Human evolution and Shin Bet: Difference between pages

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:''For the ethnic group, see [[Shabak people]].''

'''Human evolution''' is the part of the theory of [[evolution]] by which [[Human|human beings]] emerged as a distinct [[species]]. It is the subject of a broad [[science|scientific inquiry]] that seeks to understand and describe how this change and development occurred. The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably [[physical anthropology]], [[linguistics]] and [[genetics]]. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but studies of human evolution usually include other [[hominin]]s, such as the [[australopithecines]].

[[Image:ShabakLogo.gif|thumb|100px|Shabak emblem "Defender who shall not be seen"]]

==History of paleoanthropology==

The modern field of [[paleoanthropology]] began in the [[19th century]] with the discovery of "[[Neanderthal]] man" (the eponymous skeleton was found in 1856, but there had been finds elsewhere since 1830), and with evidence of so-called [[caveman|cave men]]. The idea that humans are similar to certain [[great ape]]s had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' in [[1859]]. Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution— "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject— the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. Debates between [[Thomas Huxley]] and [[Richard Owen]] focused on the idea of human evolution. Huxley convincingly illustrated many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes in his 1863 book ''[[Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]''. By the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, ''[[Descent of Man]]'', it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory— and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] and [[Charles Lyell]]) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through [[natural selection]].

The '''Shabak''' (in Hebrew, שב"כ '''{{Audio|He-Shabak.ogg|"Shabak"}}''') an acronym of "Shérūt Bītāhōn Klālī" שירות ביטחון כללי) is usually referred to in English as the '''Shin Bet''' (which was what Shabak was originally called in Israel's early days). The Shabak is also known in English as the '''Israel Security Agency''' (ISA), or the '''GSS''' (General Security Service). The Shabak is the Internal General Security Service of [[Israel]]. Its [[motto]] is "מגן ולא יראה," which translates into: "Defender (Shield) who shall not be seen". The service consists of close to 5,000 employees. It is one of three principal organizations of the [[Israeli Intelligence Community]], alongside [[Aman (IDF)|Aman]] (the [[military intelligence]] of the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]]) and [[Mossad]] (responsible for overseas [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] work).

Since the time of [[Carolus Linnaeus]], the great apes were considered the closest relatives of human beings, based on morphological similarity. In the 19th century, it was speculated that our closest living relatives were [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s, and based on the natural range of these creatures, it was surmised humans share a [[common ancestor]] with [[Africa]]n apes and that [[fossil]]s of these ancestors would ultimately be found in Africa.

== Duties and roles ==

It was not until the [[1920s]] that hominin fossils were discovered in [[Africa]]. In [[1924]], [[Raymond Dart]] described ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''. The [[type specimen]] was the [[Taung Child]], an [[australopithecine]] infant discovered in a cave deposit being mined for concrete at [[Taung]], [[South Africa]]. The remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an [[endocranial cast]] of the individual's brain. Although the brain was small (410 cm³), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen exhibited short [[Canine tooth|canine teeth]], and the position of the [[foramen magnum]] was evidence of [[bipedal]] locomotion. All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans. Another 20 years would pass before Dart's claims were taken seriously, following the discovery of more fossils that resembled his find. The prevailing view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality. It was thought that intelligence on par with modern humans was a prerequisite to bipedalism.

{{Israelis}}

The Shabak's duties are:

* Upholding the state [[security]] against those who seek to undermine it by [[terrorism|terrorist]] activity or violent revolution.

* Expose terrorist organizations of [[Israel]]i civilians

* Interrogations of terror suspects.

* Providing [[military intelligence|intelligence]] for [[counter-terrorism]] operations in the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]].

* [[Counter-espionage]].

* Protect the lives of senior public officials (see also: [[bodyguard]]s).

* Secure important infrastructure and government buildings.

* Ensure the security of [[El-Al]], [[Arkia]] and [[Israir]] flights and Israel's [[embassy|embassies]] abroad.

One of the Shin Bet's roles is to protect the lives of senior Israeli ministers and public servants (such as the [[President of Israel]]). The Shin Bet is also responsible for preventing the funding of underground movements and terror groups whose members are Israeli citizens. It accomplishes this goal by using interrogations and secret agents ([[HUMINT]]).

The australopithecines are now thought to be the immediate ancestors of the genus ''Homo'', the group to which modern humans belong. Both australopithecines and ''Homo sapiens'' are part of the tribe [[Hominini]], but recent data has brought into doubt the position of ''A. africanus'' as a direct ancestor of modern humans; it may well have been a dead-end cousin.{{citation needed}} The australopithecines were originally classified as either [[gracile]] or [[robust]]. The robust variety of ''Australopithecus'' has since been reclassified as ''[[Paranthropus]]''. In the [[1930s]], when the robust specimens were first described, the ''Paranthropus'' genus was used. During the [[1960s]], the robust variety was moved into ''Australopithecus''. The recent trend has been back to the original classification as a separate genus.

== Legal status and methods ==

{{:Human evolution/Species chart}}

The Shabak relies mainly on [[HUMINT]] to extract information and gather intelligence. It uses [[informant]]s from the local population in order to gather intelligence about planned attacks or about the ___location of opposition leaders. Shabak had overwhelming success with informants, managing to target the top leaders of the Palestinian organizations—including hardliners such as [[Hamas]] and the [[Islamic Jihad]]. The killing of Sheikh [[Ahmed Yassin]] and [[Abed al-Aziz Rantissi]] shows how deeply Shabak has penetrated into the Palestinian militias. As a result, the Palestinians groups, mainly the [[al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]] started killing suspected [[collaborator]]s.

