality, motherhood, and fatherhood on God. According to the [[Advaita]] school of thought God does not have any such attributes.<ref name="isbn1884852025"/> However, many consider it helpful to project such attributes on God — the myriad names and forms of God one finds in Hinduism are all ways for humans to approach the divine. Therefore, the Hindu scriptures depict God not only as an abstract principle or concept, but also as a personal being, much like the God in the [[Judeo-Christian]] religions.
Despite Hinduism's belief in the abstract principle of [[Brahman]], most Hindus worship God on a day-to-day basis in one of God's less abstract personal forms, such as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]]. Some Hindus worship these personal forms of God for a practical reason: it is easier to cultivate devotion to a personal being than to an abstract principle. Other Hindus, such as those following the [[Dvaita]] traditions, consider the personal forms in themselves to be the highest form of truth and worship God as an infinite and yet personal being.
The Hindu scriptures declare that Brahman (the impersonal God) is beyond description, and can be understood only through direct spiritual experience. Nevertheless, for the benefit of others, the ancient Hindu sages who experienced Brahman attempted to describe their experiences, as recorded in the ancient Vedic texts known as the [[Upanishads]].<ref>See Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'', Vol. I (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9.</ref>
Several ''mahā-vākyas'', or great sayings, indicate what the principle of [[Brahman]] is:
*"Brahman is knowledge", (prajnānam brahma)<ref>Aitareya Upanishad 3.3</ref>
*"The Self (or the Soul) is Brahman " (ayam ātmā brahma)<ref>Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5,</ref>
*"I am Brahman" (aham brahmāsmi)<ref>Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10,</ref>
*"You are that" (tat tvam asi),<ref>Chhāndogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.</ref>
*"All this that we see in the world is Brahman" (sarvam khalv idam brahma),<ref>Chhāndogya Upanishad 3.14.1</ref> and
*"Brahman is existence, consciousness, and happiness" (sachchidānanda brahma).<ref>''Nrisimhauttaratāpini'', cited in Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A new Translation'' Vol. I.</ref><ref>In the Bhagavad Gītā, Krishna also describes the nature of Brahman. For example, he says "And I am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the constitutional position of ultimate happiness" (brahmano hi pratishthaham...) [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/14/27/en1 B-Gita (As-it-Is) 14.27] Translation by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]]</ref>
Thus, Brahman is conceived of as the very essence of existence and knowledge, which pervades the entire universe, including every living being. The goal of Hinduism is to somehow "wake up," and realize our own connection to the divine reality that may be called Brahman or God.<ref>See generally, ''Complete Works of [[Swami Vivekananda]]'' ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Because God is everywhere, he (or she, or it) is also present within us.<ref>The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' at 9.29, 15.15 and 18.61, which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.</ref>
====Ishvara====
[[Image:Brahma Halebid.jpg|thumb|right|200px|When God is thought of as Creator, he is called [[Brahmā]] (not to be confused with [[Brahman]]), and is represented visually as shown in this temple carving.]]
When God is thought of as the supreme all-powerful person (rather than as the infinite principle called [[Brahman]]), God is called ''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īśvara}}]]'' or ''[[Bhagavan|{{Unicode|Bhagavān}}]].'' ''{{Unicode|Īśvara}}'' is a word used to refer to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. [[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īśvara}}]] transcends gender, yet can be looked upon as both father and mother, and even as friend, child, or sweetheart.<ref name="isbn1884852025"/> Most Hindus, in their daily devotional practices, worship some form of this personal aspect of God, although they believe in the more abstract concept of [[Brahman]] as well. Sometimes this means worshiping God through an image or a picture. Sometimes it just means thinking of God as a personal being.
Depending on which aspect of {{Unicode|Īśvara}} one is talking about, a different name will be used—and frequently a different image or picture. For instance, when God is spoken of as the creator, God is called [[Brahma|{{Unicode|Brahmā}}]].<ref>''See generally'', C.J. Fuller, ''The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India'' (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X</ref> When spoken of as preserver of the world, God is called [[Vishnu]]. When spoken of as destroyer of the world, God is called [[Shiva]].
Many of these individual aspects of God also have other names and images. For example, [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]] are considered forms of [[Vishnu]]. All the various deities and images one finds in Hinduism are considered manifestations of the same God, called {{Unicode|Īśvara}} in the personal aspect and [[Brahman]] when referred to as an abstract concept.
In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their "ishta devatā," or chosen ideal.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 80 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference.<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 106 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehard, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> Regional and family traditions can play a large part in influencing this choice.<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 104 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehard, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> Hindus may also take guidance about this choice from their scriptures.
Although Hindus may worship deities other than their chosen ideal from time to time as well, depending on the occasion and their personal inclinations, they are not required to worship—or even know about—every form of God. Hindus generally choose one concept of God (e.g., [[Krishna]], [[Rama]], [[Shiva]], or [[Kali]]) and cultivate devotion to that chosen form, while at the same time respecting the chosen ideals of other people.<ref>Louis Renou, ''The Nature of Hinduism'' 55 (New York 1962)</ref>
====Devas & devis====
The Hindu religion speaks of many individual deities, called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]''. Goddesses are called ''[[devi|devīs]]''. The various devas and devīs are personifications of various aspects of one and the same God ([[Ishvara]]).<ref name="isbn1884852025-73-74">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hindusim'' 73-74 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> For instance, when a Hindu thinks of Ishvara as the giver of knowledge and learning, that aspect of Ishvara is personified as the deity [[Saraswati]]. In the same manner, the deity [[Lakshmi]] personifies Ishvara as the giver of wealth and prosperity.<ref name="isbn1884852025-73-74"/> This does not imply that [[Ishvara]] is the Lord of all the other deities; [[Ishvara]] is just the name used to refer to the personal God in general, when no ''particular'' deity is being referred to.
The ''devas'' (also called ''{{Unicode|devatās}}'') constitute an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. These various forms of God are depicted in innumerable paintings, statues, murals, and scriptural stories that can be found in temples, homes, businesses, and other places. In Hinduism the scriptures recommend that for the satisfaction of a particular material desire a person may worship a particular deity.<ref>''Bhagavata Purana'' 2.3.1-9. [http://www.srimadbhagavatam.com/2/3/en]</ref>
For example, shopkeepers frequently keep a statue or picture of the devi Lakshmi in their shops. The elephant-headed deva known as [[Ganesha]] is worshipped before commencing any undertaking, as he represents God's aspect as the remover of obstacles. Students and scholars may propitiate [[Saraswati]], the devi of learning, prior to an exam or lecture.
The most ancient Vedic ''devas'' included ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Agni]]'', ''[[Soma]]'', ''[[Varuna|{{Unicode|Varuna}}]]'', ''[[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]'', ''[[Savitri|{{Unicode|Savitri}}]]'', ''[[Rudra]]'', ''[[Prajapati|{{Unicode|Prajapati}}]]'', ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Vishnu}}]]'', ''[[Aryaman]]'' and the ''[[Ashvin]]s''; important ''{{Unicode|devīs}}'' were ''[[Sarasvati|{{Unicode|Sarasvatī}}]]'', ''[[Ushas|{{Unicode|Ūṣā}}]]'' and ''[[Prithvi|{{Unicode|Prithvī}}]]''. Later scriptures called the ''[[Puranas|{{Unicode|Purānas}}]]'' recount traditional stories about each individual deity.
''{{Unicode|Vishnu}}'' and ''Shiva'' are not regarded as ordinary ''devas'' but as ''{{Unicode|Mahādevas}}'' ("Great Gods" ) because of their central positions in worship and mythology.<ref>C.J. Fuller, ''The Camphor Flame'' 32 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X</ref> The ''[[Puranas|{{Unicode|Purānas}}]]'' also laud other ''devas,'' such as ''[[Ganesha|{{Unicode|Ganesha}}]]'' and ''[[Hanuman|Hanumān]],'' and ''[[avatar|{{Unicode|avatāras}}]]'' such as ''[[Rama|{{Unicode|Rāma}}]]'' and ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Krishna}}]]'' (see below). Goddesses are worshiped when God is thought of as the Universal Mother. Particular forms of the Universal Mother include ''[[Lakshmi|{{Unicode|Lakshmī}}]]'', ''[[Sarasvati|{{Unicode|Sarasvatī}}]]'' and ''[[Parvati|{{Unicode|Parvatī}}]],'' ''[[Durga|{{Unicode|Durgā}}]]'', and ''[[Kali|{{Unicode|Kālī}}]]''.
