Linux and Francis Drake: Difference between pages

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Revision as of 01:00, 10 July 2007

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:''This article is about the Elizabethan naval commander. For other people of the same name see [[Francis Drake (disambiguation)]].''

{{two other uses|operating systems that use the Linux kernel|the kernel itself|Linux kernel|}}

{{Infobox Pirate

|name=Sir Francis Drake

{{infobox OS

|lived=c. [[1540s]] - [[1596]]

| name = Linux

|image=[[Image:1590 or later Marcus Gheeraerts, Sir Francis Drake Buckland Abbey, Devon.jpg|150px]]

| screenshot = [[Image:Tux.svg|150px|Tux the penguin, the mascot of Linux]]

|caption= Sir Francis Drake

| caption = [[Tux]] the penguin, the mascot of the Linux kernel

|nickname= El Dragón

| family = [[Unix-like]]

|type=[[Privateer]]

| latest_release_version = 2.6.21 ([[Linux kernel]])

|placeofbirth={{flagicon|ENG}} [[Tavistock, Devon|Tavistock]], [[Devon]]

| latest_release_date = [[April 26]] [[2007]]

|placeofdeath=[[Portobelo, Panama|Porto Belo]], [[Panama]]

| kernel_type = Modular [[monolithic kernel]]

|allegiance={{flagicon|ENG}}England

| license = [[GNU General Public License]] and others

|serviceyears=

| working_state = Current

|base of operations=

|rank=[[Vice Admiral]]

|commands= [[Golden Hind]]

|battles=defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]]

|wealth=

|laterwork=

}}

'''Sir Francis Drake''', [[Vice Admiral]], (c. 1540 – [[January 27]] [[1596]]) was an [[England|English]] [[privateer]], [[Navigation|navigator]], [[slave]] trader, [[politics|politician]] and [[civil engineering|civil engineer]] of the [[Elizabethan era]]. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588. He died of [[dysentery]] after unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] in 1596.

{{Linux}}

His exploits were semi-legendary and made him a hero to the English but to the Spaniards he was equated with the devil. He was known as "El Dragón" (an obvious play on his family name) for his actions. King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] actually offerred a reward of 20,000 [[ducats]] (about $10 million by 2007 standards) for his life. Many a city in the 16th century was ransomed for less.

'''Linux''' ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]] pronunciation: {{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}}) is a [[Unix-like]] computer [[operating system]]. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of [[free software]] and [[open source]] development; its underlying [[source code]] can be modified, used, and redistributed by anyone, freely.<ref>{{ cite web | title = gNewSense joins list of FSF-approved distros | url = http://www.linux.com/article.pl?sid=06/11/08/193238 | publisher = Linux.com | first = Bruce | last = Byfield | date = [[10 November]] [[2006]] | accessdate = 2007-03-10 }}</ref>

While his passing was mourned in England, there were celebrations in Spain and its dominions.

Linux was first released to the public on [[17 September]] [[1991]]. The [[Linux kernel]] was augmented with [[system utility|system utilities]] and [[library (computer science)|libraries]] from the [[GNU Project]], which led to the coining of the term '''GNU/Linux'''.<ref name="lsag">{{ cite book | url = http://www.tldp.org/LDP/sag/html/sag.html#GNU-OR-NOT | title = Linux System Administrator's Guide | chapter = 1.1 | edition = version 0.9 | date = 2004 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | first = Alex | last = Weeks }}</ref>

{{pirates}}

Predominantly known for its use in [[server (computing)|server]]s, Linux has gained the support of corporations such as [[IBM]],<ref>http://www-1.ibm.com/linux/</ref> [[Sun Microsystems]],<ref>http://www.sun.com/software/linux/</ref> [[Hewlett-Packard]],<ref>http://www.hp.com/wwsolutions/linux/</ref> and [[Novell]],<ref>http://www.novell.com/linux/</ref> and is used as an operating system for a wider variety of computer [[hardware]] than any other operating system, including [[desktop computer]]s, [[supercomputers]],<ref>{{ cite web | title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | last = Lyons | first = Daniel | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> and [[embedded devices]] such as [[cellphone]]s. Linux is packaged for different uses in [[Linux distribution]]s, which contain the kernel along with a variety of other software packages tailored to requirements.

== Birth and early years ==

[[Image:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|left|[[Portrait miniature|Miniature]] of Drake, age 42 by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581]]

Francis Drake was born in the parish of Crowndale, a mile south of [[Tavistock, Devon|Tavistock]], [[Devon]], probably in February or March 1540 (Turner 2005:4). He was one of two sons of Edmund Drake (1518&ndash;1585), a [[Protestant]] farmer who later became a [[preacher]], and his wife Mary Mylwaye. Francis was a grandson of John Drake and Margaret Cole. He is sometimes confused with his cousin John Drake (1573&ndash;1634), who was the son of Edmund's older brother, Richard Drake. (cf. [[John White (surveyor)#endnote Drake|John White, note 2]]). His maternal grandfather was Richard Mylwaye. John Drake and Margaret Cole were also great-grandparents of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]].

He was reportedly named after his [[Godparent|godfather]] [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]], and throughout his cousins' lineages are direct connections to [[The Crown|royalty]] and famous persons, such as [[Richard Grenville|Sir Richard Grenville]], Ivor Callely , Amy Grenville, and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. However, [[James Anthony Froude|James Froude]]<!--in http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10392 --> states, "He told [[William Camden|Camden]] that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the [[John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford|Earl of Bedford]], and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."

== History ==

As with many of Drake's contemporaries, the exact date of his birth is unknown and could be as early as 1535, the 1540 date being extrapolated from two portraits: one a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]] painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, the other painted in 1594 when he was alleged to be 53 according to the 1921/22 edition of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', which quotes [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]]'s ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5. Francis was the eldest of 12 children; as he was not granted legal right to his father's farm, he had to find his own career.

[[Image:Richard Matthew Stallman.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Richard Stallman]], founder of the [[GNU project]] for a free operating system.]]

During the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] uprising of 1549, the family was forced to flee to [[Kent]]. At about the age of 13, Francis took to the sea on a cargo [[barque]], becoming master of the ship at the age of 20. He spent his early career honing his [[sailing]] skills on the difficult waters of the [[North Sea]], and after the death of the captain he became master of his own barque. At age 23, Drake made his first voyage to the [[New World]] under the sails of the Hawkins family of [[Plymouth]], in company with his second cousin, Sir [[John Hawkins]].

The [[GNU Project]], with the goal of creating a UNIX-like, [[POSIX]]-compatible operating system composed entirely of [[free software]],<ref>http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html</ref> had begun development in 1984, and a year later [[Richard Stallman]] had created the [[Free Software Foundation]] and wrote the first draft of the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPLv1). By the early 1990s, the project had produced or collected many necessary operating system components, including libraries, [[compiler]]s, [[text editor]]s, and a [[Unix shell]], and the upper level could be supplied by the [[X Window System]], but development of the lower level, which consisted of a [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], device drivers and daemons had stalled and was incomplete.<ref name="gnu history">http://www.gnu.org/gnu/gnu-history.html</ref>

In 1569 he was with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulua. He escaped along with Hawkins but the experience led him to his lifelong revenge against the Spanish.

