Zheng He and Andrés Bonifacio: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox Military Person

[[Image:Zhenghepainting.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''Zheng He''' wearing formal official dress]]

|name=Andrés Bonifacio

'''Zheng He''' ({{zh-tspw|t=鄭和|s=郑和|p=Zhèng Hé|w=Cheng Ho}}; Birth name: 馬三寶 / 马三宝; {{zh-p|p=Mǎ Sānbǎo}}; [[Arabic]] name: حجّي محمود ''Hajji Mahmud'') ([[1371]]–[[1433]]), was a famous [[China|Chinese]] mariner, [[exploration|explorer]], [[diplomat]] and fleet [[admiral]], who made the voyages collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean" ("三保太監下西洋") or "''Zheng He to the Western Ocean''", from [[1405]] to [[1433]].

|lived=[[November 30]] [[1863]] – [[May 10]], [[1897]]

|placeofbirth=[[Tondo]], [[Manila]]

|placeofdeath=[[Maragondon, Cavite|Maragondon]], [[Cavite]]

|image=[[Image:Gat_Andres_Bonifacio.jpg|200px]]

|caption=A photo engraving of Andrés Bonifacio

|nickname=

|allegiance= [[Katipunan]]

|serviceyears=

|rank= Revolution leader

|commands=

|unit=

|battles= [[Philippine Revolution]]

|awards=

|laterwork=

}}

{{about|the person Andrés Bonifacio|other uses|Bonifacio (disambiguation)}}

== Life ==

'''Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro''' ([[November 30]], [[1863]] – [[May 10]], [[1897]]) was one of the chief leaders of the [[Philippine Revolution|revolution]] of the [[Philippines]] against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial rule]]. The 1896 [[Philippine Revolution]] was the first revolution in Asia against [[Europe]]an [[colonialism|colonial rule]].

Zheng was born in [[1371]] of the [[Hui people|Hui ethnic group]] and the [[Muslim]] faith in modern-day [[Yunnan Province]], one of the last possessions of the [[Mongols]] of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] before being conquered by the [[Ming Dynasty]]. He served as a close confidant of the [[Yongle Emperor]] of [[China]] (reigned [[1403]]–[[1424]]), the third emperor of the [[Ming Dynasty]]. According to his biography in the [[History of Ming]], he was originally named Ma Sanbao (馬 三保), and came from [[Kunyang]] (昆阳, present day [[Jinning]] (晋宁), [[Yunnan]] Province. Zheng belonged to the [[Semur]] or Semu caste who practiced [[Islam]]. He was the sixth generation descendant of [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]], a famous Yuan governor of the Yunnan Province from [[Bukhara]] in modern day [[Uzbekistan]]. His family name "Ma" came from Shams al-Din's fifth son Masuh. Both his father Mir Tekin and grandfather Charameddin had travelled on [[pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]], and no doubt he heard them recounting tales of travels to far away lands. After the [[Ming]] army conquered [[Yunnan]], he was taken captive as a young boy, and [[castrate]]d, thus becoming a [[eunuch]], to become a servant at the Imperial court. The name ''Zheng He'' was given by the Yongle emperor for the war merit in the Yongle rebellion aganst the [[Jianwen Emperor]]. He studied at [[Nanjing Taixue]] (The Imperial Central College).

==Early life==

His missions showed impressive demonstrations of organizational capability and technological might, but did not lead to significant trade, since Zheng He was an admiral and an official, not a merchant. There were also rumors that he was at least two meters (six feet seven inches) tall.

He was born to a Tagalog father and a Spanish [[mestiza]] mother, Catalina de Castro of [[Zambales]]<ref>http://www.visitzambales.com/newlayout/index.php?action=people&part=intfacts</ref>, in [[Tondo]], Manila. His father was a ''cabeza de barangay'' (a leading [[barangay]] official). He was orphaned at a young age. According to popular anecdote, he peddled canes and fans to support his family.