There are some Hindus who consider the various deities not as forms of the one [[Ishwara]], but as independently existing entities, and may thus be properly considered [[polytheist]]ic to some extent.
====Avataras (incarnations of God)====
[[Image:Lord_Ram.jpg|thumb|200px|Rama (center), an [[avatara]], shown with wife [[Sita]], brother [[Lakshmana]] and devotee [[Hanuman]]. Rama is shown with blue skin, symbolizing divinity]]
Many denominations of Hinduism, such as [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Smartism]], teach that from time to time God comes to Earth as a human being to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment and salvation ([[moksha]]). Such an incarnation of God is called an [[avatāra]]. In some respects, the Hindu concept of avatara is similar to the belief found in [[Christianity]] that God came to the earth in the form of [[Jesus]]. However, whereas most Christians believe that God has assumed a human body on only one occasion, Hinduism teaches that there have been ''multiple'' avatars throughout history--and that there will be more in the future. Thus [[Krishna]], an incarnation of God, says:
<blockquote>
Whenever righteousness declines
<br/>
And unrighteousness increases,
<br/>
I make myself a body;
<br/>
In every age I come back
<br/>
To deliver the holy,
<br/>
To destroy the sin of the sinner,
<br/>
To establish righteousness.<ref>Bhagavad Gita, IV 7-8</ref>
</blockquote>
The most famous of the divine incarnations are [[Rama]], whose life is depicted in the [[Ramayana]], and [[Krishna]], whose life is depicted in the [[Mahabharata]] and the Srimad Bhagavatam. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], which contains the spiritual teachings of [[Krishna]], is one of the most widely-read scriptures in Hinduism.
===Ātman===
Most Hindu thinkers agree that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the [[ātman]], is eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams1">Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 27 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> It is believed that the Spirit of God and the spirit of man have existed and will continue to exist throughout all eternity. According to schools influenced by the concept of [[Advaita]] (non-duality), the human spirit and God's Spirit are not seen as ultimately distinct. They believe that the core spirit, or "Self", of every individual person is identical with God's Spirit.<ref name="monierwilliams1"/> According to the [[Upanishads]], whoever gains insight into the depths of his own nature and becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of his own Self will also realize his identity with Brahman, the divine source of the whole universe, and will thereby reach salvation.<ref>Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2; See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).</ref><ref name="monierwilliams1"/> According to the [[Dvaita]] ("dualistic") school, on the other hand (often associated with the [[Vaishnava]] tradition), the ātman is not identical with God, although it is dependent on Him, and salvation depends on the cultivation of love for God and on God's grace.<ref>Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hindusm at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref>
===Heaven and hell===
[[Swarga|"Heaven"]] and [[Naraka|"Hell"]] may exist, but heaven is not necessarily considered the ultimate goal in Hinduism. This is because heaven and hell are believed to be temporary.<ref>Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''Brahmanism and Hinduism'' 232-33 (4th Ed., New York 1891)</ref> The only thing that is considered eternal is [[divinity]], which includes [[God]] as well as the [[ātman]] (the soul). Therefore the ultimate goal is to experience divinity.<ref>Bhagavad Gita IX.20-21</ref>
==The Vedas and later scriptures==
[[Image:Naradiyamahapuranam.jpg|thumb|200px|The ''[[Nāradeya Purana|Naradiyamahapuranam]]'' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are [[Vishnu]] the Maintainer with his consort [[Lakshmi]] resting on [[Shesha|Shesha Nag]]. The great sage [[Narada]] and [[Brahma|Brahma the Creator]] are also pictured.]]
Whereas most major religions of the world base their beliefs on certain books which adherents believe are the words of God or other supernatural beings, Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."<ref> Complete Works of [[Swami Vivekananda]] Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.</ref> The earliest records of these laws are called the [[Vedas]]. Hindus do not claim that God or any person created the Vedas; the Vedas are said to be without beginning and without end. "Just as the law of gravitation existed before its discovery and would exist if all humanity forgot it, so is it with the laws that govern the spiritual world."<ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.</ref> The Vedas have therefore been called ''apaurusheya'' ("not man-made").<ref>Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in ''Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World'' (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0</ref> The ancient sages who first discovered the spiritual knowledge known as the Vedas are called ''rishis.''<ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.</ref>
The Vedas were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many years before they were written down.<ref>Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to ''The Bhagavad Gita'' at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4</ref> The earliest hymns (''[[mantra]]s'') of the Vedas, contained in the [[Rig Veda]], date back to at least 1000 BC.<ref>Coulson, Michael, ''Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language'' (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2</ref> Over many centuries, the teachings of the Vedas were expanded upon by other sages, and other scriptures were written. Some of the most prominent of these scriptures are the [[Bhagavad Gita]], the [[Brahma Sutras]], and the epics [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]. Most Hindu scriptures were written in the [[Sanskrit]] language, which is used even today in religious and literary settings.
In contrast to the Biblical canon in mainstream [[Christianity]], the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed — Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the [[Vedas]] are eternal, they may continue to be expressed in new ways in the future.<ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> New scriptures may continue to be written to express the truths of the [[Vedas]] in ways that will be accessible to the people of different times and places.<ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' II.365-74 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Still, however, there is a special veneration for ancient scriptures since they have been validated by many sages and thinkers over the course of many years.
Many Hindus may even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since it is believed that the One Divinity can reveal itself in innumerable ways. A much-quoted [[pada]] (verse) from the [[Rigveda]] that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
:''{{IAST|ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti}}''
:Truth is one, the wise call it by many names
:—<small>[[Rig Veda 1]].164.46c</small></blockquote>
Thus, Hinduism accepts a large number of scriptures, and remains open to any new revelations. Because the same eternal spiritual truths can be viewed from innumerable perspectives, there is relatively little theological quarrel among Hindu denominations.<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' [http://www.hinduismtoday.com/in-depth_issues/RKMission.html]</ref> However, some denominations may be more inclined toward this all-inclusive attitude than others. For instance, although followers of [[Advaita]] [[Vedanta]] and [[Smartism]] often place heavy emphasis on the view that God can be worshipped in any form, many members of the [[Vaishnava]] sect believe that spiritual liberation can be attained only through submission to God in the form of [[Vishnu]].<ref>See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>
Hindus do not focus on whether the stories found in the scriptures are historically accurate; they are more concerned with the spiritual lessons found in the scriptures.<ref>''See'' Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> Hindus readily admit that their scriptures contain a mix of historical fact, myth, and spiritual truths — their main concern is the deeper spiritual meaning of the various stories and teachings. Hindu exegesis often leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.
It is believed that a sage today can realize the same truths that the ancient ''[[rishis]]'' realized. For this reason, Hindus may venerate the words of a modern saint — [[Sri Ramakrishna]], [[Sai Baba]], or Sri [[Ramana Maharshi]], for example — as much as those of the ancient teachers. Hindu sages, in contrast with [[Judeo-Christian]] and [[Muslim]] prophets, do not focus on predicting the future or warning of the judgment of God. They are more concerned with two things: (1) teaching mystical truths, and (2) providing guidance regarding how one can become morally, spiritually, and physically pure.