Shabak also extracts information by [[interrogation|interrogating]] suspects. In [[1987]], after complaints about excessive use of violence in interrogations of Palestinian prisoners, the Landau Committee (headed by a former Supreme Court President) prepared a two-part report on Shabak's interrogation methods. Only one part was made public. It revealed that the Shabak regularly used violent methods of interrogation and that Shabak agents were tutored to lie in court about how evidence was uncovered. The committee report also gave guidelines for future interrogations but most of the details were in the secret part of the report. The open part revealed that the guidelines allowed Shabak to apply "moderate physical pressure" in the case of "necessity." In [[1994]], State Comptroller Miriam Ben-Porat, in a report not made public until February [[2000]], found that during 1988-1992 "Violation of the Landau Commission and the GSS regulations continued to be widespread in the interrogation facility in Gaza and, to some extent, in other facilities.… Veteran and senior investigators in the Gaza facility carried out severe and systematic violations. Senior GSS commanders did not prevent these violations." [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/a4d9ee9284f95f798525697b0049366c?OpenDocument]

== Before ''Homo''==

In [[1999]] the [[Supreme Court of Israel|Israeli Supreme Court]] heard several petitions against Shabak methods. It found that these included: (1) "forceful and repeated shaking of the suspect’s upper torso, in a manner which causes the neck and head to swing rapidly," (2) manacling of the suspect in a painful “Shabach position" for a long period of time, (3) the "frog crouch" consisting of "consecutive, periodical crouches on the tips of one’s toes," and other methods. The Court ruled that Shabak did not have the authority, even under the defense of "necessity," to employ such methods.

The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back for some 60 million years, as one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. Most paleontologists consider that primates share a common ancestor with the bats, another extremely ancient lineage, and that this ancestor probably lived during the late [[Cretaceous]] together with the last [[dinosaurs]]. The oldest known primates come from North America, but they were widespread in Eurasia and Africa as well, during the tropical conditions of the [[Paleocene]] and [[Eocene]]. With the beginning of modern climates, marked by the formation of the first Antarctic ice in the early [[Oligocene]] around 40 million years ago, primates went extinct everywhere but Africa and southern Asia. Fossil evidence found in Germany 20 years ago (Begun, Journal of Human Evolution, 2001) was determined to be about 16.5 million years old, some 1.5 million years older than similar species from East Africa. It suggests that the great ape and human lineage first appeared in Eurasia and not Africa. The discoveries suggest that the early ancestors of the hominids (the family of great apes and humans) migrated to Eurasia from Africa about 17 million years ago, just before these two continents were cut off from each other by an expansion of the Mediterranean Sea. Begun says that the great apes flourished in Eurasia and that their lineage leading to the African apes and humans - [[Dryopithecus]] - migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa, where populations diverged into the lines leading towards great apes, gorillas and chimps (chimpanzees and bonobos). One of those lines eventually evolved into the ancestors of humans about six million years ago. The surviving tropical population, which is seen most completely in the upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the [[Fayum]] depression southwest of Cairo, gave rise to all living primates - [[lemur]]s of Madagascar, [[loris]]es of Southeast Asia, [[galago]]s or "bush babies" of Africa, and the anthropoids, i.e. [[platyrrhine]]s or New World monkeys, and [[catarrhine]]s or Old World monkeys and the great apes and humans.

In the Justice Ministry, [http://www.justice.gov.il/MOJHeb/PraklitotHamedina/MehozotHapraklitutVehamachlakot/HamachlakaLetafkidimMeyuhadim/ the Department For Special Roles], there is a senior investigator who checks complaints about Shabak interrogations.

The earliest known catarrhine is ''[[Kamoyapithecus]]'' from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Kenya rift valley, dated to 24 Ma (millions of years before present). Its ancestry is generally thought to be close to such genera as ''[[Aegyptopithecus]]'', ''[[Propliopithecus]]'', and ''[[Parapithecus]]'' from the Fayum, at around 35 Ma. There are no fossils from the intervening 11 million years. No near ancestor to South American platyrrhines, whose fossil record begins at around 30 Ma, can be identified among the North African fossil species, and possibly lies in other forms that lived in West Africa that were caught up in the still-mysterious transatlantic sweepstakes that sent primates, rodents, boa constrictors, and cichlid fishes from Africa to South America sometime in the Oligocene.

Shabak claims that it is now basing its interrogations only on psychological means. However, organizations such as [[B'Tselem]] and [[Amnesty International]] still accuse Shabak of employing physical methods that amount to torture under international conventions.

In [[2002]] the Israeli [[Knesset]] passed a law, regulating the activity of Shabak. The law ruled that:

In the early [[Miocene]], after 22 Ma, many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Because the fossils at 20 Ma include fragments attributed to ''[[Victoriapithecus]]'', the earliest cercopithecoid, the other forms are (by default) grouped as hominoids, without clear evidence as to which are closest to living apes and humans. Among the presently recognized genera in this group, which ranges up to 13 Ma, we find ''[[Proconsul (genus)|Proconsul]]'', ''[[Rangwapithecus]]'', ''[[Dendropithecus]]'', ''[[Limnopithecus]]'', ''[[Nacholapithecus]]'', ''[[Equatorius]]'', ''[[Nyanzapithecus]]'', ''[[Afropithecus]]'', ''[[Heliopithecus]]'', and ''[[Kenyapithecus]]'', all from East Africa. The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of middle Miocene age from sites far distant -- ''[[Otavipithecus]]'' from cave deposits in Namibia, and ''[[Pieroloapithecus]]'' and ''[[Dryopithecus]]'' from France, Spain and Austria -- is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, ''[[Oreopithecus]]'', is from 9-Ma coal beds in Italy.

* The [[Prime Minister of Israel]] is in charge of the Shabak and carries ministerial responsibility for its activity. The head of the Shabak answers to the prime minister.

* The Shabak head will serve 5 years in duty, unless there is a state of emergency.

* Interrogation methods: this part was not made public.

== History ==

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of [[gibbon]]s (family [[Hylobatidae]]) became distinct between 18 and 12 Ma, and that of [[orangutan]]s (subfamily Ponginae) at about 12 Ma; we have no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so far unknown SE-asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by ''[[Ramapithecus]]'' from India and ''[[Griphopithecus]]'' from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma.

=== Foundation ===

With the declaration of Israeli Independence, the '''Shin Bet''' was founded, as a branch of the [[Israel Defense Forces]], and was headed by [[Isser Harel]] (the father of Israeli Intelligence, who later headed the [[Mossad]]). Responsibility for Shin Bet activity was later moved from the IDF to the office of the [[Prime Minister of Israel|prime minister]]. During the [[1948 Arab-Israeli war]] that was declared against Israel following the Israeli independence, the Shin Bet's responsibility included only internal security affairs. It was only later that its responsibilities were extended to [[Counter-espionage]] and the monitoring of [[Israeli Arabs]] (Arabs who did not leave Israel during the 1948 war of Israeli independence and who were granted Israeli citizenship).