Zheng sailed to [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] in the [[15th century]]. By the mid-15th century, a princess of [[China]], Princess [[Hang Li Po]] (or Hang Liu), was sent by the [[Emperor of China]] to marry the Sultan of Malacca, Sultan Mansur Shah. The princess came with her entourage -— 500 sons of ministers and a few hundred handmaidens. They eventually settled in [[Bukit Cina]] in [[Malacca]]. The descendants of these people, from mixed marriages with the local natives, are known today as [[Peranakan]]: Baba (the male title) and Nyonya (the female title). (MP)

Later, he worked as a clerk in a British firm in Manila. He married twice - his first wife was a woman named Monica, who died of leprosy. He read books about the French Revolution, ''[[Les Miserables]]'', and the novels of local reformist and future national hero [[Jose Rizal]], among others.

In [[1424]], the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the [[Hongxi Emperor]] (reigned 1424–1425), decided to curb the influence at court. Zheng He made one more voyage under the [[Xuande Emperor of China|Xuande Emperor]] (reigned 1426–1435), but after that Chinese treasure ship fleets ended. Zheng He died during the treasure fleet's last voyage. Although he has a tomb in China, it is empty: he was, like many great admirals, buried at sea.

According to historians, Bonifacio - though projected by detractors as being unlettered - was in fact very literate because a British firm would not have hired him as a clerk if he was not. He was also highly intellectual to be keeping serious novels and political books, many were not even written in his native tongue. He also authored countless articles and poems in the course of organizing the revolution.

He was a [[Freemason]]. He also joined Rizal's ''[[La Liga Filipina]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] "The Philippine League"), a society that called for reforms in Spanish rule. However, the ''Liga'' was disbanded shortly after Rizal was arrested and deported to the town of [[Dapitan]] in [[Mindanao]] a day after the group's only meeting.

== Treasure Ships ==

==The Katipunan==

[[Image:Treasure Ship and Santa Maria.gif|thumb|300px|right|A treasure ship was several times larger than [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]].]]

The ''Republika ng Katagalugan'' (Tagalog Republic), with him as President and the members of the ''Katipunan'' high council as his cabinet. "Tagalog", in this sense, was a term used to refer to the Philippines as a whole, not [[Tagalog people|the ethnic group]].

'''Treasure ship''' is the name of a type of [[ship|vessel]] that the [[China|Chinese]] [[admiral]] [[Zheng He]] sailed in. His fleet included 62 treasure ships, with some reaching 600 [[foot (unit)|feet]] (146 [[meter]]s) long. On the ships, there were over 28,000 people, including [[navigator]]s, [[explorer]]s, [[sailor]]s, [[physician|doctor]]s, [[worker]]s, and [[soldier]]s.

On the night of [[July 7]], [[1892]] (the eve of Rizal's arrest, in fact), Bonifacio founded the [[Katipunan]], a revolutionary secret society which would later spark the [[Philippine Revolution]] of [[1896]] against Spanish rule. In this period, he met his second wife, [[Gregoria de Jesus]], who became a rebel leader in her own right. His right-hand man was [[Emilio Jacinto]]. Within the society, Bonifacio's codename or ''nom de guerre'' was ''Maypagasa'' (There is hope).

With the establishment of the Katipunan, Andrés Bonifacio became popularly known as the ''Father of the Revolution'' and eventually held the title of ''Supremo''.

== Voyages ==

[[Image:KangnidoMap.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Kangnido map]] (1402) predates Zheng's voyages and suggests that he had quite detailed geographical information on much of the [[Old World]].]]

He wrote the patriotic poem, ''Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa'' (loosely, Love for the Motherland), which saw print in the first and only issue of the ''Katipunan'' periodical, ''Kalayaan'' (Freedom), edited by Jacinto. Allegedly, he also made the first translation of Jose Rizal's final poem, ''[[Mi Ultimo Adios]]'' (My Last Farewell) into [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].

"The Western Ocean" refers to the [[Asia]]n and [[Africa]]n places Zheng He explored, including:

Just before the Revolution broke out, he formed a revolutionary government called "Republika ng mga Katagalugan" with himself as the president.

* [[Southeast Asia]],

* [[Sumatra]],

* [[Malacca]],

* [[Java (island)|Java]],

* [[Ceylon]],

* [[India]],

* [[Iran|Persia]],

* The [[Persian Gulf]],

* [[Arabia]],

* The [[Red Sea]] as far north as [[Egypt]], and

* [[Africa]] as far south as the [[Mozambique Channel]].

* [[Taiwan]] seven times.'''

==Downfall==

The number of his voyages varies depending on the method of division, but he travelled at least seven times to "The Western Ocean" with his fleet. He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than thirty kingdoms -— including King [[Alagonakkara]] of [[Ceylon]], who came to China to apologize to the Emperor.