<blockquote>
''See also'' '''Classification of Scriptures''', ''below''
</blockquote>
==The goal of life (''jīvan-lakshya'')==
The goal of life is stated variously as the realization of one's union with God, attainment of the vision of God, attainment of perfect love of God, realization of the unity of all existence, perfect unselfishness, liberation from ignorance, attainment of perfect mental peace, or detachment from worldly desires. ''The goal is to have the direct experience of divinity, regardless of precisely how one may choose to define it''. The experience of divinity is the only thing that can give one true peace and happiness, and salvation from suffering and ignorance. According to Hindu thought, one does not necessarily have to wait until death to attain salvation — it is possible to achieve it in this very life. One who attains salvation while living is called a ''jīvan-mukta.''<ref name="isbn0700702792">Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref>
===Multiple ways to reach the goal (''yoga'')===
In whatever way a Hindu might define the goal of life—and multiple definitions are allowed—there are several methods ([[yogas]]) that have been developed over the centuries for people of different tastes and temperaments. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life include:
# [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the path of love and devotion),
# [[Karma Yoga]] (the path of right action),
# [[Rāja Yoga]] (the path of meditation) and
# [[Jñāna Yoga]] (the path of mystical understanding).<ref name="isbn1884852025"/>
Bhakti yoga is prescribed for people of emotional temperaments. Karma yoga is prescribed for people of more outwardly active temperaments. Raja yoga is recommended for meditative people. And Jnana yoga is meant for the rational person. It is typical for Hindus to combine two or more of these paths into their spiritual life to create a path that suits their personal temperaments.<ref name="isbn1884852025"/>
A few schools believe that only one or two of these paths leads to salvation. For example, some followers of the [[Dvaita]] school hold that [[Bhakti]] ("devotion") is the only path. A large number of Hindus, however, believe that although one particular path may be best for them, another path may be better for another person, and any path—if followed sincerely—can lead to God.<ref> See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 116 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>
Although to many westerners the word ''yoga'' may evoke images of stretches and stress reduction, [[yoga]] in the Hindu religion is a spiritual practice whose primary goal is self-realization.<ref>''Contemporary Hinduism'', Rinehart, Robin (Ed.) (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8 </ref>
====Bhakti Yoga====
The [[bhakti]] school emphasizes cultivation of love and devotion for God as the path to salvation. Followers of [[bhakti]] ("bhaktas") typically worship God as a divine incarnation, such as [[Rama]] or [[Krishna]], or as some other aspect of the personal God. Bhakti tends to attract those who are emotional by nature. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds through the chanting of God's name ([[japa]]), prayer, the singing of hymns ([[bhajan]]), and by treating all living creatures with compassion (''dayā''). In contrast to the followers of the [[jnana yoga]], who seek the realization that "My inner soul is none other than God," followers of [[bhakti yoga]] "wish to taste sugar, not to become sugar."<ref>See Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna</ref> Therefore, bhaktas seek to enjoy communion with God, but do not seek to merge their consciousness with God completely as the followers of jnana yoga do.
====Karma Yoga====
The followers of [[karma yoga]] seek to achieve mental equilibrium and perfect unselfishness by performing their duties in the world in a dedicated but mentally detached manner. According to Hinduism, work, which is inevitable, has one great disadvantage. Any work done with attachment to its fruits generates a kind of psychological bondage, or anxiety, in the mind of the worker.<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 132 ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Therefore, followers of karma yoga emphasize the following injunction in the [[Bhagavad Gita]]:
<blockquote>
Do your duty, always; but without attachment. That is how a man reaches the ultimate truth; by working without anxiety about results.<ref>Bhagavad Gita Ch. III, ISBN 1-56619-670-1</ref>
</blockquote>
Many followers of karma yoga try to attain mental detachment from the results of their work by mentally offering the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with [[bhakti yoga]]. However, it is possible for even an [[atheist]] to follow karma yoga by simply remaining mentally detached from the results of his or her work by means of willpower.
====Raja Yoga====
[[Image:Vivekananda.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Swami Vivekananda]], shown here practicing [[meditation]], was a Hindu ''sanyāsin'' (monk) recognized for his inspiring lectures on spiritual topics such as [[bhakti yoga]], [[karma yoga]], [[raja yoga]], and [[jnana yoga]]. He founded the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], which today conducts religious teaching and philanthropic activities worldwide.]]
The followers of [[Raja yoga]] seek to realize spiritual truths through [[meditation]]. Raja yoga, also known simply as [[yoga]], is based on the [[Yoga Sutras]] (aphorisms on yoga) of the sage [[Patanjali]].<ref name="isbn8185301751-V1-29">''Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms'' II.29, English translation & commentary (side-by-side with original Sanskrit ) in ''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' Vol. I, 29 ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Through the practice of meditation, followers of this path seek to gradually gain control over their own thoughts and actions, rather than being controlled by their impulses as most people are. They seek to attain one-pointed concentration and perfect equanimity of mind.<ref name="isbn1884852033-7">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga'' 7 (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3</ref> Ultimately, through meditation, the followers of raja yoga seek knowledge: by concentrating all the energies of the mind inward, they seek to perceive whether they have souls, "whether life is of five minutes or of eternity, and whether there is a God."<ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' Vol. I, 131 ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Thus, the highest goal of raja yoga is God-realization, or experiencing the Ultimate Truth.<ref name="isbn1884852033-7"/>
The actual act of sitting down for meditation, however, is only the tip of the iceberg in Raja yoga. The disciplines of raja yoga actually consist of eight steps, of which ''dhyāna'' (meditation) is only one.<ref>''See'' Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras''</ref> According to [[Patanjali]], the eight practices of Raja yoga are:
#Yama: Restraining harmful thoughts and impulses.
#Niyama: Cultivating good habits.
#Āsana: Learning proper posture for prolonged meditation.
#Prānāyama: Control of [[prana]], or life force, through rhythmic breathing exercises.
#Pratyāhāra: Withdrawing the senses from their objects of enjoyment.
#Dhāranā: Fixing the mind on the object of contemplation.
#Dhyāna: Uninterrupted contemplation (meditation).
#Samādhi: Total absorption of the mind in the object of contemplation.<ref name="isbn8185301751-V1-29"/><ref>''See also'' Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga'' 37 (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3 , ''citing'' Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras''</ref>
As with the other yogas, Raja yoga may be combined with [[bhakti yoga]], [[karma yoga]], or [[jnana yoga]] to create a customized path suitable for an individual aspirant. The aspects of raja yoga that deal with physical exercises (especially [[āsana]]) are known collectively as [[hatha yoga]]. Although in western countries hatha yoga is commonly practiced in isolation to improve physical health or for relaxation, the traditional Hindu view is that hatha yoga and the other practices of raja yoga are interconnected and have to be practiced simultaneously.<ref> Mani, Vettam, ''Purāṇic Encyclopedia'' 898 (Delhi 1998) ISBN 81-208-0597-6</ref>
====Jnana Yoga====
[[Jnana Yoga]] has been called the path of rational inquiry, and is prescribed for people to whom reason appeals more than faith.<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga'' (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3</ref> The followers of jnana yoga emphasize a two-step process to help one attain salvation:
(1) ''Viveka'', the practice of discriminating between things that are impermanent (i.e., worldly pleasures) and those that are permanent (i.e. God and the soul), and
(2) ''Vairāgya'', renunciation of unhealthy attachment to things that are impermanent.<ref name="isbn0700702792"/>
For [[monks]] (called ''sanyāsīs'' or ''sādhus'' ) and nuns (''sanyāsinīs''), renunciation may mean actual physical departure from worldly activities such as marriage and earning money. For the vast majority of people, however, renunciation means ''mental'' detachment from selfish desires while continuing to fulfill family and community obligations.<ref name="isbn18848520205-112">''See'' Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-0205</ref> By focusing the mind on Divinity instead of the desire for selfish gain, jnana yogis seek to maintain a healthy mental equilibrium in the face of the inevitable highs and lows of life.
It is on account of ignorance (or [[māyā]]) that humans identify themselves with their physical bodies and their egos (the sense of "I" and "mine"). These are impermanent, and thus ultimately unreal. The true "self" of every person—the only part of a person that is permanent—is the inner soul, called the [[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]. Further, the atman of each person is eternally connected to the atman of every other person, with God, and with all existence.
To take an analogy, each individual soul is like a wave on a shoreless ocean.<ref name="isbn0916356639-71">Swami Vivekananda, ''Vedanta, Voice of Freedom'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda 71 ( 1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9</ref> The ocean is the Infinite [[Brahman]]. When a person sees rightly, he comes to understand that each wave is part of the ocean. Similarly, the highest realization that the followers of jnana yoga strive to attain is that all living beings are essentially none other than the infinite, eternal Brahman.<ref name="isbn0916356639-71"/> Having this realization makes one naturally treat all people with love and compassion, since one understands that by doing good to others, one actually does good to oneself. It also removes all fear of death.
Jnana yoga is often associated with the [[Vedanta]] school of [[philosophy]], although Hindus of the Vedanta school may incorporate elements of [[bhakti yoga]] and the other [[yogas]] into their spiritual practices as well.