[[Image:Linus Torvalds.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Linus Torvalds]], creator of the [[Linux kernel]].]]

== Circumnavigating the world ==

In 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] began to work on the [[Linux kernel]] while he was attending the [[University of Helsinki]].<ref>{{ cite newsgroup | title = What would you like to see most in minix? | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | id = [e-mail] | url = http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b | last = Torvalds | first = Linus | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> Torvalds originally intended Linux to be a non-commercial replacement for [[Minix]], an educational operating system developed by [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]].<ref>[http://people.fluidsignal.com/~luferbu/misc/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate]</ref> Linux was dependent on the Minix [[userspace]] at first.

[[Image:NPG Drake.jpg|thumb|Sir Francis Drake, circa 1581. After Drake became famous, portraits of him were in demand. This portrait may have been copied from [[Nicholas Hilliard|Hilliard's]] [[:Image:Sfdrake42.jpg|miniature]]—note that the shirt is the same — and the somewhat oddly proportioned body added by an artist who did not have access to Drake. National Portrait Gallery, London.<!--Source: Sugden's biography.-->]]

===Entering the Pacific===

In [[1577]], Drake was sent by Queen Elizabeth to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. He set out to depart from Plymouth on the 15th of November on his expedition, but terrible weather threatened him and his fleet, who were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair. After this minor setback, he set sail once again from England on [[December 13]], aboard the ''Pelican'', with four other ships 164 men. After crossing the Atlantic, one of the ships, under Thomas Winter turned back through the Magellan Strait, on the east coast of South America.

The four remaining ships departed for the [[Magellan Strait]] at the southern tip of the continent. This course established "[[Drake's Passage]]" but the route south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] around [[Cape Horn]] was not discovered until 1616. Drake crossed from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Magellan Strait. After this passage a storm blew his ship so far south that he realized Tierra del Fuego was not part of a southern continent, as was believed at that time. This voyage established Drake as the first Antarctic explorer, because the southernmost point of his voyage was at least 56 degrees according to astronomical data quoted in Haklyut's "The Principall Navigators" of 1589. This achievement was not surpassed until [[James Cook]]'s voyage of 1773 and was the first known occasion that any explorer had traveled further south than any other human being.

Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they too are released under the GPL. In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU project, Torvalds changed his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GPLv2.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/Historic/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.12 | title = RELEASE NOTES FOR LINUX v0.12

| work = Linux kernel | first = Linus | last = Torvalds | date = [[5 January]] [[1992]] | accessdate = 2007-12-05 | publisher = Linux Kernel Archives }}</ref> Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux. Thus Linux became a complete, fully functional free operating system.<ref name="gnu history"/>

A few weeks later Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the ships and caused another to return to England. He pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' in honour of Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] (after his [[coat of arms]]). The ''Golden Hind'' sailed north alone along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and rifling towns as it went. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake made good use of their more accurate charts.

=== Naming ===

The most notable seizures include when Drake captured a Spanish ship, laden with riches from Peru, which held 25,000 pesos of pure, fine gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money. Near [[Lima]], they discovered news of a ship sailing towards [[Panama]], The Cacafuego. They gave chase and eventually captured her, which proved to be their most profitable capture. They found 80lb of gold and a golden crucifix, countless jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver.

In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word ''Linux'':

===Nova Albion===

{{Cquotetxt|'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphtong, like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux.|Linus Torvalds|comp.os.linux newsgroup<ref>{{ cite newsgroup | newsgroups = comp.os.linux | title = Re: How to pronounce "Linux"? | id = [e-mail] | date = [[23 April]] [[1992]] | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}</ref>}}<!-- The above is an exact quote from the Usenet post. Do not copyedit it. -->

On [[June 17]], [[1579]], Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northern-most claim at [[Point Loma]]. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. It is said that he left behind many of his men as a small colony, but his planned return voyages to the colony were never realised. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy [[Trinity]] for the English Crown as called ''[[Nova Albion]]'' - [[Latin]] for "New Britain."

The precise ___location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even have been altered to this end. All first hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts were lost when [[Whitehall Palace]] burned in [[1698]]. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands, fitting the description in Drake's own account, was discovered in [[Marin County]], [[California]]. This so-called [[Drake's Plate of Brass]] was later declared a hoax.

Torvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English ({{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}})<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.paul.sladen.org/pronunciation/ | title = How to pronounce Linux? | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }}</ref> and Swedish ({{IPA|/ˈlɪːnɤks/}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds/|title=Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish|accessdate=2007-01-20}}</ref> English speakers may also pronounce the name as {{IPA|[ˈlaɪnʌks]}},<ref>{{cite web | title = Pronunciation Of 'Linux'| publisher = Safalra| url = http://www.safalra.com/science/linguistics/linux-pronunciation/ | accessdate = 2007-02-02}}</ref> {{IPA|/ˈlɪnʊks/}}, or {{IPA|/ˈlɪnəks/}}.<ref>{{cite web | title = List of words of disputed pronunciation | url = http://www.fact-index.com/l/li/list_of_words_of_disputed_pronunciation.html | accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref>

Another ___location often claimed to be Nova Albion is [[Whale Cove (Oregon)]], although to date there is no evidence to suggest this, other than a general resemblance to a single map penned a decade after the landing were "From Sea to Sea". The colonial claims were established with full knowledge of Drake's claims, which they reinforced, and remained valid in the minds of the English colonists on the Atlantic coast when those colonies became free states. Maps made soon after would have "''Nova Albion''" written above the entire northern frontier of New Spain. These territorial claims became important during the negotiations that ended the [[Mexican-American War]] between the United States and Mexico.

{{see also|History of the Linux kernel#The name}}

=== Linux andContinuing the GNU project journey===

[[Image:Sfec goldenhind02.JPG|thumb|left|300px|A modern replica of Drake's [[Golden Hind]]]]

Drake now headed westward across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the [[Moluccas]], a group of islands in the south west Pacific, in eastern modern-day [[Indonesia]]. While there, the ''Golden Hind'' became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After three days of waiting for expedient tides and dumping cargo, the barque was miraculously freed. Drake and his men befriended a sultan king of the Moluccas and involved themselves in some intrigues with the Portuguese there.

He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and reached [[Sierra Leone]] by [[July 22]], [[1580]]. On [[September 26]] the ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage overall, after [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s in 1520), Drake was knighted by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]] aboard the ''Golden Hind'' on [[April 4]], [[1581]], and became the Mayor of Plymouth and a Member of Parliament.

{{main|GNU/Linux naming controversy}}

The Queen ordered all written accounts of Drake's voyage to be considered [[classified information]], and its participants sworn to silence on pain of death; her aim was to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain.

The [[Free Software Foundation]] views Linux distributions which use GNU software as "variants" of the GNU system, and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as ''GNU/Linux'' or ''a Linux-based GNU system''.<ref>{{cite web | title = Linux and the GNU Project | url = http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html | first = Richard | last = Stallman | authorlink = Richard Stallman | date = [[3 March]] [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | publisher = Free Software Foundation | work = The GNU Project }}</ref> However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably [[Debian]] with the ''[[Debian GNU/Linux]]'' distribution, its use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial.