While Bonifacio's personal campaigns were less than successful, the revolutionaries in Cavite had greater success, led by officers coming from the upper classes, including the celebrated [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. Thus, they sent out a manifesto calling for a revolutionary government of their own, disregarding Bonifacio's leadership.

There are speculations that some of Zheng's ships may have travelled beyond the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. In particular, the [[Venetian]] monk and cartographer [[Fra Mauro]] describes in his [[1457]] [[Fra Mauro map]] the travels of a huge "[[junk (ship)|junk]] from India" 2,000 miles into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in [[1420]].

A council comprising of Bonifacio's men and the ''[[Magdalo]]'' and the ''Magdiwang'', two locally-based rival Katipunan factions, held a convention in Tejeros, Cavite to establish a unified front and settle the issue of leadership of the revolutionary movement. The Magdalo faction was led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, cousin to Emilio Aguinaldo. In the elections, the Cavitenos voted their own Emilio Aguinaldo President. Bonifacio, due to the lack of a power base in the province, was voted Director of the Interior.

Zheng himself wrote of his travels:

However, a member of the ''Magdalo'' faction, Daniel Tirona, questioned Bonifacio's qualifications for high office, declaring him uneducated and unfit for the position. Bonifacio was slighted, all the more so since he had previously asked that the results of the election be respected by all. Invoking his authority as ''Supremo'', he threatened those in attendance with a pistol and declared the results of the Tejeros Convention as null and void and left in a rage. Later, he wrote to Jacinto about his misgivings about the whole matter, as he suspected Tirona of spreading black propaganda against him and fixing the ballots (as some other leaders also suspected).

: "We have traversed more than 100,000 [[Li (Chinese unit)|li]] (50,000 kilometers) of immense waterspaces and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising in the sky, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds day and night, continued their course (as rapidly) as a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare…" (Tablet erected by Zhen He, [[Changle]], [[Fujian]], [[1432]]. Louise Levathes)

It is believed the Supremo from this point headed towards Batangas to lead another Katipunan faction where he would establish his own government. Word of this got back to the Magdalo group. In fear of a separate rival government along with an ongoing revolution, Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his brothers. The Magdalo soldiers caught up with Bonifacio in the town of Indang. They surrounded the house and asked Bonifacio and his men to disarm and come out peacefully. Bonifacio refuted and stated that bullets would settle this matter. The stand off lasted through the night.

At dawn, the soldiers closed in and opened fire. Bonifacio ordered his men not to shoot. His men yelled, "Brothers, don't shoot! Tell us what you want?" The soldiers made their way in. [[Procopio Bonifacio]] was tied up and beaten with a revolver. [[Ciriaco Bonifacio]] was held down by two soldiers and shot to death. Bonifacio was stabbed and beaten with a rifle butt. [[Gregoria de Jesus]](wife of Andres Bonifacio) recounted that after the capture of the Supremo, the leading officer approached her, asking where they had stashed the Treasury money.

His voyages, records, maps are one of the explanations and supposed sources of some of the other [[Ancient world maps]], which are claimed to have depicted the [[Americas]], [[Antarctica]], the tip of [[Africa]] etc.. before the (European) official discovery, such as the [[Fra Mauro map]] or the [[De Virga world map]].

The brothers were taken to Naic and tried in a kangaroo court headed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Both were charged with treason and sedition, punishment was death by firing squad. In Emilio Aguinaldo's biography, Aguinaldo claims he superseded this judgment and ordered the Supremo to be exiled and banished to Mt. Nagpatong. Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]], along with four soldiers, was given orders to lead the Bonifacio brothers to Mt. Nagpatong. Makapagal was also given a sealed envelope with strict orders not to open it until they reached the mountains. On [[May 10]], [[1897]], at Mt. Nagpatong, Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]] opened the letter, faced the Supremo and his brother, and read its contents aloud. Andres and Procopio were to be executed by firing squad or he himself would be shot. It was signed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Makapagal turned his back and his soldiers opened fire on the Bonifacio brothers. The Supremo was only 34 years old. Fearing their gunfire being heard by Spanish forces, they quickly dug a shallow grave and covered the two bodies with twigs and branches. Co-patriots of the Revolution regarded this an ugly blot laid at Aguinaldo's door, though Aguinaldo originally wanted them banished instead.