===Karma and reincarnation===
{{main|Karma in Hinduism}}
The doctrine of karma is related to the law of cause and effect. It states that everything that people do leaves impressions (samskāras) in their mind, which determines what kind of people they will become in the future. If they regularly perform good actions, they will develop good tendencies. If they do bad things, they will develop bad tendencies, which naturally can cause bad things to happen in their lives.<ref>Strictly speaking, no action is ''inherently'' good or bad. This concept is illustrated by [[Krishna]]'s injunction to [[Arjuna]] in the [[Bhagavad Gītā]] to fight in a battle against his own relatives, which Arjuna argued was wrong under any circumstances. Sri Krishna taught Arjuna that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the motivation with which it is performed, not on the nature of the action itself.</ref> Many Hindus see God's direct involvement in this process, while others consider the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.<ref>''E.g.'', ''Compare'' [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_3/bs_3-2-08.html] ''with'' Pratima Bowes, The Hindu Religious Tradition 54-80 (Allied Pub. 1976) ISBN 0-7100-8668</ref><ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II, at 217-225 (18th reprint 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref><ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 154-56 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1. See also [[karma]].</ref> Since Hinduism believes in [[reincarnation]], it follows that our actions in this life can determine what kind of tendencies we will be born with in subsequent lives. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. Therefore, Hinduism teaches, we should try to behave in a virtuous manner, so that we will develop good habits and tendencies both in this and the next life. Over the course of time, if one can sufficiently purify the mind and intellect, one can attain the goal of life: experience of the highest truth, which is God.<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>
The cycle of birth and death is called [[samsāra]]. According to the doctrine of reincarnation, the soul ([[atman]]) is immortal, while the body is subject to birth and death. The [[Bhagavad Gita]] states that
<blockquote>
Worn-out garments are shed by the body;
Worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller within the body. New bodies are donned
by the dweller, like garments.<ref> Bhagavad Gita II.22, ISBN 1-56619-670-1</ref>
</blockquote>
Hinduism teaches that the soul goes on repeatedly being born and dying. One is reborn on account of desire: a person ''desires'' to be born because he or she wants to enjoy worldly pleasures, which can be enjoyed only through a body.<ref>See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20</ref> Hinduism does not teach that all worldly pleasures are sinful, but it teaches that they can never bring deep, lasting happiness or peace (''ānanda''). So long as the soul mistakenly identifies itself with the ego (the sense of "I" and "mine", called ''ahamkāra'' in [[Sanskrit]]), it will have worldly desires, which will cause it to be reborn again and again.<ref>See Swami Vivekananda, ''Jnana Yoga'' 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)</ref>
After many births, every person eventually becomes dissatisfied with the limited happiness that worldly pleasures can bring. At this point, a person begins to seek higher forms of happiness, which can be attained only through spiritual experience. When, after much spiritual practice (sādhanā), a person finally realizes his or her own divine nature—ie., realizes that the true "self" is the immortal soul rather than the body or the ego—all desires for the pleasures of the world will vanish, since they will seem insipid compared to spiritual ''ānanda''. When all desire has vanished, the person will not be reborn anymore.<ref>Rinehart, Robin, ed., ''Contemporary Hinduism''19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref>
When the cycle of rebirth thus comes to an end, a person is said to have attained [[moksha]], or salvation.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' 110 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> While all schools of thought agree that moksha implies the cessation of worldly desires and freedom from the cycle of birth and death, the exact definition of salvation depends on individual beliefs. For example, followers of the [[Advaita Vedanta]] school (often associated with [[jnana yoga]]) believe that they will spend eternity absorbed in the perfect peace and happiness that comes with the realization that all existence is One, and that the immortal soul is part of that existence. Thus they will no longer identify themselves as individual persons, but will see the "Self" (ātman) as a part of the infinite ocean of Divinity (Brahman). The followers of [[dualistic]] schools, on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a [[loka]], or heaven, where they will have the blessed company of their chosen form of God (some form of [[Ishvara]]) throughout eternity. The two schools are not necessarily contradictory, however. A follower of one school may believe that both types of salvation are possible, but will simply have a personal preference to experience one or the other. Thus, it is said, the followers of Dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."<ref>Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9</ref>
===Conversion===
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of [[religious conversion]], the issue of whether Hindus [[evangelization|evangelize]] is open to interpretations.<ref name="conversion">[http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/hbh/hbh_ch-5.html "Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?"] </ref> Those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu.<ref name="conversion"/> The Supreme Court of India has taken the latter view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' [http://www.hinduismtoday.com/in-depth_issues/RKMission.html]</ref>
There is no formal conversion process, although in many denominations the ritual called ''dīkshā'' or "initiation" is seen as being the beginning of spiritual life, much like [[baptism]] in Christianity. In any case, most Hindu denominations do not actively seek to recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, so long as the religion is practiced sincerely.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> There are a number of Hindu "missionary" groups that operate missions in non-Hindu countries for purposes of providing guidance to the public that can be applied to spiritual life within any religion, whether or not one converts to Hinduism. Examples are the [[Vedanta Society]] (also known as the [[Ramakrishna Mission]]) and the [[Self-Realization Fellowship]].
==Practices==
Nearly all [[Hindu]] practices seek to accomplish a single purpose: increasing a person's awareness of the [[divinity]] that is present everywhere and in everything. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity even in the midst of everyday life. The more a devotee can think [[holy]] thoughts, the sooner he or she can purify his or her [[mind]], which is the way to [[salvation]]. According to one teacher:
<blockquote>
The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go. . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end.<ref>Swami Vivekananda, ''Vedanta: Voice of Freedom'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9</ref>
</blockquote>
===[[Pūjā]] (worship)===
Most observant Hindus engage in some type of formal worship ([[pūjā]]) both in the home and in temples. In the home, Hindus usually have a special place that is used as a shrine, and which contains a picture or statue symbolizing the individual's chosen form of God (''ishta''). The devotee enters the shrine at dawn and at dusk to make an offering to God, symbolized by placing items such as food, water, and flowers before the image, waving incense and a lighted candle, ringing a bell, and/or waving a fan. The devotee thus symbolically offers to God items that can be enjoyed by each of the five senses. Other practices in the home include [[meditation]] (dhyāna), the chanting of God's name or names ([[japa]]), and the recitation of scriptures such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]].
[[Image:Lord_Ganesha.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Ganesha]] is the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]] (pictured left). He is widely worshipped as ''[[Vignesh]]'', the remover of obstacles.]]
Before performing pūjā, the devotee bathes and wears washed clothes. Ladies do not engage in pūjā during the first four days of menstruation. . It is also customary for Hindus not to perform pūjā for a month after birth of a child (''vṛddhi sūtak'') or during the first sixteen days after the death of a family member (''mritaka-sūtak''). These periods are explained as resulting from a temporary state of ritual impurity (''ashaucha'').<ref>Michaels, Alex, ''Hindusim: Past and Present'' 137-42 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1 </ref>
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus.<ref name="isbn1884852025-157">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 157 (Viveka Press 1994)</ref> Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals. Temples are not used for weddings, funerals, or as social hubs—they are primarily used for formal worship. Often there will also be devotional singing (kīrtana) and religious discourses. Hindu temple priests (pandās) are salaried workers, hired by temple authorities to perform ritualistic worship. They are not to be confused with [[swami|swāmīs]] or ''sanyāsins'' (all-renouncing [[monk]]s, who do not work for money).<ref name="isbn1884852025-157"/>
Priests begin to perform temple worship at daybreak, and continue to perform various rituals until late in the evening. During the worship the priest makes various offerings to God, such as food, drink, flowers, and perfume. As the human mind can think only in human terms, God is worshipped in the form of a person. The priest is fully aware that God does not need any of the things that he is offering, but he offers them to God as a token of love and devotion. Often, devotees bring their own food to the temple, or purchase it from vendors outside. The priest takes the food from the devotees and offers it to God on their behalf. After the offering, the food is considered to be sanctified (prasāda), and is freely distributed by the priest—depending on the particular temple—to the devotees, wandering [[monk]]s or [[nun]]s, and the poor. Eating [[prasāda]] is considered spiritually beneficial.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 156 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>
Besides home and temple worship, observant Hindus try to perform ''every'' action as an offering to God. They try to do their duties in the world, but without seeking any personal benefit, thinking instead that they are doing the work as an offering to God. This type of worship is called [[karma yoga]], and is considered higher than ordinary formal worship. Thus, in the [[Bhagavad Gita]] God (as Sri [[Krishna]]) states,
<blockquote>
"Perform every action with your heart fixed on the Supreme Lord.
Renounce attachment to the fruits.
Be even-tempered in success and failure; for it is this evenness of temper which is meant by yoga. . .