== The Spanish Armada ==

=== Copyright, licensing and the Linux trademark ===

{{main|Spanish Armada}}

War broke out between Spain and England in 1585. Drake sailed to the New World and sacked the ports of [[Santo Domingo]] and [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]. On the return leg of the voyage, he captured the Spanish fort of [[St. Augustine, Florida|San Augustíne]] in [[Spanish Florida]]. These exploits encouraged Philip II of Spain to order the planning for an invasion of England.

In a pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the King of Spain's beard" by sailing a fleet into [[Cadiz]], one of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbour for three days, capturing six ships and destroying 31 others as well as a large quantity of stores. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.

The Linux kernel and most GNU software are [[software license|license]]d under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that all distributed source code modifications and derived works also be licensed under the GPL, and is sometimes referred to as a "share and share-alike", "[[copyleft]]", or, pejoratively, a [[viral license]]. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, "Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did."<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://kde.sw.com.sg/food/linus.html | title = Linus Torvalds interview | accessdate = 2006-05-08 }}</ref> Other software may use other licenses; many libraries use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the [[X Window System]] uses the [[MIT License]]. After more than ten years, the Free Software Foundation announced that they would be upgrading the GPL to version 3, citing increasing concerns with [[software patent]]s and [[digital rights management]] (DRM).<ref>http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-gplv3-2006-02-25.html</ref> In particular, DRM is appearing in systems running copyleft software, a phenomenon dubbed "[[tivoization]]" after [[digital video recorder]] maker [[Tivo]]'s use of DRM in their Linux-based appliances.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.eweek.com/article2/0%2C1895%2C1915643%2C00.asp | title=GPL 3's DRM Provisions Raise Eyebrows | author=Galli, Peter | date=2006-01-26 | publication=[[eWeek.com]]}}</ref> Linus Torvalds has publicly stated on the [[Linux Kernel Mailing List]] that, based on the drafts of the license, he would not move the Linux kernel to GPL v.3, specifically citing the DRM provisions.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/1/25/273 | title=Re: GPL V3 and Linux - Dead Copyright Holders | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-01-26 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://lkml.org/lkml/2006/9/25/161 | title=Re: GPLv3 Position Statement | author=Torvalds, Linus | date=2006-09-25 | publisher=[[Linux Kernel Mailing List]]}}</ref>

[[Image:Loutherbourg-Spanish Armada.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The [[Spanish Armada]]]]

Drake was [[vice admiral]] in command of the English fleet (under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) when it overcame the [[Spanish Armada]] that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake put duty second and captured the Spanish galleon ''Rosario'', along with Admiral [[Pedro de Valdés]] and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight. This exemplified Drake's ability, as a privateer, to suspend strategic purpose if a tactical profit were on offer.

On the night of [[29 July]], along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of [[Calais]] into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the [[Spanish Armada#Battle of Gravelines|Battle of Gravelines]].

In March 2003, the [[SCO Group]] filed a [[SCO v. IBM|lawsuit]] against IBM, claiming that IBM had contributed parts of SCO's copyrighted code to the Linux kernel, violating IBM's license to use Unix. Also, SCO sent letters to several companies warning that their use of Linux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Linux users. Per the [[Utah]] [[District Court]] ruling on [[July 3]], [[2006]]; 182 out of 294 items of evidence provided by SCO against [[IBM]] in discovery were dismissed.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.idm.net.au/story.asp?id=7297 | title = SCO Losing Linux Battle With IBM }}</ref>

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of [[bowls]] on [[Plymouth Hoe]]. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. This battle was the high point of the remarkable mariner's career. In fact tidal conditions caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer{{Fact|date=February 2007}} so it is easy to see how a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat may have originated.

{{see also|SCO-Linux controversies}}

In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake was sent to support the rebels in [[Portugal]], which opposed the [[personal union]] of Spain and Portugal under King Philip II of Spain in 1580. En route, he sacked the city of [[La Coruña]] in Spain. This massive combined naval and land expedition (see "[[English Armada]]") was a dismal failure, attributed to a grievous lack of organization, poor training, and paltry supplies. It was a crucial turning point in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]].

In 2004, [[Kenneth Brown (author)|Ken Brown]], president of the [[Alexis de Tocqueville Institution]], published [[Samizdat (book)|Samizdat]], a highly controversial book which, among other criticism of open source software, denied Torvalds' authorship of the Linux kernel (attributing it to Tanenbaum, instead). This was rebutted by Tanenbaum himself.<ref name = "Who_Wrote_Linux">{{cite web| author = Tannenbaum, Andrew S. | title = Some notes on the "Who wrote Linux" Kerfuffle. | accessdate=2006-06-26 |url = http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/followup/}}</ref><ref name = "Who_Wrote_Linux2">{{cite web| author = Tannenbaum, Andrew S. | title = Source comparison of early linux and minix versions. | accessdate=2007-05-11 |url = http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/codecomparison/alexey.html}}</ref>

== Final years ==

In the United States, the name ''Linux'' is a [[trademark]] registered to Linus Torvalds.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://assignments.uspto.gov/assignments/q?db=tm&rno=1916230 | title = U.S. Reg No: 1916230 | publisher = United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> Initially, nobody registered it, but on [[August 15]] [[1994]], William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark ''Linux'', and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/9065 | title = Linux Timeline | publisher = Linux Journal | date = [[31 May]] [[2006]] }}</ref> The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the [[Linux Mark Institute]]. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by [[United States trademark law]] to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/09/05/36OPopenent_1.html | title = Linus gets tough on Linux trademark | accessdate = 2006-09-04 | date = 2005-09-05 }}</ref>

Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered several defeats in a row, he unsuccessfully attacked [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], [[Puerto Rico]]. The Spanish gunners from [[El Morro Castle]] shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. In 1596, he died of [[dysentery]] while anchored off the coast of Porto Belo, Panama where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin, near [[Portobelo]], [[Panama]].

==Cultural impact==

=== Milestones ===

Drake's exploits as an explorer have become an irrevocable part of the world's subconsciousness, particularly in Europe. Numerous stories and fictional adaptations of his adventures exist to this day. Considered a hero in England, it is said that if England is ever in peril, beating [[Drake's Drum]] will cause Drake to return to save the country. This is a variation of the [[King in the mountain|sleeping hero]] folk-tale.

During his trip

The Linux and GNU foundation formed the basis for an operating system which has since been completed by the efforts of numerous members of the free and open source software community. Significant milestones include:

of the globe, Drake left a plate upon leaving his landing place on the west coast of North America, claiming the land for England. In the 1930s, it appeared that Drake's plate had been found near San Francisco. Forty years later, scientists confirmed that the plate was a [[hoax]], as had been suspected. Later information attributed the hoax to [[E Clampus Vitus]].

Drake's adventures, though less known in the United States, still have some effect. For instance, a major east-west road in [[Marin County, California]] is named [[Sir Francis Drake Boulevard]]. It connects Point San Quentin on [[San Francisco Bay]] with [[Point Reyes]] and [[Drakes Bay]]. Each end is near a site considered by some to be Drake's landing place.