Former submarine commander Gavin Menzies in his book "1421: The Year China discovered the World" claims that several parts of Zheng's fleet explored virtually the entire globe, discovering West Africa, North and South America, Greenland, Antarctica and Australia. His evidence is highly suggestive, sometimes quite speculative, based on old maps, archaeological discoveries, the author's familiarity with problems of navigation such as currents, and so on. Professional historians have generally been dismissive. A related book, "The island of seven cities : where the Chinese settled when they discovered America" by Paul Chiasson maintains that a nation of native peoples known as the Micmaq on the east coast of Canada are descendants of Chinese explorers, offering evidence in the form of archaeological remains, customs, costume, artwork, etc.

In 1918, an expedition lead by one of the former soldiers found the grave of Andres Bonifacio. His remains were exhumed and placed in a urn at the Legislative Building (today National Museum) in Manila. In 1945, near the end of WWII during the [[Battle of Manila]], the building was completely destroyed. The Supremo's remains are lost forever.

== The fleets ==

[[Image:ZhengHeShips.gif|thumb|250px|Early [[17th century]] Chinese [[woodblock]] print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships.]]

==Controversy==

According to Chinese sources, Zheng He commanded 7 fleets comprised of 30,000 men and over 300 ships at its height.

Some historians, like [[Renato Constantino]], see him as a champion of the masses who was slighted by ambitious members of the upper class. Others like [[Gregorio Zaide]], favor Aguinaldo and company over him. [[Glenn May]] goes as far as saying that his role as a national hero was largely invented. Also, there is debate whether he should be considered the first Philippine President instead of Aguinaldo and the national hero instead of Rizal until now.

Some analytical historians, claim that what happened at Tejeros, Cavite was actually a coup de etat to wrest power from Bonifacio by the bourgeois or upper class represented by Aguinaldo. (Aguinaldo and members of his class enjoyed more privilege status even before the revolution. They would not allow a victorious president Bonifacio ordering land and wealth distribution as his first decree.) Hence, the Tejeros Convention was a farce intended to lure Bonifacio to the Caviteño territory. The presidential election wasn't a national election at all. Participated only by mostly Caviteños. The other revolting provinces such as Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and others, were not participants. Bonifacio, who was too fueled with idealism, was too naive to understand maneuvering politicians. Bonifacio was not allowed to get out of Cavite. He was tried then executed promptly for treason. Many now asks: Had Bonifacio able to slip to Manila could he have declared that the Aguinaldo was the one who betrayed the revolution?

The [[1405]] expedition which consisted of 27,800 men and 317 ships, was composed of:

==Today==

* '''"[[Treasure ship]]s"''', used by the commander of the fleet and his deputies (nine-masted, about 120 [[meter]] (400 [[Foot (unit of length)|ft]]) long and 50 m (160 ft) wide). (Some reached up to 600 feet long)

[[Image:Bonifacio_Monument.JPG|left|thumb|100px|Bonifacio Monument in [[Caloocan City]], sculpted by [[Guillermo Tolentino]]]]

* '''"Horse ships"''', carrying tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (eight-masted, about 103 m (339 ft) long and 42 m (138 ft) wide)

[[Image:Php_bill_10_front.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Andrés Bonifacio (right) on the 10-peso bill]]

* '''"Supply ships"''', containing staple for the crew (seven-masted, about 78 m (257 ft) long and 35 m (115 ft) wide).

Bonifacio's birthday on [[November 30]] is celebrated as '''Bonifacio Day''' (Filipino: ''Araw ni Bonifacio'') and is a public holiday in the Philippines.

* '''"Troop transports"''', six-masted, about 67 m (220 ft) long and 25 m (83 ft) wide).

* '''"Fuchuan warships"''', five-masted, about 50 m (165 ft) long).

* '''"Patrol boats"''', eight-oared, about 37 m (120 feet) long).

* '''"Water tankers"''', with 1 month supply of fresh water.

There are many monuments to Bonifacio across the nation, with the most famous being two sculptures, one by [[Napoleon Abueva]] and the other by [[Guillermo Tolentino]], both [[National Artist of the Philippines|National Artists]].

[[Image:Treasure Ship and Santa Maria.gif|thumb|200px|left|A treasure ship was several times larger than [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]].]]