=== Early days ===

Molecular evidence further suggests that between 8 and 4 MYA, first the [[gorilla]]s, and then the [[chimpanzee]] (genus ''Pan'') split off from the line leading to the humans; we have no fossil record, however, of either group of African great apes, possibly because bones do not fossilize in rain forest environments. Hominines, however, seem to have been one of the mammal groups (as well as antelopes, hyaenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, and horses) that adapted to the open grasslands as soon as this biome appeared, due to increasingly seasonal climates, about 8 Ma, and their fossils are relatively well known. The earliest are ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'' (7-6 MYA) and ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' (6 MYA), followed by:

In the beginning, as part of efforts to prevent anti-state activity, the Shin Bet monitored pro-[[Soviet]] opposition parties suspected of supporting the [[Soviet Union]] over [[Israel]] if the [[Cold War]] were to become an active full scale war. The political leadership, headed by [[David Ben-Gurion]], silenced publications that dealt with these activities. Only [[Uri Avneri]] successfully published about these activities in [[Haolam Hazeh]] newspaper. A great controversy was created when two Shin Bet agents were caught installing a [[bugging device]] in [[Meir Yeari]]'s office (Yeari was the leader of [[Mapam]] - a [[Socialist]] [[Zionist]] party with favorable views of the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]).

*''[[Ardipithecus]]'' (5.5-4.4 MYA), with species ''[[Ardipithecus kadabba|Ar. kadabba]]'' and ''[[Ardipithecus ramidus|Ar. ramidus]]'';

*''[[Australopithecus]]'' (4-2 MYA), with species ''[[Australopithecus anamensis|Au. anamensis]]'', ''[[Australopithecus afarensis|Au. afarensis]]'', ''[[Australopithecus africanus|Au. africanus]]'', ''[[Australopithecus bahrelghazali|Au. bahrelghazali]]'', and ''[[Australopithecus garhi|Au. garhi]]'';

*''[[Paranthropus]]'' (3-1.2 MYA), with species ''[[Paranthropus aethiopicus|P. aethiopicus]]'', ''[[Paranthropus boisei|P. boisei]]'', and ''[[Paranthropus robustus|P. robustus]]'';

*''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' (2 MYA-present).

One of the Shabak's most important successes, though it is often incorrectly attributed to the [[Mossad]], was to obtain a copy of the [[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences|secret speech]] made by [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] in 1956, when he denounced [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. A Polish edition of the speech was provided to the Israeli embassy in [[Warsaw]] by the boyfriend of the secretary of a Polish communist official. The Shabak's Polish liaison officer conveyed the copy to Israel. The Israeli government then decided to share the information with the United States, who published it with Israeli approval.

==The genus ''Homo'' ==

Up until the [[Six Day War]], the Shin Bet continued to focus on [[counter-espionage]] and monitoring political activity among the Israeli Arabs. Shabak's most notable achievement in counter-espionage was the capture of Dr. [[Israel Bar]] in [[1961]] who was revealed to be a [[Soviet]] [[spy]]. Bar was a [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the reserves, a senior security commentator and close friend of Ben-Gurion, and reached high Israeli circles. Bar was tried and sentenced to ten years in prison (which was later extended by the Supreme Court to fifteen years, following his appeal), where he died. In the same year, [[Kurt Sita]], a [[Christian]] [[Germany|German]] from the [[Sudetenland]] and a [[professor]] in the [[Technion]], was revealed as a [[Czech people|Czech]] [[spy]].

In modern taxonomy, ''Homo sapiens'' is the only extant [[species]] of its genus, ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''. Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of ''Homo sapiens'' often demonstrates that there were other ''Homo'' species, all of which are now extinct. While some of these other species might have been ancestors of ''H. sapiens'', many were likely our "cousins", having speciated away from our ancestral line. There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species. In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the ''Homo'' genus.

=== After the Six Day War ===

The word ''homo'' is [[Latin]] for "person", chosen originally by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in his classification system. It is often translated as "man", although this can lead to confusion, given that the English word "man" can be generic like ''homo'', but can also specifically refer to males. Latin for "man" in the gender-specific sense is ''vir'', [[cognate]] with "''vir''ile" and "''wer''ewolf". The word "human" is from ''humanus'', the adjectival form of ''homo''.

After the [[Six Day War]], Shabak efforts to monitor terrorist activity in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] become a more and more dominant part of the organization activity, and today it is considered to be the major part of Shabak's mission. [[Yeshayahu Leibowitz]] warned that the control over the territories will turn Israel into a "Shabak state". However, Shabak imposed restrictions on itself in order to not harm democratic values, separation of authorities and to prevent the risk that Shabak will be used in a totalitarian manner.

===''Homo habilis''Years of crisis ===

During [[1984]]-[[1986]] Shabak went into a major crisis following the [[Kav 300 affair]] in which two terrorists who hijacked a bus and took hostages were executed without trial by Shabak officers, who later covered up the event and gave false testimonies. Following this affair, [[Avraam Shalom]] (then the head of Shabak) was forced to resign.

The event resulted in the Landau committee, which regulated Shabak interrogation methods.

''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'' lived from about 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago (MYA). ''H. habilis'', the first species of the genus ''Homo'', evolved in South and East Africa in the late [[Pliocene]] or early [[Pleistocene]], 2.5–2 MYA, when it diverged from the Australopithecines. ''H. habilis'' had smaller [[molars]] and larger [[brain]]s than the Australopithecines, and made [[tool]]s from [[Rock (geology)|stone]] and perhaps animal [[bones]]. One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed 'handy man' by its discoverer, [[Louis Leakey]]. Some scientists have proposed moving this species out of ''Homo'' and into ''[[Australopithecus]]''.