In the calm of self-surrender, the seers renounce the fruits of their actions, and so reach enlightenment"<ref>Bhagavad Gita, Chapter II</ref>
</blockquote>
====Worship of God through images====
[[Image:Nataraja.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The dancing posture of [[Siva]], known as the [[Nataraja]], is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art on account of its multi-faceted symbolism]]
Hindus worship [[God]] through images ([[murti]]), such as statues or paintings, which are symbols of God's power and glory. Through such tangible symbols a Hindu tries to establish contact with the intangible God. Just as a photograph of a person's father is not his real father, an image symbolizing some powers or glories of God is never considered to be God Himself. It only helps the devotee to remember God. The image, which is a symbol, acts like a link between God and His worshipper.<ref> Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>
According to another view, it is not incorrect to think that God is in the image because God is everywhere. Thus the ''Padma Purana'' states that the ''{{IAST|mūrti}}'' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as the manifest form of the Divinity.<ref>''arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.''</ref>
Although most mūrtis are more or less anthropomorphic, the deity [[Shiva]] is worshipped symbolically in the form of a pillar-like stone called a ''[[lingam]]''.
A few Hindu denominations, such as the [[Arya Samaj]], do not believe in worshipping God through images.
===The guru-disciple tradition===
In many Hindu denominations, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to have a personal spiritual teacher, called a [[guru]]. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to sincerely strive to reach the goal of spiritual life.<ref name="isbn1884852025-107">See Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 107 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>Gurus may teach to each student a special [[mantra]], which is a name of God, a holy phrase, or other sacred words, which the student repeats to himself or herself daily at dawn and dusk, and as much as possible at other times. The chanting of a mantra is called [[japa]] (see below). Japa is meant to increase remembrance of God and to elevate the mind so that it will become purer and able to experience God. A [[guru]] may also give a student instructions in [[meditation]] and other practices.
Traditionally, a [[guru]] is a person with an exemplary life and high spiritual attainments. According to many systems of belief, a [[guru]] must never charge any money for the guidance that he or she gives, although a student may give voluntary gifts to the teacher as a token of appreciation (''guru-dakshinā''). A teacher who violates the sacred time-honored prohibition against charging money is said to bring disgrace on himself and his religion.<ref name="isbn1884852025-107"/>
===Japa and Mantra===
A [[mantra]] is a holy syllable, word or phrase used for recitation or [[chant|chanting]].<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> The sacred mantra [[Om]], found in the most ancient portions of the [[Vedas]], is of such importance that it has come to symbolize the Hindu religion itself, like the cross in [[Christianity]] or the crescent of [[Islam]]. The chanting of a mantra is called ''japa''. A devotee may chant aloud or silently, and will often repreat the mantra a specified number of times, counting the number of repetitions on a [[rosary]] (''japa-mālā)'' or on the fingers.
Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help a person focus the mind on holy thoughts or to express love and devotion for God. Mantras often give courage in exigent times and serve to help invoke one's inner spiritual strength.<ref name=MantraandJapa>[http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_mantra_and_japa.asp#1 "Mantra and Japa"]</ref> Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words are said to have been a two-word mantra to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hé Ram!"'.
One of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the [[Gayatri Mantra]].<ref>[[Rig Veda]] 3.62.10</ref> Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken from ancient times, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga in Hinduism|Ganga]]/[[Ganga in Hinduism|Ganges]]) while chanting the Gayatri and [[Mahamrityunjaya]] mantras.
===Pilgrimage===
[[Image:Babasteve-View_of_Varanasi_from_the_Ganges.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Varanasi]], on the banks of the sacred [[Ganges]] River, is the oldest living city in the world and is one of the most sacred places of [[pilgrimage]] for Hindus of all denominations.<ref name=OldestLivingCity>[http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?DOCID=1P1:79293885&num=4&ctrlInfo=Round20%3AMode20b%3ASR%3AResult&ao=&FreePremium=BOTH "Oldest City in the World"]</ref>]]
[[Pilgrimage]] is not mandatory in Hinduism as it is in [[Islam]]. Nevertheless, most Hindus who can afford to do so undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places (''tīrtha-sthāna''s) in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of [[Varanasi]], otherwise known as Benaras or Kashi. Other holy places include [[Kedarnath]] and [[Badrinath]] in the [[Himalayas]], the [[Jagannath]] temple at [[Puri]], [[Rishikesh]] and [[Haridwar]] in the foothills of the Himalayas, [[Allahabad]] (also known by the ancient name Prayāg, located at the confluence of multiple holy rivers), and [[Rameshwaram]] in the South. The largest single gathering of pilgrims occurs during the [[Kumbh Mela]] festival, which occurs in different cities on a rotating basis.
Hindus who can afford to do so make a pilgrimage to the town of [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] once in their life to offer sacrifices and pray for the well-being of their ancestors.
Most places are considered holy because they are associated with some event in history or mythology, or with the life of a saint or other holy person.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 121 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> For instance, the town of [[Mathura]] is holy because it was the birthplace of [[Krishna]].
===Satsang===
[[Satsang]] is the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scripture and religious topics, or chanting of hymns. In [[Sanskrit]], [[Satsang]] means circle, or, fellowship ('sangha') with truth ('sat'). People may gather under guidance of a sage, a priest, or a singer. This practice is sometimes called ''sādhu-sangha'' (the company of righteous people).<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]</ref>
===Devotional singing===
[[Image:6Singing2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Devotees from a [[Vaishnava]], [[bhakti]] tradition performing kirtan.]]
Devotional singing, called [[bhajan]] or [[kirtan]], is an important part of worship in many denominations. Devotional singing may take place in temples, in [[ashram]]s, on the banks of holy rivers, in the home, or elsewhere. Religious songs may be sung individually or congregationally. Hymns may be in the ancient [[Sanskrit]] language, or in modern languages such as [[Hindi]], [[Bengali]], or [[Tamil]]. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing frequently include the [[tanpura]], [[harmonium]], and [[tabla]].
===Snāna===
Bathing (snāna) in sacred rivers, and particularly in the [[Ganga]], is believed to spiritually purify a person.<ref name="isbn0700702792"/>
==Denominations==
{{main|Hindu denominations}}
[[Image:Pashupatinathskc.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The temple of [[Pashupatinath temple|Pashupatinath]] in [[Nepal]] is regarded as one of the most sacred places in [[Shaivism]].]]
Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all.<ref>Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> However, scholars frequently categorize contemporary Hinduism into three or four major denominations: [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], and sometimes [[Smartism]] or [[Advaita]] [[Vedanta]]. These denominations differ primarily in the particular forms of God worshipped, and in the rituals and traditions that accompany worship of that form of God.
Vaishnavism worships God in the form of ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]''; Shaivism worships God as ''[[Shiva]]''; Shaktism worships a female divinity or Goddess, ''[[Devi|{{Unicode|Devī}}]]''; while [[Smartism]] and [[Advaita]] [[Vedanta]] believe in an impersonal or [[panentheism|pantheistic]] God without focusing on any particular form of God.
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s ''[[Arya Samaj|{{Unicode|Ārya Samāj}}]]'', which condemns image worship and veneration of multiple deities, focusing instead on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices (''[[yagna|yajña]]''). Traditions such as the [[Ramakrishna]] movement incorporate elements from all the major denominations and stress that God-realization can be achieved through any denomination so long as it is followed sincerely. In [[Tantra]], the Goddess is considered the power of ''Shiva'', and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shākta denominations.
As in every religion, some people view their own denomination as superior to others. In Hinduism, however, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. The concept of [[heresy]] found in some other religions is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.
==History==
{{main|History of Hinduism}}
===Origins===
[[Image:Kailash_Tibet.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sacred [[Mount Kailash]] in [[Tibet]] is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.]]
The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith is sometimes claimed to date back as far as the late [[Neolithic]], to the [[Early Harappan]] period (ca. 5500–3300 BCE)<ref name=History>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml "Hindu History"] The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the [[Harappan civilization]] as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".</ref>.