* The launch of the [[KDE]] [[desktop environment]] by [[Matthias Ettrich]] in October [[1996]]<ref>http://www.kde.org/history/</ref> followed by the comparable [[GNOME]] alternative by [[Miguel de Icaza]] in August [[1997]],<ref>http://primates.ximian.com/~miguel/gnome-history.html</ref> both based on the [[X11]] windowing system developed at [[MIT]]. GNOME and KDE became Linux [[operating system shell]]s, responsible for the direct contact with users.

* The release of the [[Netscape]] [[web browser|browser]]'s [[source code]] on [[March 31]], [[1998]], which kicked off the [[Mozilla]] project that would eventually give birth to the popular [[Mozilla Firefox]] browser.<ref>http://wiki.mozilla.org/History:Timelines</ref>

[[Image:OOoWrite22.png|thumb|[[OpenOffice.org]] 2.2 - Writer : Word processor component of the multi-platform free software office suite.]]

* The release of [[StarOffice]] by [[Sun Microsystems]] which in June 2000 became the base for the free software [[OpenOffice.org]] office suite,<ref>http://about.openoffice.org/index.html</ref> a major event in the open source office world.<ref>http://www.openoffice.org/about_us/milestones.html</ref> ''See also: [[list of free software]]''.

* The growth of commercial interest in Linux is similarly marked by notable events: the launch in February 1998 of the [[Open Source Initiative]]; the announcement in July 1998 by [[Oracle Corporation]] that it would port its well-known [[database]] software to Linux and provide support for it; the [[Initial public offering|IPO]]s of [[Red Hat]] on [[November 11]], [[1999]] and [[VA Linux]] the following month which would create a [[speculative bubble]]; the wide-scale support of technology giant [[IBM]] that would spend millions of dollars on Linux, employing in 2005 close to 300 developers of the [[Linux kernel]], and would organize starting in 2003 the legal defense for the [[SCO-Linux controversies|SCO vs. Linux]] controversy against the attacks of the [[SCO Group]] that claimed copyright over the [[Linux kernel]]; and finally the acquisition in October and November 2003 of [[Ximian]] and then [[SuSE]] by the American technology company [[Novell]].<ref>[http://www.redhat.com/about/companyprofile/history/ History of RedHat Linux]</ref>

In 1961 the television series ''[[Sir Francis Drake (television)|Sir Francis Drake]]'' debuted on [[ITV]], starring [[Terence Morgan]] in the title role.

Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from [[embedded systems]]<ref>http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-embdev.html</ref> to [[supercomputers]],<ref>{{cite web| last = Lyons | first = Daniel| title = Linux rules supercomputers | url = http://www.forbes.com/home/enterprisetech/2005/03/15/cz_dl_0315linux.html | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> and has secured a place in [[server]] installations with the popular [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] application stack.<ref>{{cite web| last = Schrecker| first = Michael| title = Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP | url = http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/webbuilding/page5067.cfm | accessdate = 2007-02-22}}</ref> Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn develops the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of [[Linux distribution]]s.

== Development Controversies==

===Spanish Opinion of Drake===

Though considered a hero in England in his own time and regarded as a significant historical figure even now, Spanish history perceives him as a mere pirate who used to sack Spanish harbours. Drake, or ''Draco'' ("[[dragon]]") or "El Draqui," to use Spanish names for him, was used as a [[bogeyman]] for centuries after his "vicious" raids.

=== Slave Trading ===

[[Image:Unix history.svg|thumb|left|220px|A graphical history of [[Unix]] systems. Linux is a Unix-type system but its source code does not descend from the original Unix.]]

Drake and Sir [[John Hawkins]] made the first English [[Atlantic slave trade|slave-trading]] expeditions, making his fortune through the sale of West Africans. Around 1563 Drake first sailed west to the [[Spanish Main]], on a ship owned by his uncle [[John Hawkins]], with a cargo of people forcibly removed from the coast of West Africa. Drake planned to sell the Africans into slavery in Spanish [[plantations]]. But Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their Catholicism and inherent mistrust of non-Spaniards. His hostility is said to have increased over an incident at San Juan de Ulua in 1568, when, while delivering his human cargo, a Spanish fleet took him by surprise. Although he was in an enemy port, it was conventional for the Spanish to 'surrender' for a few hours in order to purchase control of the kidnap victims. Thus it was unusual for a fleet of enemy warships to appear out of the blue. Drake survived the attack largely because of his ability to swim. From then on, he devoted his life to working against the [[Spanish Empire]]; the Spanish considered him an outlaw [[pirate]] (see also [[Piracy in the Caribbean]]), but to England he was simply a sailor and privateer. On his second such voyage, he fought a battle against Spanish forces that cost many English lives but earned him the favour of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]].

=== Conflict in the Caribbean ===

A 2001 study of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million [[source lines of code]]. Using the [[COCOMO|Constructive Cost Model]], the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional [[proprietary software|proprietary]] means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.<ref name = "estimating_size">{{ cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | date = 2002-07-29 | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html | title = More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref>

The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the [[Spanish Main]] was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at [[Nombre de Dios]] in March 1573. With a crew including many [[France|French]] privateers and [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]] &mdash; African slaves who had escaped the Spanish &mdash; Drake raided the waters around [[Darién, Panama|Darien]] (in modern [[Panama]]) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped that one day an Englishman would be able to sail it, which he would years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.

When Drake returned to Plymouth on [[August 9]] [[1573]], a mere 30 Englishmen returned with him, every one of them rich for life. However, Queen Elizabeth, who had up to this point sponsored and encouraged Drake's raids, signed a temporary truce with King [[Philip II of Spain]], and so was unable to officially acknowledge Drake's accomplishment.

Most of the code (71%) was written in the [[C (programming language)|C]] [[computer programming|programming]] [[programming language|language]], but many other languages were used, including [[C++]], [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]], [[assembly language]], [[Perl]], [[Fortran]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]] and various [[shell script]]ing languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.<ref name = "estimating_size"/>

=== Atrocities in Ireland ===

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 2.2.<ref>{{ cite web | first = Jesús M | last = González-Barahona | coauthors = et al | date = [[3 January]] [[2002]] | url = http://people.debian.org/~jgb/debian-counting/counting-potatoes/ | title = Counting potatoes: The size of Debian 2.2 | accessdate = 2006-05-11 }}</ref> This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop by conventional means.

In 1575 Drake was present at [[Rathlin Island]], part of the English plantation effort in [[Ulster]] when 600 men, women and children were massacred after surrendering.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland#Early_Plantations]

=== Programming on Linux ===

Francis Drake was in charge of the ships which transported John Norris' Troops to Rathlin Island, commanding a small frigate called "Falcon", with a total complement of 25. At the time of the massacre, he was charged with the task of keeping Scottish vessels from bringing reinforcements to Rathlin Island. The people who were massacred were, in fact, the families of [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]]'s followers.<ref>John Sugden, "Sir Francis Drake" Simon Schuster New York, ISBN 0671758632</ref>

Most Linux distributions support dozens of [[programming language]]s. Core system software such as libraries and basic utilities are usually written in C. Enterprise software is often written in C, C++, Java, Perl, Ruby, or Python{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the [[GNU toolchain]], which includes the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC) and the [[GNU build system]]. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], and [[Fortran]]. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC.