In [[1995]] a crisis followed the [[assassination]] of [[Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Itzhak Rabin]] by [[Yigal Amir]]. Following the Shabak's failure to protect Rabin, [[Carmi Gillon]] was forced to resign. Later, the [[Meir Shamgar|Shamgar]] investigation committee learned of serious flaws in the personal security unit and the provocative and inciting behavior of [[Avishai Raviv]] - an [[Agent provocateur]] of the Shin Bet Jewish Unit. Raviv obtained a "[[photoshop]]ped" picture of Rabin in an [[SS]] uniform, and presented it in the infamous [[Zion Square]] demonstration in Jerusalem prior to Rabin's murder.

====''Homo rudolfensis'' and ''Homo georgicus''====

Gillon was replaced by outside "import", [[Israeli Navy]] [[admiral]] [[Ami Ayalon]]. Ayalon rehabilitated Shabak after Rabin's murder and worked hard to restore its reputation with the general public.

These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9-1.6 MYA, the relation of which with ''H. habilis'' is not yet clear.

*''[[Homo rudolfensis|H. rudolfensis]]'' refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya.

* ''[[Homo georgicus|H.georgicus]]'', from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between ''H. habilis'' and ''H. erectus''.

In [[1996]], a unit of the Shabak assassinated [[Hamas]] chief bombmaker [[Yahya Ayyash]] by planting an explosive device in his [[cellular phone]]. The operation was carried out after an instruction by then Prime Minister [[Shimon Peres]].

===''Homo ergaster'' and ''Homo erectus''===

The first fossils of ''Homo erectus'' were discovered by Dutch physician [[Eugene Dubois]] in

1891 on the [[Indonesia]]n island of Java. He originally gave the material the name ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' based on its morphology that he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes.

=== During the al-Aqsa Intifada ===

''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' lived from about 1.8 MYA to 70,000 years ago. Often the early phase, from 1.8 to 1.25 MYA, is considered to be a separate species, ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'', or it is seen as a subspecies of erectus, ''[[Homo erectus|Homo erectus ergaster]]''.

{{SectOR}}

In 2000, Ayalon ended his 5-years term and he was replaced by veteran Shabak official, [[Avi Dichter]]. Dichter, an ex-[[Sayeret Matkal]] [[commando]] and an experienced Shabak [[espionage|agent]], tightened the working relationship with the [[Israeli Defence Forces]] and the [[Israeli police]]. Foreign press hinted that Shabak is working tightly with the elite Israeli counter-terror unit, [[YAMAM]].

Dichter was in charge when the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] erupted. He managed to react quickly to changes and turn Shabak into a prominent player in Israel's war against [[Palestinians]] after the collapse of the [[2000 Camp David Summit]].

In the Early Pleistocene, 1.5–1 MYA, in Africa, [[Asia]], and [[Europe]], presumably, ''[[Homo habilis]]'' evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]''. In addition ''H. erectus'' was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright. This was made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different ___location of the [[foramen magnum]] (the hole in the skull where the spine enters). They may have used [[fire]] to [[cooking|cook]] their [[meat]].

The Shin Bet is most known for its role in the conflict with [[Palestinians]]. The Shin Bet produces intelligence which enables the [[Israeli Defence Forces]] (IDF) to prevent [[suicide bombing]]s before they reach their destinations. This is usually done by preventive arrests and deploying road blocks when there is a serious alert.

A famous example of ''Homo erectus'' is [[Peking Man]]; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term ''Homo ergaster'' for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving ''H. erectus'' only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ergaster.

In addition to preventing [[suicide bombing]]s from the West Bank by arrests and special operations, Shabak is working tightly with the [[Israeli Air Force]] in order to pinpoint and kill terror masterminds and terrorist leaders by precision [[air strike]]. The targets are field commanders and senior leaders of Palestinian militant factions (which Israel consider as terrorists), mainly those of [[Hamas]], but also of the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], the [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades]], the [[Fatah]] and even one [[Al-Qaeda]] linkman ([[Iad Al-Bik]]). These assassinations, called "[[targeted killings]]", are usually done by [[helicopter gunship]]s, where both IAF commanders and Shabak agents sit together in the command center monitoring the operation. Shabak's task is giving intelligence when and where the target will be available for a strike and then reacting to IAF [[UAV|drone]] feedback and ensuring the men on the sight are indeed the wanted terrorists (this part is called "identification and incrimination").

====''Homo cepranensis'' and ''Homo antecessor''====

These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between ''H. erectus'' and ''H. heidelbergensis''.

*''[[Homo cepranensis|H. cepranensis]]'' refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old.

* ''[[Homo antecessor|H. antecessor]]'' is known from fossils from Spain and England that are 800,000-500,000 years old.

Shabak's effective activity during the second Intifada boosted its reputation both among the Israeli public and [[counter-terror]] experts. [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/israel/shin_bet/m052504.html]

===''Homo heidelbergensis''===

=== 2003 to 2006 ===

''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' ([[Heidelberg]] Man) lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago. Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens heidelbergensis'' or ''Homo sapiens paleohungaricus''.

In November 2003, four former heads of Shin Bet ([[Avraham Shalom]], [[Yaakov Peri]], [[Carmi Gillon]] and [[Ami Ayalon]]) called upon the Government of Israel to reach a peace agreement with the Palestinians. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1096286,00.html].

[[Ami Ayalon]], along with Palestinian professor [[Sari Nusseibeh]], launched the ''[[National Census]]'' peace initiative.

===''Homo neanderthalensis''===

[[Avi Dichter]] is one of the chief supporters of building a defence barrier against Palestinians in the [[West Bank]]. The Israeli government began building the [[Israeli West Bank Barrier]] in [[2003]]. Dichter has since said that the barrier 'is working' and helps to prevent and reduce [[terror]] attacks. [http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=397404&displayTypeCd=1&sideCd=1&contrassID=2], [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/12/17/wmid17.xml&sSheet=/portal/2003/12/17/ixportal.html&secureRefresh=true&_requestid=229966]

''[[Homo neanderthalensis|H. neanderthalensis]]'' lived from about 350,000 to as recent as 30,000 years ago. Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis'': there is ongoing debate over whether the '[[Neanderthal Man]]' was a separate species, ''Homo neanderthalensis'', or a subspecies of ''H. sapiens''. While the debate remains unsettled, the prevailing view of evidence, collected by examining [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[Y chromosome|Y-chromosomal]] [[DNA]], currently indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between ''H. neanderthalensis'' and ''H. sapiens'', and, therefore, the two were separate species. In [[1997]], Dr. Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at [[Pennsylvania State University]], stated: "These results [based on [[mitochondria]]l DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans… Neanderthals are not our ancestors." Subsequent investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA confirmed these findings. However, supporters of the [[multiregional hypothesis]] point to recent studies indicating non-African nuclear DNA heritage dating to one MYA, as well as apparent hybrid fossils found in [[Portugal]] and elsewhere, in rebuttal to the prevailing view.