The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are often called the "[[historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]." The oldest surviving textual document of Hinduism is the [[Rigveda]], dated to between 1700–1100 BCE, based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and philological evidence.<ref>T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. </ref>
===The Vedic period===
{{main|historical Vedic religion}}
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the [[Vedas]]. The earliest of these, the ''[[Rigveda|{{Unicode|Rigveda}}]]'', centers on worship of deities such as ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Varuna]]'' and ''[[Agni]]'', and on the ''[[Soma]]'' ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform '''fire-sacrifices''', called ''[[yagna|{{Unicode|yajña}}]]'' (यज्ञ), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no [[temple]]s, [[idol]]s or [[icon]]s. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger ''{{Unicode|yajñas}}'', as claimed by Buddhist and [[Jain]] texts. The most ancient Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to [[Zoroastrianism]], as well as to other [[Indo-European people|Indo-European]] religions.<ref>The ''[[Rigveda|{{Unicode|Ṛgvedic}}]]'' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically [[cognate]] with [[Zeus]]—the king of the gods in [[Greek mythology]], [[Jupiter (mythology)|Iovis]] (''gen. of'' Jupiter) —the king of the gods in [[Roman mythology]], and [[Ziu]] in [[Germanic paganism|Germanic mythology]][http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE117.html]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] speaking peoples' mythologies; see [[Proto-Indo-European religion]].</ref>
===The influence of Buddhism & Jainism===
The religions of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] arose in North India in the sixth century B.C.<ref name="isbn0195639219"> A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0195639219</ref> The [[Buddha]] accepted many tenets of Hinduism, but taught that to achieve salvation one did not have to accept the authority of the scriptures, the caste system, or even the existence of God.<ref> Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)</ref> Many Hindus converted to [[Buddhism]], and even many of those who did not convert were influenced by Buddhist teachings. Both Buddhism and [[Jainism]] influenced Hinduism with their emphasis on compassion for all life.
===Epic & Puranic periods ===
The epic poems [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] were written roughly 400 B.C. to A.D. 200, although they were probably transmitted orally for many years prior to this period.<ref>Robin Rinehart, ''Contemporary Hinduism'' 28 (2004) ISBN1-57607-905-8</ref> These epics contain both secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India, as well as stories about the [[avatara]]s [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]]. The later [[Puranas]] recount tales about various [[Deva (Hinduism)|Gods and Goddesses]], their interactions with humans, and their battles against [[rakshasa|demons]]. The [[Gupta]] dynasty (c. A.D. 300-500) is associated with a proliferation of ornate art and extensive literature in the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Tamil]] languages.<ref name="isbn0195639219"/>
===[[Islam]] & [[Bhakti]] (12th-17th Centuries)===
Beginning around 1173, successive waves of armies from [[Muslim]] countries invaded and, to varying degrees, consolidated control over North India.<ref name="isbn0195639219"/> During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to [[Islam]]. Some Muslim rulers destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as [[Akbar]], were more tolerant.
Hinduism during this period underwent one of the most profound changes in its history, due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhva]], and [[Chaitanya]].<ref name="isbn0195639219"/> Followers of the [[Bhakti]] movement moved away from the abstract concept of [[Brahman]] to a focus on the more accessible [[avatara]]s, especially [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]].<ref name="isbn0195639219"/> A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Absolute Principle.<ref>J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0195639219</ref>
==Society==
===The four pursuits of life===
Hinduism recognizes four legitimate pursuits in life, known as ''[[purusharthas|{{Unicode|puruṣhārthas}}]]''. The four [[purusharthas|{{Unicode|puruṣhārthas}}]] are:
# ''[[Kama (Purusharthas)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' (desire for sensual pleasure)
# ''[[artha]]'' (acquisition of worldly possessions or money)
# ''[[dharma]]'' (observance of religious duties)
# ''[[moksha|{{Unicode|mokṣha}}]]'' (liberation achieved through God-realization)<ref name="isbn0700702792"/><ref name="essenhinuism7">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 7 </ref>
Among these, dharma and moksha are seen as higher pursuits than kāma and artha because they are inherently unselfish.<ref name="essenhinuism7"/> However, even kāma and artha are considered legitimate pursuits on the path to moksha, so long as they are performed responsibly. Thus it is said that artha and kāma are to be pursued like a river which is bounded by dharma and moksha on the two sides.
===Temples===
{{main|Mandir}}
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Tirumala svtemple.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Most Hindu temples (''mandir''s) have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing East (but Hanuman Temples face South). Temples are designed to symbolically lead one from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here is the [[Tirupati]] temple, the most visited religious shrine in the world and the second richest after the [[Vatican City|Vatican]].<ref name="Tirupati">[http://www.rediff.com/money/2005/apr/27tirupati.htm "Tirupati temple"]</ref>]] -->Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some ''mandirs'' are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the ''[[agama|{{Unicode|āgama shāstras}}]]'' and many are sites of [[pilgrimage]]. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is [[Vaastu Shastra]], the science of aesthetic and auspicious design.
For many Hindus, the four '''''{{Unicode|Shankarāchāryas}}''''' (the abbots of the monasteries of [[Jyotirmath|Joshimath]], [[Govardhana matha|Puri]], [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Shringeri]] and [[Dwaraka Pītha|Dwarka]] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at [[Kanchi matha|Kanchi]] is also added) are viewed as the four highest [[Patriarch]]s of the Hinduism.
===Ashramas (stages of life)===
Traditionally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the life of a Hindu was divided into four ''[[Ashrama|{{Unicode|Āshrama}}]]s'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are
* ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' (the stage of a student)
* ''[[Grihastha|{{Unicode|Gṛihastha}}]]'' (the stage of a householder)
* ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' (retirement--literally "living out in the forest")
* ''[[Sanyasa|{{Unicode|Sanyāsa}}]]'' (life as a monk).<ref name="isbn1576079058-165-68">S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, ''in'' Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref>
The first quarter of one's life, ''Brahmacharya'' ("meditation, or study of the ''Brahman''") is spent in [[celibate]], controlled, [[sober]] and pure contemplation under a [[Guru]], building up the mind for the realization of truth.
''Grihastha'' is the [[householder]]'s stage, in which one marries and satisfies ''[[Kama (Hinduism)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' and ''[[artha]]'' within one's married and [[professional]] life (see section on ashrams). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (''Brahmins''), and monks(''sanyāsis'').
''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' is gradual detachment from the [[material world]]. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in [[contemplation]] of the Divine, and making holy [[pilgrimage]]s.
Finally, in ''{{Unicode|Sannyāsa}}'', one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).<ref name="isbn1576079058-165-68"/>
Note: the word āshrama (or āshram) is also used to refer to a building which is devoted to religious activities. Usually monks or other spiritual aspirants reside in an ashram, and spiritual seekers may visit the ashram to study the scriptures, meditate, or worship. This type of āshram may contain a monastery or convent (''math''), a temple, library, and/or other facilities for spiritual practice and religious education.
===Monasticism===
In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of [[monasticism]] (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref name="isbn18848520205-112"/> A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, [[sadhu|sādhu]]'', or ''[[swami|swāmi]]''.<ref>R.S. McGregor, ''The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary'' (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 019563846-8</ref> A nun is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They also strive to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref name="isbn18848520205-112"/> Sādhus often wear ochre-colored clothing, symbolizing renunciation.
===Varnas & the caste system===
{{main|Indian caste system}}
Hindu society was traditionally divided into four classes, called [[varnas]] within what is commonly called the [[caste system]]. What varna a person was in was based on occupation —
* the ''[[Brahmin|{{Unicode|Brāhmaṇas}}]]'' (also anglicised as Brahmins): teachers and priests;
* the ''[[Kshatriya|{{Unicode|Kṣhatriyas}}]]'': warriors, kings and administrators;
* the ''[[Vaishya|{{Unicode|Vaishyas}}]]'': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and
* the ''[[Shudra|{{Unicode|Shūdras}}]]'': servants and labourers.
Originally every caste was given equal importance. Later, vested interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes of the individual, eventually became hereditary. As a result, some castes were made superior or "higher" and others inferior or "lower."<ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' at 25 (Viveka Press 1994). For a survey of other theories regarding the origins of caste, see Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," ''in Contemporary Hinduism'', Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The caste system gradually expanded to include several sub-castes (''jati''), along with a class of outcastes ([[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s) and social discrimination against the ''{{Unicode|Shūdra}}'' and ''Dalit'' classes became a problem.