Two other expeditions took place, in [[1412]] and [[1421]], with fleets of comparable size.

In current [[Philippine peso|Philippine currency]], he is depicted in the 10-peso bill (currently out of production) and 10-peso coin, along with fellow patriot [[Apolinario Mabini]].

The enormous characteristics of the Chinese ships of the period are confirmed by Western travelers to the East, such as [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Marco Polo]]. According to Ibn Battuta, who visited China in [[1347]]:

==In film==

: …We stopped in the port of [[Calicut]], in which there were at the time thirteen Chinese vessels, and disembarked. [[China Sea]] travelling is done in Chinese ships only, so we shall describe their arrangements. The Chinese vessels are of three kinds; large ships called chunks ([[junk (sailing)|junks]]), middle sized ones called zaws ([[dhow]]s) and the small ones kakams. The large ships have anything from twelve down to three sails, which are made of bamboo rods plaited into mats. They are never lowered, but turned according to the direction of the wind; at anchor they are left floating in the wind.

Bonifacio was portrayed by Julio Diaz in ''Bayani'' (Hero), a feature film loosely based on his life directed by experimental ''auteur'' Raymond Red, and an educational television series also named ''Bayani''.

In ''[[José Rizal (film)|Jose Rizal]]'', a film about the national hero, he was portrayed by [[Gardo Verzosa]].

: Three smaller ones, the "half", the "third" and the "quarter", accompany each large vessel. These vessels are built in the towns of [[Quanzhou|Zaytun]] and [[Sin-Kalan]]. The vessel has four decks and contains rooms, cabins, and saloons for merchants; a cabin has chambers and a lavatory, and can be locked by its occupants.

== References ==

: This is the manner after which they are made; two (parallel) walls of very thick wooden (planking) are raised and across the space between them are placed very thick planks (the bulkheads) secured longitudinally and transversely by means of large nails, each three [[ell]]s in length. When these walls have thus been built the lower deck is fitted in and the ship is launched before the upper works are finished."'' (Ibn Battuta).

*{{cite book | author=Zaide, Gregorio F. | title=Philippine History and Government|publisher=National Bookstore Printing Press |year=[[1984]]}}

* Ocampo, Ambeth. Bones of Contention: The Bonifacio Lectures

* Agoncillo, Teodoro. The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan

* Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: a Past Revisited

<div class="references-small">

<references/>

</div>

== Further reading ==

== Connection to the history of [[Late Imperial China]] ==

*{{cite journal

[[Image:Zheng he giraffe.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[giraffe]] brought from [[Africa]] in the [[1414|twelfth year of Yongle (AD 1414)]].]]

| first =Isagani A.

| last =Cruz

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 27

| title =The Tragedy Of Andres Bonifacio

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

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| issue =

| pages =14

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html

}}

*{{cite book

| last =Clair

| first =Francis St.

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =1902

| title =[http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN03016030&id=hNFEgCAB9rAC&dq=%22Andr%C3%A9s+Bonifacio%22+%22Katipunan%22 The Katipunan: Or, The Rise and Fall of the Filipino Commune]

| publisher =Francis St. Clair

| ___location =

| id =

}}Full book on Google

*{{cite journal

| first =Manuel L.

| last = Quezon III

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2005

| month =November 21

| title =The Supremo Lives

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

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| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid2

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Roberto

| last =Lazaro

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 29

| title =Thinking Aloud Dead Ends Need Not Be Dead

| journal =Manila Times

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid3

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Marlon

| last =Ramos

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2004

| month =December 9

| title =Bonifacio: The Neglected Hero

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

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| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid4

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*{{cite journal

| first =Ambeth R.

| last =Ocampo

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =December 1

| title =Where Are the Bones of Bonifacio?