In February [[2005]], [[Ariel Sharon]] announced that [[Yuval Diskin]], a veteran Shabak field agent, senior negotiator with Palestinian officers and mastermind of the "targeted killings", will replace Dichter after he ends his five-year term. On [[May 15]], [[2005]] Diskin entered into office after Dichter left with great applause from the press, the politicians, and the public. Dichter has joined the political arena and is now a member of the [[Kadima]] party, founded by the former [[Israeli]] prime minister [[Ariel Sharon]].

====''Homo rhodesiensis'', and the Gawis cranium====

*''[[Homo rhodesiensis|H. rhodesiensis]]'', estimated to be 300,000-125,000 years old, most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of [[Homo heidelbergensis]] though other designations such as [[Archaic Homo they like poop tooo and they r green. sapiens]] and [[Homo sapiens rhodesiensis]] have also been proposed.

*In February 2006 a fossil, the [[Gawis cranium]], was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between ''H. erectus'' and ''H. sapiens'' or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000-250,000 years old. Only summary details are known, and no peer reviewed studies have been released by the finding team. Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species and an example of a "Bodo man" female. [http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/3142.html]

In September 2006, the Shin Bet, launched its first-ever public recruitment drive with the creation of a [http://www.shabak.gov.il Web site]. The employment campaign, coming on the heels of a newly approved defense budget, is targeting computer programmers.

===''Homo sapiens''===

===Rising Profile===

''[[Human|H. sapiens]]'' ("sapiens" means wise or intelligent) has lived from about 200,000 years ago to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle [[Pleistocene]], around 250,000 years ago, the trend in [[Cranial capacity|cranial expansion]] and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from ''H. erectus'' to ''[[Human|H. sapiens]]''. The direct evidence suggests there was a [[Migration (human)|migration]] of ''H. erectus'' out of Africa, then a further speciation of ''H. sapiens'' from ''H. erectus'' in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere). Then a [[out of Africa hypothesis|subsequent migration]] within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed ''H. erectus''. This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the [[single-origin theory]]. However, the current evidence does not ''preclude'' multiregional speciation, either. This is a hotly debated area in [[paleoanthropology]].

Once considered a commitment to lifelong anonymity and even invisibility in Israeli society, today a Shabak agent who achieves high rank in the service, especially the director, is considered a candidate for membership in the top brass of the Israeli government and business community. This process follows a trend started by ex-generals and colonels of the Israel Defense Forces, the trailblazers including [[Moshe Dayan]], [[Ariel Sharon]], and [[Yitzhak Rabin]]. In the Shabak and the foreign intelligence [[Mossad]] service, the trend showed up much later (During mid-[[1990s]]), even though Isser Harel (who served as head of both services) and Meir Amit of the Mossad both served as lawmakers.

Ex-Shabak directors today are increasingly visible as candidates for higher office. Yaakov Peri became the chairman of Bank HaMizrahi in 2002, and also became a highly visible guest on television programs. Carmi Gillon serves as Chairman of the Local Council of [[Mevaseret Zion]], Jerusalem's most affluent suburb, while Avi Dichter and Ami Ayalon were at one time leading candidates for defense minister (Dichter for the Kadima party formed by prime minister Ariel Sharon, Ayalon on the Labour party ticket). Dichter eventually became Minister of Internal Security in the current government led by [[Ehud Olmert]]. Ayalon has attracted widespread following as a co-initiator with Palestinian dignitary Sari Nusseibeh of the non-governmental Peoples' Voice initiative to petition the governments in Israel and the Palestinian Authority for a permanent settlement.

Current research establishes that human beings are highly genetically homogenous, meaning that the DNA of individual ''Homo sapiens'' is more alike than usual for most species, a result of our relatively recent evolution. Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen, however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances. Such small groups are initially highly inbred, allowing the relatively rapid transmission of traits favorable to the new environment. These adapted traits are a very small component of the ''Homo sapiens'' genome and include such outward "racial" characteristics as skin color and nose form in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes.

== Criticism ==

''' ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu|H. sapiens idaltu]]'' ''', from Ethiopia, lived from about 160,000 years ago (proposed subspecies). It is the oldest known anatomically modern human.

The so-called "[[Shabak technique]]" is an extreme [[interrogation]] technique that is used by the Shin Bet on [[Palestinian]] suspects. It has never officially been confirmed by the secretive Shin Bet as acceptable for use. Informal accounts by prisoners indicate it may involve forcing the subject to sit on a short stool or chair which is angled forward (so it's impossible to sit in a comfortable, stable position) and then tying their arms and legs behind them to the chair, while also covering their head with a bag and possibly subjecting them to extremely loud noise, such as music. The subject is then left in this condition for extended periods of time. Sleep is not allowed for the duration.

===''Homo floresiensis''===

This method was considered by the Israeli Supreme Court on September 6, 1999, which prohibited this method, along with all other forms of torture and physical pressure. In 2000 an official Israeli government report was released, after being kept secret for five years, in which the government admitted torturing Palestinian detainees between 1988 and 1992.

''[[Homo floresiensis|H. floresiensis]]'', which lived about 100,000 - 12,000 years ago (announced 28 October [[2004]] in the science journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''), has been nicknamed ''[[hobbit]]'' for its small size, probably a result of [[insular dwarfism|insular (island) dwarfism]]. ''H. floresiensis'' is intriguing both for its size and its age, being a concrete example of a recent species of the genus ''Homo'' that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans. In other words, ''H. floresiensis'' share a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a fossil believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. Her brain size was only 380 cm³ (which can be considered small even for a chimpanzee). She was only 1 meter in height.