Today it is often debated whether the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion sanctioned by the scriptures or or is simply an outdated social custom.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref><ref name=castesystem>[http://www.atributetohinduism.com/Caste_System.htm Caste System] View of Scholars</ref>
Although the scriptures contain some passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the Hindu religion, and both sides in the debate are able to find scriptural support for their views.<ref>The most ancient scriptures—the ''Shruti'' texts, or [[Vedas]]—place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only rarely and in a cursory manner. Later scriptures, however, such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gītā]]'' ([http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/4/en1 4.13]) state that the four ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' divisions are created by God, and the ''[[Manusmriti|{{Unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'' categorizes the different castes.[[http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf Manu Smriti Laws of Manu]] 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the ''Gītā'' says that one's ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth.<ref> This view is supported by records of great sages who '''became''' Brahmins. For example, the sage ''[[Vishwamitra|{{Unicode|Vishvāmitra}}]]'' was a king of the ''[[Kshatriya|{{Unicode|Kṣhatriya}}]]'' caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, ''[[Valmiki|{{Unicode|Vālmiki}}]]'', once a low-caste robber, ''became'' a great sage. ''[[Veda Vyasa|{{Unicode|Veda Vyāsa}}]]'', another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. [http://www.sabhlokcity.com/metaphysics/metaphysics.pdf "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics"]. Page 21).
A hymn from the [[Rig Veda]] seems to indicate that one's caste is not necessarily determined by that of one's family:
:''"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." ''(Rig Veda 9.112.3)</ref>
Many social reformers, including [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (1869-1948), have criticized the problems caused by caste discrimination.<ref>Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," ''in Contemporary Hinduism'', Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The saint and religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]] (1836-1886) taught that
<blockquote>
lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through [[bhakti]] (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated.<ref> M, ''Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'', Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992) TEST</ref>
</blockquote>
Although caste distinctions carry less weight in India than they used to, they have not disappeared completely.<ref>C.J. Fuller, ''The Camphor Flame'' 13 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X</ref> In 1947 the government of India abolished caste by law, and more recent laws have attempted to remedy lingering problems related to caste.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' 165 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' at 26 (Viveka Press 1994)</ref>
===Ahimsa, vegetarianism, and the cow===
{{main|Ahimsa|Sacred cow|Vegetarianism}}
Hinduism advocates the practice of [[ahimsa]]—non-violence and respect for all forms of life—human as well as animal, because the divine soul is believed to permeate all.<ref>Monier-Williams, ''religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)</ref>The term ''ahimsa'' first appears in the [[Upanishad]]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'', or eternal vows/restraints in [[Raja Yoga]]. The influences of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] helped to enhance the importance of [[ahimsa]].
Related to the concept of [[ahimsa]], many Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population are lacto-vegetarian, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], states like Gujarat (with [[Jain]] influence), and in many [[Brahmin]] and [[Marwari]] enclaves around the subcontinent.<ref>Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.</ref> Some avoid even [[onion]] and [[garlic]], which are regarded as [[rajasic]] foods. Another 20% of the Hindu population practice vegetarianism on certain days, especially on holy days.
[[Hindus]] who do eat meat nevertheless generally abstain from [[beef]]. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term ''gau mata'', or ''Cow Mother''). While most contemporary Hindus do not worship the cow (though many [[veneration|venerate]] her, as they do all life), the cow still holds an honored place in Hindu society as a symbol of unselfish giving. There exists a legal ban against cow-slaughter in almost all states of the Indian Union.<ref name=beef_without_borders>{{cite news | first = R. | last = Krishnakumar | title = Beef without borders | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm | work = Frontline | publisher = Narasimhan Ram | date = [[August 30]]-[[September 12]], [[2003]] | accessdate = 2006-10-07 }}</ref>
=== Hindu festivals ===
{{main|Hindu festivals}}
Hinduism has many festivals. [[Mark Twain]], after visiting the [[Kumbh Mela|Kumbh]] festival in the 1890s, wrote "It is wonderful. The power of faith like that can make multitudes of the old and the weak the young and the frail to enter without hesitation or complaint."<br>
Some widely observed [[Hindu festivals]] are,
*[[Dussera]], or [[Durga Puja]], the festival celebrated to rejoice about goddess [[Durga]]'s triumph over the demon [[Mahishasura]]. Also known as victory of good over evil;
*[[Diwali]], also known as the festival of lights;
*[[Ganesh Chaturthi]], the festival celebrating [[Ganesh|Lord Ganesha]];
*[[Maha Shivaratri]], the night of [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]] when he drank [[Halahala]] to save gods and demons from its effect;
*[[Ramanavami]], celebrates the birthday of [[Rama|Lord Ram]];
*[[Holi]], the spring festival of colors and light.
There are many additional festivals as well, some of which are celebrated primarily by certain denominations or in certain localities.<ref>For an expanded list, see end of this article.</ref>
==Schools of Hindu philosophy==
{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
The six ''{{Unicode|Āstika}}'' or orthodox schools (those which accept the authority of the [[Vedas]]) of Hindu philosophy are ''[[Nyaya|{{Unicode|Nyāya}}]]'', ''[[Vaisheshika|{{Unicode|Vaisheṣhika}}]]'', ''[[Samkhya|{{Unicode|Sāṃkhya}}]]'', ''[[Yoga]]'', ''[[Purva Mimamsa|{{Unicode|Pūrva Mīmāṃsā}}]]'' (also simply called ''{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsā}}''), and ''[[Vedanta|{{Unicode|Uttara Mīmāṃsā}}]]'' (also called ''[[Vedanta|{{Unicode|Vedānta}}]]'').<ref name="Philosophy">[http://www.hinduism.co.za/philosop.htm "Schools of Philosophy"]</ref> The six schools are known as "Shat Astik (Hindu) Darshana."
[[Image:Yoga instructor.jpg|thumb|200px|right|In Hinduism, [[Yoga]] is considered to be a way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the [[Rig Veda]], which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE.]]
The Heterodox ''{{Unicode|Nāstika}}'' schools—those which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas—are [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and ''[[Lokayata|{{Unicode|Lokāyata}}]]''.
Although these philosophies are usually studied formally only by scholars, their influences can be found in many religious books and beliefs held by average Hindus.
==Themes and symbols==
=== Tilaka ===
The ''[[tilaka]]'' (or ''tilak'') is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. Hindus traditionally wear ''tilaka,'' in one form or another, as a mark of faith in a particular tradition.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Monier-Williams
| first = Sir Monier
| coauthors = et al
| title = A Sanskrit-English Dictionary
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 1899
| url = http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/
| accessdate = 2006-07-10 }} Entry: ''tilaka''</ref>
Hindus may wear tilaka always or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the ''tilaka'' often represents devotion to a certain deity. For example, a 'U' shape tilaka usually denotes someone as a devotee of [[Vishnu]].<ref> [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/general.htm#17 On Tilak: Urdhva Pundra Vidhi] (veda.harekrsna.cz)</ref>
To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married women today commonly wear on the forehead a decorative dot, or ''{{Unicode|bindī}}.'' In Southern India, this is called ''pottu'' (or ''bottu''). Normally a red bindi or pottu is worn by married women. Among North Indian married woman, the red bindi is worn at the central upper portion of the forehead where the hair starts. Among South Indian married woman, the red pottu is worn at the centre between both the eyebrows.{{fact}}
=== Vibhuti ===
[[Vibhuti]] is the holy ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing [[Shiva]]. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal vibhuti lines of Shiva and the 'U' shape thilaka of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva).
=== Symbolism ===
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
[[Aum|'''''Aum''''']] (or Om, '''ॐ''') is the sacred symbol that represents God (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic [[mantra]]s and prayers. It is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Vishnu (A), Shiva (U) and Brahmā (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. The written syllable serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hindu dharma.
'''''[[Swastika|{{IAST|Swastika}}]]''''' is a symbol connoting general auspiciousness. It may represent purity of soul, truth, and stability or, alternatively, [[Surya]], the sun.<ref name="karelwerner1">Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 147-48 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism dates back to ancient times. [[Nazism]] used a tilted version of this symbol<ref name="karelwerner1"/> under the name ''[[Hakenkreuz]]'', and associated it with the notion of "purity of race".
'''''[[Sri Chakra Yantra]]''''' or Yantra of [[Tripura Sundari]] (commonly referred to as '''''[[Sri Yantra]]''''') is a [[mandala]] formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are orientated upright representing [[Shiva]] - the masculine. Five of these triangles are inverted triangles represent [[Shakti]] - the feminine. Together the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation and together express non-duality. All other yantras are derivatives of this supreme yantra.