=== The case of [[Thomas Doughty (explorer)|Thomas Doughty]] ===

Most distributions also include support for [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are [[C Sharp|C#]] via the [[Mono (software)|Mono]] project, and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]. A number of [[Java Virtual Machine]]s and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM ([[HotSpot]]), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like [[Kaffe]]. The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]]. These projects are based on the [[GTK+]] and [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]s, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of [[Integrated development environment]]s available including [[Anjuta]], [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]], [[KDevelop]], [[MonoDevelop]], [[NetBeans]], and [[Omnis Studio]] while the traditional editors [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] and [[Emacs]] remain popular.<ref>{{ cite web | first = Joe | last = Brockmeier | title = A survey of Linux Web development tools | url = http://programming.linux.com/programming/05/10/03/1828224.shtml?tid=63&tid=47 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 }}</ref>

In 1578, Drake had his co-commander Thomas Doughty beheaded with fabricated accusations of witchcraft in a mock trial.<ref>Stephen Coote, "Drake", Simon Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743220072</ref>

Although free and open source compilers and tools are widely used under Linux, there are also proprietary solutions available from a range of companies, including the [[Intel C++ Compiler]], PathScale,<ref>http://www.pathscale.com/ekopath.html</ref> Micro Focus COBOL,<ref>http://www.microfocus.com</ref> [[Franz Inc]],<ref>http://www.franz.com/</ref> and the Portland Group.<ref>http://www.pgroup.com/</ref>

== Philosophy ==

[[Image:Copyleft.svg|thumb|The [[copyleft]] logo. Modification and redistribution of copylefted works is permitted provided derivative works are also copylefted.]]

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the [[Linux kernel]] and other components are [[free software|free]] and [[open source software]]. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the most well-known and widely used one. Some [[free software license|free]] and [[open source license|open source]] software licences are based on the principle of [[copyleft]], a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the [[GNU GPL]], is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the [[GNU project]].

=== Interoperability ===

Linux aims for [[interoperability]] with other operating systems such as (but not limited to) Microsoft Windows and Apple OS X, and by extension the software that runs on Linux aims for interoperability with other Linux and non-Linux software. As an operating system [[underdog (competition)|underdog]] competing with mainstream operating systems, Linux cannot rely on a [[monopoly]] advantage; in order for Linux to be a convenient operating system for users that is commercially viable, it must interact well with non-Linux computers. Interoperability also provides users free choice of software and data formats whilst not restricting them as a result of that choice.

Linux systems adhere to [[POSIX]], [[Single UNIX Specification|SUS]], [[ISO]], and [[ANSI]] standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.<ref>[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/0131 Certifying Linux]</ref><ref>[http://www.debian.org/doc/FAQ/ch-compat.en.html#s-otherunices How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems?]</ref><ref>[http://www.ukuug.org/newsletter/linux-newsletter/linux@uk21/posix.shtml POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-2) Certification] </ref><!-- a reference about the expense of certification would be good-->

A priority is placed on [[open format]]s, public specifications for data that are freely available and free to implement, such that there can be multiple competing independent implementations to choose from, instead of only a single piece of software which can work with a specific format. These contrast with [[proprietary formats]], which are either poorly documented or not documented at all, and for which there exists no agreement between competing vendors. When standards exist for network communication protocols, data formats, and [[API]]s, they contribute to the robustness and adoption of Linux. In some cases, free software projects are the reference implementation of these protocols, examples being the [[Apache HTTP Server]],{{Fact|date=February 2007}} <!-- don't ask me, it's from the French page, please fact check --> and the [[X.org]] implementation of the [[X Window System]].

Examples of standard conformance include [[Mozilla Firefox]] which adheres strictly to [[World Wide Web Consortium]] recommendations<ref>[http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Using_Web_Standards_in_your_Web_Pages Using Web Standards in your Web Pages]</ref>, [[Jabber]] which formed the basis for the [[XMPP]] standard recognized by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] in the ___domain of [[instant messaging]], and office productivity suites such as [[OpenOffice.org]] and [[KOffice]] which brought to light the recent [[OpenDocument]] standard.

In other domains, there are neither recognized standards nor organizations to manage them. The market is therefore split between software which attempts to interoperate as much as possible, and that which establishes market dominance through [[vendor lock-in]], or the use of [[proprietary formats]] and [[communication protocols]]. Prime examples of the first category draw from the [[instant messaging]] war, which is ruled by multiprotocol software such as [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]], [[Kopete]], and [[Trillian (software)|Trillian]]. The second category of software is exemplified by [[Microsoft Office]] and its widely used closed file formats, and the [[Common Internet File System]] protocol which allow for files and printers to be shared between different computers on a [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] network.

In these cases, interoperability depends on [[reverse engineering]], which requires a substantial investment on the part of developers. The legal status of reverse engineering varies from country to country. Today, as a result of reverse engineering, [[OpenOffice.org]] can read most ''.doc'' files, and [[Samba (software)|Samba]] allows non-Windows machines to interact with a Windows network.

A further problem beyond reverse engineering is when interoperability is needed for a format or protocol that is technically encumbered by [[digital rights management]] or [[Trusted Computing]], or legally restricted by [[software patents]] or laws such as the [[European Copyright Directive]] and [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]].

=== Portability ===

Linux is a widely [[porting|ported]] operating system. While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for [[Intel 80386]] [[microprocessor]]s, it now runs on a more diverse range of [[computer architecture]]s than any other operating system—<ref>{{ cite web| url = http://www.freeos.com/articles/4737/ | title = If I could re-write Linux | first = Prakash | last = Advani | date = [[February 8]] [[2004]] | accessdate = 2007-01-23 | publisher = freeos.com }}</ref> from the hand-held [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-based [[iPAQ]] to the [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] [[IBM]] [[System z9]], in devices ranging from [[supercomputer]]s to [[mobile phone]]s. Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The [[ELKS]] kernel [[fork (software development)|fork]] can run on [[Intel 8086]] or [[Intel 80286]] [[16-bit]] microprocessors, while the [[µClinux]] kernel may run on systems without a [[memory management unit]] including the [[Apple iPod]]. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as the [[iMac]] and [[PowerBook]], [[Palm (PDA)|Palm]] PDAs, [[GameCube]], [[Xbox]], [[Playstation 3]] and even the [[Playstation Portable]].

=== Community ===

Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, [[Debian]] being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as [[RedHat]] does with [[Fedora Core]].

In many cities and regions, local associations known as [[Linux Users Group]]s (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. There are also many [[internet]] communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and open source projects have a chatroom on the popular [[freenode]] [[IRC]] network that are open to anybody with an [[IRC client]]. [[Online forum]]s are another means for support, with notable examples being [[LinuxQuestions.org]] and the [[Gentoo]] forums. Finally, every established free software project and Linux distribution has one or more [[mailing list]]s; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list. The [[Linux Kernel Mailing List]] is a high-volume list where all Linux kernel development happens. [[SourceForge]], [[GNU Savannah|Savannah]], and [[Apache Software Foundation|Apache]] host many free and open source software projects using standard [[collaborative software]].