On May 6, 2007 two human rights organizations released a report in which they charge the Shin Bet of continuing its torture techniques despite a court ruling in 1999 prohibiting such techniques. The report is based on testimony from 73 prisoners who were in Shin Bet custody between March 2005 and July 2006. The report continues with descriptions of these techniques, all of which are classified as torture under international law: physical beatings, painful binding, back bending, and body stretching and prolonged sleep deprivation.

However, there is an ongoing debate over whether ''H. floresiensis'' is indeed a seperate species. Some scientist presently believe that ''H. floresiensis'' was a modern ''H. sapiens'' suffering from pathological dwarfism. This hypothesis is supported in part, because the modern humans who live on Flores, the island where the fossil was found, are [[pygmies]]. This coupled with pathological dwarfism could indeed create a hobbit-like human. The other major attack on ''H. floresiensis'' is that it was found with tools only associated with ''H. sapiens''.

Furthermore, the report criticizes the lack of accountability within the Shin Bet stating that despite over 500 complaints of abuse made to the attorney's office since 2001, no criminal investigation was launched as complaints are investigated by a member of the Shin Bet.

===Comparative table of ''Homo'' species===

[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/856142.html]

== Lists and tables ==

:''Bolded species names indicate the existence of numerous fossil records.''

=== Important events in Shabak history ===

* [[1948]]: the Shabak is founded as the ''Shin Bet'' and is one of the three secret services in Israel along with the Military Intelligence and the Foreign Intelligence (later, the [[Mossad]]).

* [[1956]]: the Shabak obtains a copy of Khrushchev's speech denouncing Stalin.

* [[1961]]: the Shabak expose Doctor [[Israel Bar]] as a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Espionage|spy]].

* [[1984]]: the [[Kav 300 Affair]], two terrorists hijacked a [[bus]] and after IDF SF and Shabak regained control over the bus, [[Avraam Shalom]] ordered the killing of the two terrorists who were captured alive, and [[Danny Yatom]] knocked their skulls in with a brick. The officers involved tried to cover this up.

* [[1987]]: the Izat Nafsu affair, when an officer was cleared from spy charges, and Shabak was highly criticized for his methods and norms.

* [[1995]]: the [[assassination]] of [[Yitzhak Rabin]] by [[Yigal Amir]] and the failure of Shabak to prevent it.

* [[1996]]: the Shabak assassinates [[Hamas]] top bombmaker [[Yahya Ayyash]].

* [[2000]]-[[2005]]: the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] and Shabak main role in intelligence gathering and [[counter-terror]] efforts. [[Avraam Dichter]] received high credit for Shabak part in thwarting hundreds of [[suicide attack]]s and the [[assassination|targeted assassination]] of terrorist leaders.

=== Heads of the Shabak ===

{| class="wikitable"

* [[Isser Harel]] (1948–1952)

|- style="background:#efefef;"

* [[Izi Dorot]] (1952–1953)

! species

* [[Amos Manor]] (1953–1963)

! lived when (MYA)

* [[Yossef Harmelin]] (1964–1974)

! lived where

* [[Avraam Ahitov]] (1974–1981)

! adult length (m)

* [[Avraam Shalom]] (1981–1986)

! adult weight (kg)

* [[Yossef Harmelin]] (1986–1988)

! brain volume (cm³)

* [[Yaakov Peri]] (1988–1994)

! fossil record

* [[Carmi Gillon]] (1995–1996)

! discovery / publication of name

* [[Ami Ayalon]] (1996–2000)

|-

* [[Avi Dichter]] (2000–2005)

| '''''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'''''

* [[Yuval Diskin]] (2005–)

| 2.5–1.5

| Africa

| 1.0–1.5

| 30–55

| 600

| many

| 1960/1964

|-

| ''[[Homo rudolfensis|H. rudolfensis]]''

| 1.9

| Kenya

|  

|  

|  

| 1 skull

| 1972/1986

|-

| ''[[Homo georgicus|H. georgicus]]''

| 1.8–1.6

| Georgia

|  

|  

| 600

| few

| 1999/2002

|-

| '''''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'''''

| 1.9–1.25

| E. and S. Africa

| 1.9

|  

| 700–850

| many

| 1975

|-

| '''''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'''''

| 2(1.25)–0.3

| Africa, Eurasia (Java, China, Caucasus)

| 1.8

| 60

| 900–1100

| many

| 1891/1892

|-

| ''[[Homo cepranensis|H. cepranensis]]''

| 0.8?

| Italy

|  

|  

|  

| 1 skull cap

| 1994/2003

|-

| ''[[Homo antecessor|H. antecessor]]''

| 0.8–0.35

| Spain, England

| 1.75

| 90

| 1000

| 3 sites

| 1997

|-

| '''''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'''''

| 0.6–0.25

| Europe, Africa, China

| 1.8

| 60

| 1100–1400

| many

| 1908

|-

| '''''[[Neanderthal|H. neanderthalensis]]'''''

| 0.23–0.03

| Europe, W. Asia

| 1.6

| 55–70 (heavily built)

| 1200-1700

| many

| (1829)/1864

|-

| ''[[Rhodesian man|H. rhodesiensis]]''

| 0.3–0.12

| Zambia

|  

|  

| 1300

| very few

| 1921

|-

| '''''[[human|H. sapiens]]'''''

| 0.25–present

| worldwide

| 1.4–1.9

| 55–80

| 1000–1850

| still living

| —/1758

|-

| ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu|H. sapiens idaltu]]''

| 0.16

| Ethiopia

|  

|  

| 1450

| 3 craniums

| 1997/2003

|-

| '''''[[Homo floresiensis|H. floresiensis]]'''''

| 0.10–0.012

| Indonesia

| 1.0

| 25

| 400

| 7 individuals

| 2003/2004

|}

==Shabak Usein of toolsPopular Culture==

* [[Shin Bet]] operative Dahlia Tal appears in the [[Ubisoft]] video game [[Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow]]. As a jest, when Lambert brings up the Shin Bet, Fisher replies with "Spooky. Who are we torturing?"