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

Although historians such as [[John Fairbank]] and [[Joseph Needham]] popularized this view in the [[1950s]], most current historians of China question its accuracy. They point out that Chinese maritime commerce did not stop after Zheng He, that Chinese ships continued to dominate Southeast Asian commerce until the 19th century and that active Chinese trading with India and East Africa continued long after the time of Zheng. The travels of the Chinese junk ''[[Junk Keying|Keying]]'' to the [[United States]] and [[England]] between [[1846]] to [[1848]] testify to the power of Chinese shipping until the 19th century.

| volume =

Although the Ming Dynasty did ban shipping for a few decades with the ''[[Hai jin]]'' edict, they eventually lifted this ban. The alternative view cites the fact that by banning ocean going shipping the Ming (and later Qing) dynasties forced countless numbers of people into blackmarket smuggling. This reduced government tax revenue and increased piracy. The lack of an ocean going navy then left China highly vulnerable to the [[Wokou|Waku]] (wakou) pirates that ravaged China in the 16th century.

| issue =

| pages =

One thing is certain. State-sponsored Ming naval efforts declined dramatically after Zheng's voyages. Starting in the early 15th century China experienced increasing pressure from resurgent [[Mongolia]]n tribes from the north. In recognition of this threat and possibly to move closer to his family's historical geographic power base, in [[1421]] the emperor Yongle moved the capital north from [[Nanjing]] to present-day [[Beijing]]. From the new capital he could apply greater imperial supervision to the effort to defend the northern borders. At considerable expense, China launched annual military expeditions from Beijing to weaken the Mongolians. The expenditures necessary for these land campaigns directly competed with the funds necessary to continue naval expeditions.

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid5

In [[1449]] Mongolian [[cavalry]] ambushed a land expedition personally led by the emperor [[Zhengtong]] less than a day's march from the walls of the capital. In the [[Battle of Tumu Fortress]] the Mongolians wiped out the Chinese army and captured the emperor. This battle had two salient effects. First, it demonstrated the clear threat posed by the northern nomads. Second, the Mongols caused a political crisis in China when they released Zhengtong after his half-brother had proclaimed himself the new [[Jingtai]] emperor. Not until [[1457]] did political stability return when Zhengtong recovered the throne. Upon his return to power China abandoned the strategy of annual land expeditions and instead embarked upon a massive and expensive expansion of the [[Great Wall of China]]. In this environment, funding for naval expeditions simply did not happen.

}}

*{{cite journal

More fundamentally, unlike the later naval expeditions conducted by European nations, the Chinese treasure ships appear to have been doomed in the long run because the voyages lacked any economic motive. They were primarily conducted to increase the prestige of the emperor and the costs of the expeditions and of the return gifts provided to foreign royalty and ambassadors more than offset the benefit of any tribute collected. Thus when China's governmental finances came under pressure (which like all medieval governments' finances they eventually did), funding for the naval expeditions melted away. In contrast, by the 16th century, most European missions of exploration made enough profit from the resulting trade to become self-financing, allowing them to continue regardless of the condition of the state's finances.

| first =Fr. Bel R.

| last =San Luis

== Cultural echoes ==

| authorlink =

<!-- Image with questionable fair-use claim removed: [[Image:1120031329 2zhenghe2.jpg|thumb|left|Stamps commemorating the 600th anniversary of Zheng's voyages]] -->

| coauthors =

| year =2004

A recent controversial theory (the ''[[1421 hypothesis]]'') put forward by [[Gavin Menzies]] in his book asserts that Zheng He circumnavigated the globe and arrived in America in the 15th century before [[Ferdinand Magellan]] and [[Christopher Columbus]]. Menzies' claims have been rejected by professional historians.

| month =November 29

| title =Bonifacio & our changing notion of 'hero'

The [[Qeng Ho]] space-faring society alluded to in [[Vernor Vinge]]'s [[science fiction]] novel ''[[A Fire Upon the Deep]]'' (and later prominently featured in ''[[A Deepness in the Sky]]'') reflects the name of Zheng. His voyages and the subsequent possible abandonment (as some have argued) of maritime exploration by the Chinese emperors have become symbolic in the [[space advocacy]] community of the success and cancellation of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo Program]].

| journal =Opinion & Editorial Manila Bulletin

| volume =

Zheng features as a character in Kim Stanley Robinson's alternative history ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]''.

| issue =

| pages =

It has been suggested by some historians and mentioned in a recent [[National Geographic]] article on Zheng that [[Sindbad the Sailor]] (also spelled "Sinbad", from Arabic السندباد—As-Sindibad) and the collection of travel-romances that make up the Seven Voyages of Sindbad the Sailor found in [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]] (Arabian Nights) were influenced heavily by the cumulative tales of many seafarers that had followed, traded and worked in various support ships as part of the armada of Chinese Ming Imperial Treasure Fleets. This belief is supported in part by the similarities in Sindbad's name and the various iterations of Zheng in Arabic and Mandarin (Traditional: 鄭和; Simplified: 郑和; pinyin: Zhèng Hé; Wade-Giles: Cheng Ho; Birth name: 马三宝; pinyin: Mǎ Sānbǎo; Arabic name: Hajji Mahmud Shams) along with the similarities in the number (seven) and general locations of voyages between Sindbad and Zheng.