Linux-based [[newsgroup]]s are available via the [[Google Groups]] interface and also via [[news reader]]s. There are also several technology websites with a Linux focus. [[Linux Weekly News]] is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the [[Linux Journal]] is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; [[Slashdot]] is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; [[Groklaw]] has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings; and there are many articles relevant to Linux on the [[Free Software Foundation]] website.

People who contribute to free software are not all [[software developers]], as exemplified by the [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]] projects; there are many non-development contributions needed, as is the case for any software product. Furthermore, the principles of free software and open source have had repercussions in other domains where collaboration is possible and the cost of making copies is marginal. Amongst the members of this [[open source culture]] are the [[Creative Commons]] movement initiated by [[Lawrence Lessig]] and the collaborative encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] founded by [[Jimmy Wales]].

Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software. These include [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Novell]], and [[Red Hat]]. The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as [[symbiotic]].

One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.

The [[XO-1 (laptop)|XO laptop]] project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach [http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml several hundred million schoolchildren] and their families and communities in developing countries. [http://wiki.laptop.org/go/countries Six countries] have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. [[Google]], [[Red Hat]], and [[eBay]] are major supporters of the project.

== Distribution ==

[[Image:LinuxDistroTimeline.png|thumb|right|Linux Distro Genesis, timeline representing the development of various Linux distributions.]]

{{main|Linux distribution}}

Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a [[Linux distribution]].

A [[Linux distribution]], commonly called a "distro", is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. They include system software and [[application software]] in the form of ''packages'', and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.

A typical general purpose distribution includes the following:

# A [[boot loader]]: A piece of software that can be loaded by the systems firmware (bios in the case of a PC) and then perform the actions needed to load and start the linux kernel. Often a menu is presented that will allow the user to select which operating system to load. The most common bootloaders for the PC architecture are [[LILO (boot loader)|LILO]] or [[GRUB]].

# The [[Linux kernel]]: The core or heart of the operating system. The name of the OS comes from here.

# Boot scripts, disk/storage maintenance tools, authentication tools, and [[scripting language]]s: They are administration tools, usually considered part of the operating system.

# [[GNU C Library]] and, optionally, the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]: The development tools, used to assist or develop applications.

# [[GNU bash]] shell, [[X Window System]] networking and display protocol and an accompanying [[desktop environment]] such as [[KDE]], [[GNOME]],or [[Xfce]]: The shells and graphic systems, used for interacting with the user.

# Application software packages: There are hundreds of them in most distributions (thousands in bigger distributions, like [[Gentoo Linux|Gentoo]], [[Fedora (Linux distribution)|Fedora]], [[Debian]], etc.) , from [[office suite]]s to [[webserver]]s to [[media player]]s to [[3D computer graphics software]] to [[text editor]]s, and scientific programs. They may come in some storage medium, like a DVD, or, more commonly, be available in on-line repositories.

# [[Package management]] software: These are created specifically for the distribution, for organizing all software, seamless downloading and installing, upgrading and managing security issues.

As well as those designed for general purpose use, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: [[computer architecture]] support, [[Embedded Linux|embedded systems]], stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for [[real-time]] applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only [[free software]]. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | accessdate = 2006-05-19 }}</ref>

== Interface ==

[[Image:Bash screenshot.png|thumb|left|The command line, favoured by some Linux power users]]

=== Command line interface (CLI) ===

Linux includes by default a [[command line interface]] (CLI) as part of its [[Unix-like]] functionality. Distributions specialized for servers or administration may use the CLI as their only interface, for the absence of a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) reduces system resource consumption. As well, Linux machines can run without a monitor attached. In order for a user these "headless systems", either remote [[X11]] usage is necessary, or the CLI must be used via a protocol such as [[SSH]] or [[telnet]]. On local networks, remote [[X11]] usage is generally acceptable, but over long distances high network latency can make it impractical.

In the early history of Linux, many operations required CLI usage. The advent of distributions dedicated to desktop and family have changed this. However, online manuals for Linux often mention a CLI-based solution to a problem, even if a GUI-based alternative exists. The CLI is frequently present in the Linux world, whereas GUIs can differ from machine to machine. It also facilitates inter-operation between Linux and non-Linux machines which also have a CLI; [[Mac OS X]] machines are one example.

Many important programs do not have a GUI, including most of the GNU [[userland]]. This comes from the [[Unix philosophy]] of designing a program to do one thing, and to do it well. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and there is a natural progression where the command to perform a task is first issued directly, and then later reused in a script to provide automation.

Graphical and command line interfaces can also complement each other. There are a host of graphical [[terminal emulator]] programs, including [[xterm]], [[rxvt]], [[aterm]], [[gnome-terminal]], and [[konsole]]. For these programs, the X11 copy and paste mechanism can facilitate communication between the terminal and GUI applications.

A misconception about Linux states that Linux is almost exclusively CLI-driven. Despite the importance of CLI in Linux, most, if not all, of the tasks can be carried out through GUIs, much like [[Windows]], [[OSX]], [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]], or any other commercial operating system.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== X window managers ===

[[Image:Window maker freebsd screenshot.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Window Maker]] 0.91.0, showing the [[XMMS]] music player, [[xterm]] terminal emulator, and Window Maker application menu and preferences.]]

<!-- I chose FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker because they had the most extensive Wikipedia pages. -->

: <em>Main article: [[X window manager]]</em>

The traditional GUI for a Linux operating system is based on a stand-alone [[X window manager]] such as [[FVWM]], [[Enlightenment (window manager)|Enlightenment]], or [[Window Maker]], and a suite of diverse applications running under it. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the [[X window system]].

This model contrasts with that of platforms such as [[Mac OS]], which were developed during the same era as the X window system. Under such platforms, the user interface is unified by a single toolkit that provides widgets for everything from buttons to window decorations such as title bars, manages window placement, and otherwise provides a consistent [[look and feel]] to the user. Because the X window managers only manage the placement of windows, their decoration, and some [[inter-process communication]], the look and feel of individual applications may vary widely, especially if they use different graphical user interface toolkits.

=== Desktop environments ===

[[Image:Gnome-2.16-screenshot.png|thumb|right|250px|GNOME 2.16, showing the [[Nautilus (file manager)|Nautilus]] file manager and the [[gedit]] text editor.]]

{{main|X Window System desktop environment}}

The use of window managers by themselves declined with the rise of Linux [[desktop environments]]. They combine a window manager with a suite of standard applications that adhere to [[human interface guidelines]]. While a window manager is analogous to the [[Aqua (user interface)|Aqua]] user interface for Mac OS X, a desktop environment is analogous to Aqua with all of the default Mac OS X graphical applications and configuration utilities. Initially, [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] was available as a proprietary solution. It was never popular on Linux, due to its cost and licensing restrictions.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[KDE]], which was announced in [[1996]], has become the second most popular desktop environment{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. [[GNOME]] and [[Xfce]] were both announced in [[1997]]. Both are now based on the [[GTK]] toolkit. [[As of 2007]], GNOME is the default desktop environment in most major distributions, including [[Debian]], [[Ubuntu]], [[RHEL]], [[Fedora]] and [[SUSE]]{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. [[Xfce]], when compared to KDE and GNOME, is a smaller project, is less popular, is more fast, is more modular, and uses less [[internal memory]].