Using tools is not only a sign of intelligence, it also may have acted as a stimulant for human evolution. Over the past 3 or 2 million years, human brain size has increased threefold. A brain needs a lot of energy: the brain of modern man uses about 20 [[Watt]]s (about 400 calories per day), one fifth of total human energy consumption. Early hominoids, like apes, were essentially plant eaters (fruit, leaves, roots), their diet only occasionally supplemented by meat (often from scavenging). However, plant food in general yields considerably less energy and nutritive value than meat. Therefore, being able to hunt for large animals, which was only possible by using tools such as spears, made it possible for humans to sustain larger and more complex brains, which in turn allowed them to develop yet more intelligent and efficient tools.

* [[Shin Bet]] agents appear several times in Joel Rosenberg's book The Copper Scroll.

Precisely when early man started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts. There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 MYA) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated.

=== StoneSee toolsalso ===

* [[Israel Security Forces]]

Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 million years ago, when ''H. habilis'' in Eastern Africa used so-called [[pebble tools]], [[chopper]]s made out of round pebbles that had been split by simple strikes. This marks the beginning of the [[Paleolithic]], or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the [[Lower Paleolithic]] (Early Stone Age, ending around 350,000 – 300,000 years ago), the [[Middle Paleolithic]] (Middle Stone Age, until 50,000 – 30,000 years ago), and the [[Upper Paleolithic]].

* [[Israel Defence Forces]]

* [[MAGAV]]

* [[Mossad]]

* [[YAMAM]]

* [[Security agency]]

== External links ==

The period from 700,000 – 300,000 years ago is also known as the [[Acheulean]], when ''H. ergaster'' (or ''erectus'') made large stone [[hand-axe]]s out of [[flint]] and [[quartzite]], at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later "[[retouch]]ed" by additional, more subtle strikes at the sides of the [[lithic flake|flake]]s. After 350,000 BP (Before Present) the more refined so-called [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] technique was developed. It consisted of series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers ("racloirs"), needles, and flattened needles were made. Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant [[Cro-Magnon]]s (knives, blades, skimmers). In this period they also started to make tools out of bone.

* [http://www.shabak.gov.il/ Shabak Official website (Hebrew)]

* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/israel/shin_bet/ Shin Bet] ([[Federation of American Scientists|FAS]])

* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/israel/shin_bet/m052504.html "Return of the Shin Bet" By Omri Essenheim] ([[Maariv]], [[25 May]] [[2004]] - reprint at FAS)

* [http://www.btselem.org/english/legal_documents/HC5100_94_19990906_Torture_Ruling.PDF Text of the 1999 High Court of Justice ruling] (PDF)

* [http://www.btselem.org/english/torture/background.asp B'tselem report on Shabak's use of torture]

* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3230365,00.html Knesset said "No" to Shabak]

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/637293.stm BBC - Israel admits torture]

[[Category:Intelligence agencies]]

=== The "modern man" debate and the Great Leap Forward===

[[Category:Israeli Security Forces]]

Until about 50,000–40,000 years ago the use of stone tools seems to have progressed stepwise: each phase (''habilis'', ''ergaster'', ''neanderthal'') started at a higher level than the previous one, but once that phase had started further development was slow. In other words, one might call these ''Homo'' species culturally conservative. After 50,000 BP, what [[Jared Diamond]], author of ''Guns, Germs, and Steel'', and other anthropologists characterize as a ''Great Leap Forward'', human culture apparently started to change at much greater speed: "modern" humans started to bury their dead carefully, made clothing out of hides, developed sophisticated hunting techniques (such as pitfall traps, or driving animals to fall off cliffs), and made cave paintings. This speed-up of cultural change seems connected with the arrival of modern humans, ''homo sapiens sapiens''. Additionally, human culture began to become more advanced, in that, different populations of humans begin to create novelty in existing technologies. Artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons and bone needles begin to show signs of variation among different population of humans, something that has not been seen in human cultures prior to 50,000 BP. Typically, ''neanderthalenis'' populations are found with technology similar to other contemporary ''neanderthalensis'' populations.

[[ar:شاباك]]

Whether this was an acceleration from standstill, or a trend that had in fact already started earlier, is debated: many innovations of the past 50,000 years are known to have occasional precursors in the Middle Stone Age. Among innovations of the Acheulian and the Middle Stone Age are the use of fire (500,000 BP), building shelters (400,000 BP), production of stone blades or knives (280,000 BP), grinding stones (280,000 BP), long distance barter trade (140,000 BP), fishing gear (110,000 BP), mining (100,000 BP), and beads (75,000 BP). However, these mostly remain incidents and do not become common until after 50,000 BP.

[[cs:Šin Bet]]

[[da:Shin Bet]]

Theoretically, modern human behaviour is taken to include four ingredient capabilities: abstract thinking (concepts free from specific examples), planning (taking steps to achieve a farther goal), innovation (finding new solutions), and symbolic behaviour (such as images, or rituals). Among concrete examples of modern human behaviour, anthropologists include specialization of tools, use of jewelry and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (for example, burials with grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks. Debate continues whether there was indeed a "Revolution" leading to modern man ("the big bang of human consciousness"), or a more gradual evolution.

[[de:Schin Bet]]

[[es:Shabak]]

==Notable human evolution researchers==

[[fa:شاباک]]

*[[Cheikh Anta Diop]]

[[fr:Shabak]]

* [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]]

* [[Henryid:Shin McHenryBet]]

[[he:שירות ביטחון כללי]]

* [[Svante Pääbo]]

* [[Davidnl:Shin PilbeamBet]]

[[ja:シャバック]]

* [[Jeffrey H. Schwartz]]

* [[Erikpl:Szin TrinkausBet]]

* [[Milford H.fi:Shin WolpoffBet]]

[[sv:SHABAK]]

* [[Charles Darwin]]

* [[JBS Haldane]]

== Species List ==

This list will conduct in chronological order, following genus.