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=== The "Zheng He map" ===

}}

In January 2006, [[BBC News]] and [[The Economist]] both published news regarding the exhibition of a Chinese sailing map claimed to be dated [[1763]], which was stated to be a copy of another map purportedly made in [[1418]]. The map has detailed descriptions of both Native Americans and Native Australians. According to the map's owner, Liu Gang, a Chinese lawyer and collector, he purchased the map in [[2001]] for $500 USD from a Shanghai dealer.

*{{cite journal

| first =

[[Image:Zhenghemap.jpg|thumb|300px|1763 Chinese map of the world, claiming to incorporate information from a 1418 map. Discovered by Lui Gang in 2005.]]

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After Liu read the book "1421: The Year China discovered the World" by Gavin Menzies, he realized the significant potential value of the map. The map has been tested to verify the ages of its paper, but not the ink. Even though the map has been shown to date from a period that could cover 1763, the question remains as to whether it is an accurate copy of an earlier 1418 map, or simply a copy of a contemporary 18th-century European map.

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A number of authorities on Chinese history have questioned the authenticity of the map. Some point to the use of the Mercator-style projection, its accurate reckoning of longitude and its North-based orientation. None of these features was used in the best maps made in either Asia or Europe during this period (for example see the [[Kangnido map]] (1410) and the [[Fra Mauro]] (1459). Also mentioned is the depiction of the erroneous [[Island of California]], a mistake commonly repeated in European maps from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.

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| month =November

Geoff Wade of the Asia Research Institute at the National University of Singapore has strongly disputed the authenticity of the map and has suggested that it is either an 18th or 21st-century fake. He has pointed out a number of anachronisms that appear in the map and its text annotations. For example, in the text next to Eastern Europe, which has been translated as "People here mostly believe in God and their religion is called 'Jing'", Wade notes that the Chinese word for the Christian God is given as "Shang-di", which is a usage that was first coined by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century.

| title =Cavite to Unviel Bonifacio Mural Inquirer

| journal =Philippine Daily

In May 2006, it was reported by the [[Dominion Post]] that Fiona Petchey, head of the testing unit at [[Waikato University]], which had carbon dated the map, had asked Gavin Menzies to remove claims from his website that the dating proved the map was genuine. The carbon dating indicated with an 80% probability a date for the paper of the map between either 1640-1690 or 1730-1810. However as the ink was not tested, it was impossible to know when it was drawn. Ms Petchey said, "''we asked him to remove those, not because we were not happy with the dates, but because we were not overly happy with being associated with his interpretations of those dates.''"[http://www.1421exposed.com/html/maori_don_t_exist.html]

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== See also ==

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* [[Zhang Qian]]

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* [[Ban Chao]]

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid7

* [[Faxian]]

}}

* [[Xuanzang]]

*{{cite journal

* [[Zhou Man]]

| first =Ellalyn B.

* [[Ancient world maps]]

| last =De Vera

* [[World map]]

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* [[Timeline of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]

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* [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]

| year =2004

* [[1421 Hypothesis]]

| month =November 27

* [[Ming Shi-lu]]

| title =Andres Bonifacio: The Katipunan Supremo

| journal =Manila Bulletin

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| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid8

}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=5381851 Economist: China beat Columbus to it, perhaps] ([[January 12]] [[2006]])

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4609074.stm BBC News China map lays claim to Americas] ([[January 13]] [[2006]])

* [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-Asia&month=0601&week=b&msg=gv1CuUMQ0QkDD0gKTUJ//A&user=&pw= Exchange between Liu Gang and Geoff Wade]

* [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2006/01/16-0036-4322.html Laputan Logic: China's Own Vinland Map] Liu Gang's map, Chinese cartography and the [[Island of California]] myth

* [http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/index.html National Geographic magazine special feature "China's Great Armada" (July 2005)]