===Viability for use as a desktop system===

Linux has been criticized for being inadequate for desktop use, notably because of the perceived availability of only questionable alternatives to widely-used applications (especially office suites) and hardware support issues,<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://news.zdnet.co.uk/software/0,1000000121,39217113,00.htm | author = Andy McCue | work = ZNet.co.uk | date = [[9 September]] [[2005]] | title = Gartner sounds desktop Linux warning | accessdate = 2007-04-15 }} </ref> which is claimed particularly problematic for laptop users as they tend to use many proprietary devices. A steep learning curve of Linux beyond basic use, various incompatibilities with other operating systems, and difficulty involved with setting up hardware are also notable complaints. Further, Linux has been accused of being "not ideal" for intermediate power users.<ref>{{ cite news | work = Computerworld (Australia) | url = http://www.computerworld.com.au/index.php/id;1462899608;fp;4194304;fpid;1 | title = Living (and dying) with Linux in the workplace - A brief foray into Linux for the enterprise | author = Sharon Machlis | date = [[22 March]] [[2007]] |

accessdate = 2007-04-15 }} </ref>

<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.linuxplanet.com/linuxplanet/reports/5401/1/ |title = Linux criticism revs up - backlash against success | work = Linux Planet | author= Ron Miller |accessdate = 2007-04-08 |date = [[20 May]] [[2004]]}}</ref>

<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://www.eetimes.com/article/showArticle.jhtml?articleId=18900949 | work = EE Times | title = Green Hills calls Linux 'insecure' for defense | author = Alexander Wolfe | date = [[9 April]] [[2004]] | accessdate = 2007-04-18}} </ref>

== Applications ==

=== Desktop ===

[[Image:Kde35.png|thumb|right|250px|KDE 3.5, showing the [[Kontact]] personal information manager and [[Konqueror]] file manager, web browser, and file viewer.]]

{{main|Desktop Linux}}

Under Linux, desktop software of high quality is in high demand; this includes applications such as word processors, spreadsheets, email clients, and web browsers.

The following are the major Linux desktop applications:

* Office: [[OpenOffice.org]]. It may be useful to [[Comparison of office suites|compare office suites]].

* Internet: [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]], [[Mozilla Thunderbird|Thunderbird]], [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]], [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]], and [[Azureus]]

* Multimedia: [[VLC media player|VLC]], [[MPlayer]], [[Xine]], [[XMMS]], [[Totem (media player)|Totem]], and [[Amarok]]

* Graphics: [[The GIMP]], [[Inkscape]], [[Scribus]], [[Blender (software)|Blender]]

Although in specialized application domains such as [[desktop publishing]] and [[professional audio]] there may be a lack of commercial quality software, users migrating from Mac OS X and Windows can find equivalent applications for most tasks.<ref>[http://www.linuxrsp.ru/win-lin-soft/table-eng.html The table of equivalents / replacements / analogs of Windows software in Linux.]</ref><!--This reference is GFDL, and I think an "application equivalence" comparison in Wikipedia for notable applications might be a neat project... not sure...-->

Furthermore, it is uncommon{{Fact|date=May 2007}} for a free software project that works under Windows or Mac OS X not to have a Linux version; a user accustomed to using free software under Windows can generally expect to find the same applications running under Linux.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported under Linux,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iist.unu.edu/globaldesktop/ | title = The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities|accessdate = 2006-05-07 }}</ref> examples being [[Adobe Flash Player]], [[Adobe Acrobat|Acrobat Reader]], [[Nero Burning ROM]], [[Opera (Internet suite)|Opera]], [[RealPlayer]], and [[Skype]]. In the field of animation and visual effects, most highend software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake are available both for Linux, Windows and/or MacOS X. Additionally, [[Crossover Office]] is a commercial solution based on the open source [[WINE]] project that supports running Windows versions of [[Microsoft Office]] and [[Photoshop]].

==== Games ====

[[Image:Vegastrike Lazer rain.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vega Strike]], a space flight game.]]

{{main|Linux gaming}}

There are far fewer games available for Linux than for Windows, console systems, or Mac OS X; game development companies generally receive a lower return on investment when they support an operating system with a small market share. The ''Linux Gamers' Game List'' is a long but selective list,<ref>[http://icculus.org/lgfaq/gamelist.php Linux Gamers' Game List]</ref> and ''The Linux Game Tome'' is a database with many entries that is less discriminating but has user comments and rankings.<ref>[http://www.happypenguin.org/ The Linux Game Tome]</ref>

There are few original open source games that have obtained notability, examples being ''[[NetHack]]'' and ''[[Tux Racer]]''. Remakes and re-releases are more common, examples being ''[[Freeciv]]'' and ''[[The Ur-Quan Masters]]''. In some cases, developers have released Linux ports of their games directly, with [[id Software]] releasing both ''[[Quake 3 Arena]]'' and ''[[Quake 4]]''. Independent companies have also taken on the task of porting prominent Windows games to Linux after their initial release. [[Loki Software]] was the first such company, founded in 1998, and superseded by [[Linux Game Publishing]] in 2001. [[Wine (software)|Wine]] and the commercial [[Cedega]] fork allow many Windows games to run natively under Linux, and virtual machines and low-level machine emulators provide binary compatibility for games designed for other platforms.

[[Library (software)|Library]] support for Linux gaming is provided directly by [[OpenGL]] and [[Advanced Linux Sound Architecture|ALSA]], or by [[Simple DirectMedia Layer|SDL]], a cross-platform multimedia wrapper around system-dependent libraries. The [[Direct Rendering Infrastructure|DRI]] project provides open source video card drivers, and [[NVIDIA]], and [[ATI Technologies|ATI]] also release binary kernel modules for their video cards. Linux runs on several game consoles, including the [[Xbox]],<ref>[http://www.xbox-linux.org/wiki/Main_Page Xbox Linux Wiki]</ref> [[PS2 Linux|Playstation 2, 3]], and [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]],<ref>[http://www.gc-linux.org/wiki/Main_Page Gamecube Linux Wiki]</ref> which allows game developers without an expensive game development kit to access console hardware.

Additionally, some [[SEGA]] arcade machines, specifically the [[Sega Lindbergh]] series, run Linux. However, these machines have [[DRM]]s built in that prevent Linux users from running these games on other Linux machines.

=== Servers, supercomputers and embedded devices ===

Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a [[Server (computing)|server]] operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; [[Netcraft]] reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their [[web server]]s.<ref>{{ cite web | title = Rackspace Most Reliable Hoster in September | url = http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/10/07/rackspace_most_reliable_hoster_in_september.html | publisher = Netcraft | date = [[October 7]] [[2006]] | accessdate = 2006-11-01}}</ref> This is due to its relative stability and long uptimes, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] server-software combination (Linux, [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]], [[MySQL]], [[Perl]]/[[PHP]]/[[Python (programming language)|Python]]) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.