*''[[Sahelanthropus]]''

**''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]''

*''[[Orrorin]]''

**''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]''

*''[[Ardipithecus]]''

**''[[Ardipithecus kadabba]]''

**''[[Ardipithecus ramidus]]''

*''[[Australopithecus]]''

**''[[Australopithecus anamensis]]''

**''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]''

**''[[Australopithecus bahrelghazali]]''

**''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''

**''[[Australopithecus garhi]]''

*''[[Paranthropus]]''

**''[[Paranthropus aethiopicus]]''

**''[[Paranthropus boisei]]''

**''[[Paranthropus robustus]]''

*''[[Kenyanthropus]]''

**''[[Kenyanthropus platyops]]''

*''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''

**''[[Homo habilis]]''

**''[[Homo rudolfensis]]''

**''[[Homo ergaster]]''

**''[[Homo georgicus]]''

**''[[Homo erectus]]''

**''[[Homo cepranensis]]''

**''[[Homo antecessor]]''

**''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]''

**''[[Homo rhodesiensis]]''

**''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]''

**''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]''

**''Homo sapiens'' ([[Cro-magnon]])

**''[[Homo floresiensis]]''

==Additional notes==

The validity of evolution and the origins of humanity have often been a subject of great political and religious controversy (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]] and [[Hybrid-origin]]).

The classification of humans and their relatives has changed considerably over time (see [[Ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|History of hominoid taxonomy]]).

Speculation about the future evolution of humans is often explored in [[science fiction]] as continued [[speciation]] of humans as they fill various [[ecological niche]]s (see [[adaptive radiation]] and [[Co-evolution]]).

Currently, scientists estimate that humans branched off from their common ancestor with chimpanzees about 5-7 MYA.

==References ==

<references/>

* {{cite journal

| author = Wolfgang Enard et al.

| title = Molecular evolution of [[FOXP2]], a gene involved in speech and language

| journal = Nature

| volume = 418

| date = [[2002-08-22]]

| pages = 870

}}

* [http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]

* {{cite journal

| author = J. W. IJdo, A. Baldini, D. C. Ward, S. T. Reeders, R. A. Wells

| title = Origin of human chromosome 2: An ancestral telomere-telomere fusion

| journal = Genetics

| volume = 88

| pages = 9051-9055

| month = October

| year = 1991

| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/88/20/9051.pdf

}} - two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2.

* {{cite journal

| author = Ovchinnikov, et al.

| title = Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern [[Caucasus]]

| journal = Nature

| volume = 404

| pages = 490

| year = 2000

}}

* {{cite journal

| author = Kordos, László, Begun, David R

| title = Primates from Rudabánya: allocation of specimens to individuals, sex and age categories

| journal = Journal of Human Evolution

| volume = 40

| issue = 1

| pages = 17-40

| year = 2001

}}

* {{cite journal

| author = Heizmann, Elmar P J, Begun, David R

| title = The oldest Eurasian hominoid

| journal = Journal of Human Evolution

| volume = 41

| issue = 5

| year = 2001

}}

==See also==

{| border=0 cellpadding=0

|- valign=top

|

* [[Aquatic ape hypothesis]]

* [[Archaeogenetics]]

* [[Dual inheritance theory]]

* [[Evolutionary anthropology]]

* [[Evolutionary medicine]]

* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]

* [[Evolutionary psychology]]

* [[FOXP2]]

* [[Graphical timeline of human evolution]]

* [[History of Earth]]

|

* [[Human behavioral ecology]]

* [[List of human fossils]]

* [[Human evolutionary genetics]]

* [[Mitochondrial Eve]] (African Eve theory)

* [[Multi-regional origin]]

* [[Origin belief]]

* [[Physical anthropology]]

* [[Single origin hypothesis]]

* [[Timeline of human evolution]]

* [[Uric acid]] (Loss of uricase in humans--[[JBS Haldane]],"Origin of Man",''Nature'',176,169(1955))

|}

==External links==

* [http://www.becominghuman.org/ Becoming Human] - Provided by the Institute of Human Origins.

* [http://www.imperial.ac.uk/P3487.htm The human immune system may limit future evolution]

* [http://www.human-evolution.org Human evolution and the future]

* [http://web4health.info/en/aux/homo-sapiens-future.html The future of homo sapiens]

* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html Hominid Species] at talkorigins.org

* [http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]

* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neanderthals/ Neanderthals on Trial] Nova Online - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.

* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html Tree of evolution of Man's fossil ancestors]

* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/FOXP2_language.htm FOXP2 and the Evolution of Language]

* [https://www5.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html Atlas of the Human Journey] (National Geographic)

* [http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Newsletters_and_Journals/ANU_Reporter/_pdf/vol_29_no_01/dogs.html Theory suggests greater role for man's best friend]

* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/AAT Waterside adaptations in the genus ''Homo'']

* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=0008C127-C322-1F80-B57583414B7F0103 Scientific American Magazine (November 2003 Issue) Stranger in a New Land]

* [http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block1/inhalt.html Theory of Human Sciences (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)]

* [http://anthro.amnh.org/anthropology/research/recon_wiki.htm <i>Homo erectus</i> and <i>Homo neanderthalensis</i> reconstructions] - Electronic articles published by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.

{{evolutionary biology}}

{{Human Evolution}}

{{Human}}

[[Category:Human evolution|*]]

[[Category:Neogene]]

[[ar:تطور الإنسان]]

[[bs:Ljudska evolucija]]

[[cs:Vývoj člověka]]

[[da:Menneskets udvikling]]

[[de:Hominisation]]

[[et:Inimese evolutsioon]]

[[el:Ανθρώπινη εξέλιξη]]

[[es:Evolución humana]]

[[fr:Évolution humaine]]

[[ko:인류의 진화]]

[[la:Evolutio Hominis]]

[[nl:Evolutie van de mens]]

[[pl:Ewolucja człowieka]]

[[pt:Evolução humana]]

[[ro:Antropogeneză]]

[[ru:Антропогенез]]

[[simple:Human evolution]]

[[sl:Nastanek in razvoj človeka]]

[[sr:Развој човека]]

[[fi:Ihmisen evoluutio]]

[[sv:Den mänskliga evolutionen]]

[[th:วิวัฒนาการของมนุษย์]]

[[uk:Антропогенез]]

[[zh:人類演化]]