<gallery>
Image:Om2.jpg|[[Aum]] ([[Om]])
Image:HinduSwastika.svg|[[Swastika]]
Image:Yantra-tripura-sundari.jpg|[[Sri Chakra Yantra]]
</gallery>
{{-}}
==Classification of scriptures==
{{main|Hindu scripture}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Classification Hindu Scripture.gif|thumb|200px|Classification of Major Scriptures]] -->
The overwhelming majority of Hindu [[scripture|sacred texts]] are composed in the [[Sanskrit language]]. Indeed, much of the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[linguistics|linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. Hindu scripture is called ''Shāstra''. The scriptures may be divided into two parts: [[Shruti]] and [[Smriti]].
===Shruti (Vedic literature)===
{{main|Śruti}}
[[Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|200px|The ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the world's oldest [[religious texts]]. Shown here is a Rig Veda [[manuscript]] in [[Devanagari]], early 19th century.]]
The Hindus refer to the ''Vedas'' ({{Unicode|वेद}}, literally, "Knowledge") as ''Shruti'' (literally, "that which has been heard"), since they were handed down orally from teacher to disciple throughout many generations.<ref name="isbn0911206159-E5-V1-3">Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> The Vedas are said to have been eternal truths originally realized in deep meditation by the ancient sages called ''[[rishi|{{Unicode|Ṛiṣhi}}]]s'' . Scholars have not been able to date the written form of the Vedas with much certainty, but even the most conservative scholars place them at 1200 B.C. or earlier.<ref>Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref>
While many modern Hindus may never read the ''Vedas'', they revere the Vedas as the spiritual foundation out of which later, more widely-read scriptures ([[smriti]]) developed.
The Vedas have been divided in various ways. One simple way is to divide the Vedas into two sections according to their subject matter:
#The Karma Kānda ("the action part"), deals with karma, rituals, and sacrifices, the purpose of which is to attain material prosperity on earth and the benefits of heaven after death, and
#The Jnāna Kānda ("the knowledge part"), is concerned with the spiritual Knowledge that brings liberation from ignorance and realization of the Ultimate Truth. The [[Upanishads]] constitute a major portion of the [[Jnāna Kānda]].<ref name="isbn0911206159-E5-V1-3"/>
The ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}'' contain the bulk of the Vedas' philosophical and mystical teachings. The teachings of the [[Upanishads]] emphasize several key points (which are interpreted variously by various schools of thought):
#The deepest source of all reality, called [[Brahman]], is identical with the innermost self of man (''ātman'').
#As long as one does not realize this relationship, one is subject to a seemingly endless round of rebirths (sansāra).
#A conscious realization of the essential identity of the ātman and Brahman leads to liberation from sansāra.<ref>See Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Life and Thought in India'' 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>
''See also: [[Shrauta]]''
===Smriti===
{{main|Smriti}}
The Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are called, as a group, the '''''{{IAST|Smṛitis}}''''' (lit., "memory"). All of them laud the ''Vedas''. The most notable of the Smritis are the ''[[Itihasa|{{IAST|Itihāsas}}]]'' ([[epic poetry|epic]]s), such as the ''[[Mahabharata|{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana|{{IAST|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]'', considered sacred by almost all Hindus. Also widely known are the eighteen ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'' ("ancient histories"). The ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' (not historical in the usual Western sense) impart Vedic ideas through vivid narratives concerning various stories and adventures of various deities, and their interactions with humans. Prominent ''{{IAST|Purāṇas}}'' include the [[Bhagavata purana|''{{Unicode|Srīmad Bhāgavatam]]}}'', the ''{{IAST|Devī Mahātmya}}'' (an ode to God as the Divine Mother), the ''[[Yoga Sutras|{{IAST|Yoga Sūtras}}]]'' (a key meditative yoga text by the sage [[Patanjali|{{Unicode|Patañjali}}]]), the ''[[Tantras]]'', and the ''[[Manusmriti|{{unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'', as well as the ''{{Unicode|Mahanirvāṇa Tantra}}'', ''[[Tirumantiram]]'' and ''[[Shiva Sutras|{{Unicode|Shiva Sūtras}}]]''.
The ''{{Unicode|Rāmāyaṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}'' and many ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'', which today's Hindus read far more widely than the ''Vedas,'' do much to inspire the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism. Many Hindus attach more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from these texts than to the literal narratives themselves. Other important scriptures are the sectarian ''[[Hindu Agamas|Hindu {{Unicode|Āgamas}}]]'', which are texts related to rituals and worship dedicated to ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'', ''Shiva'' and ''{{Unicode|Devī}}''. The ''Shruti'' is generally held to take precedence over the ''{{unicode|Smṛiti}}'' in any apparent dispute.<ref name=Smritis>[http://www.hinduism.8k.com/smritis.html#sruti "The Smritis"] by Swami Sivananda</ref>
===Bhagavad Gita===
{{main|Bhagavad Gita}}
''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' (भगवद् गीता), often referred to as the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'', is one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is an integral part of the epic ''[[Mahabharata|{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and contains philosophical sermons taught by ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kṛiṣhṇa}}]]'', an incarnation of ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'', to the ''[[Pandava|{{Unicode|Pāṇḍava}}]]'' prince [[Arjuna]] just before a great war. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''<ref>''{{Unicode|Sarvopaniṣado}} gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to [http://www.bhagavadgitaasitis.com/introduction/en Bhagavad-gītā As It Is].</ref>
== Notes ==
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<references/>
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==References==
<div class="references-small">
#[http://www.astrojyoti.com/scripturesindex.htm Read 150 Vedic scriptures online]
#R. Balasubramanian, "Advaita Vedanta". ''History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization'', vol. II, part 2, 2000.
#[[Thom Brooks]], 'In Search of Shiva: Mahadeviyakka's Virashaivism', ''Asian Philosophy'' 12 (2002): 21-34.
# Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449183]
# Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By''. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
# Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. ''The Upanishads''. Penguin Arkana.
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 (Article on) Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/ Rigveda (English trans. by Griffith)]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]
# [http://www.iskcon.com/galleries/bg1983/1/index.htm# Bhagavad Gita]
# Sinha, H. S., 1993, ''Bhāratīya Darshan Kī Rūparekhā'' (Hindi), Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi–Mumbai–Varanasi.
# Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, ''(Shukla) Yajurveda'' (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
# Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, ''Brihadāranyakopanishad'' (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
#Vanita R., "The self is not gendered: Sulabha's debate with King Janaka". ''NWSA Journal'', Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pg. 76, 2003.
#[[René Guénon]] "Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines" ("Introduction générale à l'étude des doctrines hindoues", 1921)
#[[René Guénon]] "Man and His Becoming according to the Vedânta" ("L'homme et son devenir selon le Vêdânta", 1925)
#[[René Guénon]] "Studies in Hinduism" ("Études sur l'Hindouisme", 1966)
#[[Benjamin Walker]] ''Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism'', (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, ISBN 8129106701.
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==See also==
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* [[Hindu]]
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
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* [[Hindu idealism]]
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* [[Sanskrit]]
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* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
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* [[Evolution of Shaivism]]
* [[Yoga]]
* [[Tantra]]
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===Related systems and religions===
* [[Dharmic religions]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Jainism]] - [[Jainism and Hinduism]]
* [[Sikhism]] - [[Hinduism and Sikh Panth]]
* [[Ayyavazhi]] - [[Ayyavazhi and Hinduism]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]] - [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
* [[Hellenism and Hinduism]]
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* [[Confucianism]] - [[Hinduism and Confucianism]]
==External links==
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* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.pdf All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda]
* [http://www.hinduwisdom.info/index_new.htm ''Hindu Wisdom''] - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
* [http://www.hinduism.co.za/ Hinduism.co.za] - This award winning web site is dedicated to understanding Sanatan Ved Dharma (Hinduism).
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit_hinduism.asp Atmajyoti.org]
* [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions produced by practitioners. Based on a widely-used UK schools text]
* [http://www.hinduforum.net Discuss on Hindu Forum]
* [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda] - Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)
* [http://www.ochs.org.uk/publications/multimedia/mp3_downloads.html Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies] Lectures and seminars in MP3 Audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.
* [http://www.iskcon.com/ International Society for Krishna Consciousness] - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html MSN Encarta - Hinduism]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/index.shtml BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/faq.htm Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.saranam.com/guide/ Saranam - Hinduism Guide]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org] - malicious popups.
* [http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Hindu scriptures in streaming audio]
* [http://hinduwebsite.com/ Hinduism and Hinduism resources]
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://dharma.indviews.com/ dharma.indviews.com] - Website on Hinduism with pictures/images
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