Linux is commonly used as an operating system for [[supercomputer]]s. As of [[January 5]] [[2007]], out of the top 500 systems, 376 (75.2%) run Linux.<ref>http://www.top500.org/stats/28/osfam/</ref>

Due to its low cost and its high configurability, an [[embedded Linux]] is often used in [[embedded systems]] such as television [[set-top box]]es, [[mobile phone]]s, and [[handheld device]]s. Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary [[Symbian OS]] found in many mobile phones (16.7% of [[smartphone]]s sold worldwide during 3Q, 2006 were using Linux<ref>http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=197000995</ref>), and it is an alternative to the dominant [[Windows CE]] and [[Palm OS]] operating systems on [[handheld device]]s. The popular [[TiVo]] digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp | title = TiVo - GNU/Linux Source Code | accessdate = 2006-12-12 }}</ref> Several network [[firewall]] and [[router]] standalone products, including several from [[Linksys]], use Linux internally, using its advanced firewalling and routing capabilities. The [[Korg OASYS]] and the [[Yamaha Motif|Yamaha Motif XS]] [[music workstation]]s also run Linux.

=== Market share and uptake ===

{{Main|Linux adoption}}

Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.<ref>{{ cite web | first = David A | last = Wheeler | url = http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html | title = Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}

</ref> The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.techweb.com/wire/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=55800522 | title = Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008 | accessdate = 2006-04-01 }}

</ref> The actual installed user base may be higher than indicated by this figure, as most Linux distributions and applications are freely available and redistributable.

Desktop adoption is weaker than server adoption, with diverse calculations generally figuring between 0.3% and 3% as a function of the sample set and calculation methods used.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} According to market research company [[International Data Corporation|IDC]], 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers ran Linux as of 2004.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2004/02/04/ecnconc04.xml | title = Microsoft eyes up a new kid on the block | publisher = The Daily Telegraph | first = Dominic | last = White | date = 2004-04-02 | accessdate = 2006-09-09 }}</ref> The estimate of these numbers is driven by website traffic analysis, which may be complicated by two factors.

First, many [[web browsers]] can modify their identity, either by default or via user action, by exploiting the [[user agent string]], so as not to be blocked by [[websites]] that refuse to interact with browsers other than [[Internet Explorer]] running under [[Microsoft Windows]]{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. Second, a Linux system may be configured not to communicate this information for privacy and security reasons.

It has been alleged that people regard Linux as suitable mostly for computer experts because mainstream [[computer magazine]] reporters cannot explain what Linux is in a meaningful way, as they lack real life experience using it.<ref name="Linux_Online_Getting_Started">[http://www.linux.org/lessons/beginner/l1/lesson1b.html Linux Online - Getting Started with Linux - Lesson 1 (2)]</ref> Furthermore, the frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for [[Microsoft Windows]] have been two factors that have inhibited adoption. However, as of early 2007, significant progress in hardware compatibility has been made, and it is becoming increasingly common for hardware to work "out of the box" with many Linux distributions. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www-306.ibm.com/software/info/features/feb152005/ | title = Why customers are flocking to Linux }}</ref> low cost, and freedom from [[vendor lock-in]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ca.com/za/news/2005/20051010_linux.htm| title = The rise and rise of Linux }}</ref>

== See also ==

{{portalpar|Free software|Floss draft.png}}

* [[List of Linux distributions]]

* [[Comparison of Linux distributions]]

* [[List of Linux magazines]]

* [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]

* [[Total cost of ownership]]

* [[Criticism of Linux]]

* [[DistroWatch]]

* [[:Category: Linux software|Linux software]]

== References ==

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==References==

== External links ==

* [[Samuel Bawlf|Bawlf, R. Samuel]]. ''The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580.''(Douglas & McIntyre, 2003)

* Coote, Stephen, ''Drake'', Simon & Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0-7432-2007-2.

{{Sisterlinks|Linux}}

* Froude, James Anthony, ''English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century'', London 1896, available as a free [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18209 eText] from [[Project Gutenberg]]

* Hughes-Hallett, Lucy. ''Heroes: A History of Hero Worship.'' Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 2004. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.

* [[Garett Mattingly|Mattingly, Garett]], ''[[The Defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'', ISBN 0-395-08366-4 &ndash; a detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada, it received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960.

* Merideth, Mrs. Charles, ''Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; BOUND WITH: "Life of Drake" by [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]]'' (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectfully]

* [[N. A. M. Rodger|Rodger, N.A.M.]] ''The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660-1649.'' (London, 1997).

* Turner, Michael. (2005). ''In Drake's Wake - The Early Voyages'', Paul Mould Publishing. ISBN 978-1904959212

==See also==

* [http://www.tldp.org/ The Linux Documentation Project] — HOWTOs, FAQs and other guides

* [[Buckland Abbey]], home of Sir Francis Drake.

* [http://www.linfo.org/ The Linux Information Project] (LINFO)

* [[Giovanni Battista Boazio]] Drake's mapmaker

* [http://www.cltb.net/en/ Comprehensive Linux Textbook] — free textbook

* [[Letter of marque]]

* [http://www.linux-tutorial.info Linux Knowledge Base and Tutorial]

* [[Bobby Drake]] fictional nephew in Marvel 1602

* [http://www.linux.org/ The Linux Home Page at Linux Online] — information and resources

* [http://www.kernel.org/ The Linux Kernel Archives] — official site

* [http://www.linuxlinks.com/ Linux Links - The Linux Portal] — link site

* [http://www.linux-foundation.org The Linux Foundation].

* [http://linux.byexamples.com Linux by Examples].

<!--

* [http://www.downloadtutorial.blogspot.com Linux - Reference PDFs]

-->

==External links==

{{unix-like}}

*The Circumnavigation

{{linux-distro}}

**[http://www.activehistory.co.uk/Miscellaneous/free_stuff/google_earth/drake/index.htm Google Earth Tour of Drake's Circumnavigation]

**[http://tre.ngfl.gov.uk/server.php?request=cmVzb3VyY2UuZnVsbHZpZXc%3D&resourceId=10330 Lesson plans for classroom use]

*General Sites

[[be-x-old:GNU/Linux]]

**[http://www.mcn.org/2/oseeler/drake.htm Oliver Seeler's website "Sir Francis Drake"]

[[Category:Computing platforms]]

**[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDdrakeF.htm Francis Drake]

[[Category:Linux|*]]

**[http://sirfrancisdrakehistory.net/ Francis Drake History]

[[Category:Free software]]

**[http://www.indrakeswake.co.uk In Drake's Wake] - "The world's best Drake resource"

[[Category:Linux only free software]]

**[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/england/1650689.stm Mission to rescue Drake's body]

[[Category:Operating systems]]

**[http://international.loc.gov/intldl/drakehtml/rbdkhome.html Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress]

**[http://www.floridamemory.com/FloridaHighlights/mapstaug.cfm Hand-colored map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine] from the State Archives of Florida

**[http://www.biographyshelf.com/sir_francis_drake_biography.html Biography resources dedicated to Sir Francis Drake]

[[Category:English sailors|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:English explorers|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:English engineers|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:Privateers|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:16th-century explorers|Drake, Sir Francis]]

[[Category:Burials at sea|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:People connected with Plymouth|Drake, Francis]]

[[Category:People from Tavistock|Drake, Francis]]

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