* [http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/journey2001/ TIME magazine special feature on Zheng He (August 2001)]

* [http://www.chinapage.com/chengho.html The Great Chinese Mariner Zheng He (brief biography with map and images)]

* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/03/04/nexp04.xml&sSheet=/news/2002/03/04/ixhome.html Explorer from China who 'beat Columbus to America']

* [http://www.1421.tv Gavin Menzies' official website about his research on Zheng He]

* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=37092&page=0&view=collapsed&sb=5&o=&fpart=1 Google Earth Interactive Map of Zheng He's Voyages]

* [http://www.visitsingapore-zhenghe.com/1421/index.php Singapore Tourism Board - "1421: The Year China Discovered The World" exhibition]

* [http://www.1421.tv/index.asp 1421]

* [http://www.1421exposed.com/ Academic website debunking Menzies' theories and the map]

* [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,372474,00.html Hero of the High Seas] from ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', by Andreas Lorenz, [[August 29]], [[2005]]

* [http://www.elibraryhub.com/zhengHe/home.html Virtual exhibition from elibraryhub.com]

== Further reading ==

* [[Ma Huan]],''Ying-yai Sheng-lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433), translated from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch'eng Chun with introduction, notes and appendices by J.V.G.Mills. White Lotus Press, reprint. 1970, 1997.

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000005&page=1&epage=3 The Courtmartial of Andres Bonifacio] Historical court documents and testimonies in the trial and execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio processed by [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

* [[Louise Levathes]], ''When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433'', Oxford University Press, 1997, trade paperback, ISBN 0195112075

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000004&page=1&epage=1 Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog] Summary and full text of an article written by Andres Bonifacio in the Katipunan newspaper Kalayaan posted in [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

* [[Gavin Menzies]], ''[[1421 theory|1421: The Year the Chinese Discovered the World]]'', Morrow/Avon, 2003, hardcover 576 pages, ISBN 0060537639. (Scholars consider this book, insofar as it relates to the Chinese discovery of America, to lack factual foundation; [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/02/books/review/02WILFORT.html?tntemail1 Review of ''1421'' by a science editor at the ''New York Times''])

* [http://www.nytimesbibingka.com/2005phg/07books/20/international/asia/20letterbonifacio.html Chinahtm HasBook anReview AncientInventing Marinera toHero Tellby YouGlenn AboutMay]

*[http://bonifaciopapers.blogspot.com A site on the ''Supremo'' and the Katipunan]

{{Philippine Revolution}}

There may be other books, publications and papers available (especially in China), but these have not yet been translated in languages other than the original Chinese.

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[[ast:Zheng He]]

[[zhcbk-min-nanzam:TēⁿAndres HôBonifacio]]

[[bses:ZhengAndrés HeBonifacio]]

[[brfr:ZhengAndrés HeBonifacio]]

[[bgilo:ДжънAndres ХъBonifacio]]

[[caia:ZhengAndres HeBonifacio]]

[[csla:ČengAndreas CheBonifacio]]

[[ja:アンドレス・ボニファシオ]]

[[cy:Zheng He]]

[[dano:ZhengAndres HeBonifacio]]

[[desv:ZhengAndrés HeBonifacio]]

[[estl:ZhengAndres HeBonifacio]]

[[zh:安達斯·波尼斯奧]]

[[eo:Ĉeng He]]

[[eu:Zheng He]]

[[fa:ژنگ هه]]

[[fr:Zheng He]]

[[gl:Zheng He]]

[[id:Cheng Ho]]

[[ia:Zheng He]]

[[os:Чжэн Хэ]]

[[is:Tsjeng He]]

[[it:Zheng He]]

[[jv:Cheng Ho]]

[[la:Zheng He]]

[[hu:Zheng He]]

[[ms:Cheng Ho]]

[[nl:Zheng He]]

[[ja:鄭和]]

[[no:Zheng He]]

[[pl:Zheng He]]

[[pt:Zheng He]]

[[ru:Чжэн Хэ]]

[[sco:Zheng He]]

[[sk:Čeng Che]]

[[sl:Čeng He]]

[[sr:Женг Хе]]

[[fi:Zheng He]]

[[sv:Zheng He]]

[[tl:Zheng He]]

[[th:เจิ้งเหอ]]

[[vi:Trịnh Hòa]]

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[[zh-yue:鄭和]]

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