Buddhism and Andrés Bonifacio: Difference between pages

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{{Buddhism}}

|name=Andrés Bonifacio

'''Buddhism''' (also known as ''Buddha [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'', "the teachings of the awakened one") is a [[religion]], a practical [[philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] (Pali: Gotama Buddha), who lived on the [[Indian subcontinent]] in or around the fifth century BCE ([http://indology.info/papers/cousins/ review article]). Buddhism spread throughout the subcontinent in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]].

|lived=[[November 30]] [[1863]] – [[May 10]], [[1897]]

|placeofbirth=[[Tondo]], [[Manila]]

|placeofdeath=[[Maragondon, Cavite|Maragondon]], [[Cavite]]

|image=[[Image:Gat_Andres_Bonifacio.jpg|200px]]

|caption=A photo engraving of Andrés Bonifacio

|nickname=

|allegiance= [[Katipunan]]

|serviceyears=

|rank= Revolution leader

|commands=

|unit=

|battles= [[Philippine Revolution]]

|awards=

|laterwork=

}}

{{about|the person Andrés Bonifacio|other uses|Bonifacio (disambiguation)}}

Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. According to one source ([http://www.adherents.com]), "World estimates for Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million." However, other sources give approximately [[Buddhism by country|708 million adherents]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional Chinese religion]], respectively.<ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fourth-largest organised religion]] in the world, and the monks' order [[Sangha]] is amongst the oldest organisations on earth.

'''Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro''' ([[November 30]], [[1863]] &ndash; [[May 10]], [[1897]]) was one of the chief leaders of the [[Philippine Revolution|revolution]] of the [[Philippines]] against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial rule]]. The 1896 [[Philippine Revolution]] was the first revolution in Asia against [[Europe]]an [[colonialism|colonial rule]].

==Early life==

When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. [[Gautama Buddha]] is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to Gautama Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying the [[mind]].

He was born to a Tagalog father and a Spanish [[mestiza]] mother, Catalina de Castro of [[Zambales]]<ref>http://www.visitzambales.com/newlayout/index.php?action=people&part=intfacts</ref>, in [[Tondo]], Manila. His father was a ''cabeza de barangay'' (a leading [[barangay]] official). He was orphaned at a young age. According to popular anecdote, he peddled canes and fans to support his family.

Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to the stress of existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state of the end of suffering ([[Nirvana]] or [[Nirodha]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (also known as the [[Middle Way]]), eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things. In this way all ignorance and unhappiness is ended, and [[liberation]] attained. Buddhist teaching encourages individuals to practice and verify the Buddha's teachings based on their own personal experience, and also after consulting with 'the wise'. If they find the teachings are valid (leading to more happiness and less suffering), they can apply these teachings in a practical form into their daily life if they so wish.

Later, he worked as a clerk in a British firm in Manila. He married twice - his first wife was a woman named Monica, who died of leprosy. He read books about the French Revolution, ''[[Les Miserables]]'', and the novels of local reformist and future national hero [[Jose Rizal]], among others.

== Gautama==

[[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]]

{{main|Gautama Buddha}}

According to all Buddhist traditions, the [[Buddha]] of the present age, called '''Siddhārtha''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''Siddhattha''' ([[Pāli]]) of the '''Gautama''' (Pāli: '''Gotama''') [[gotra]] or clan, was born in the grove of [[Lumbini|Lumbinī]] near the town of '''[[Kapilavastu]]''' (Pāli: '''Kapilavatthu'''), the capital of the kingdom ([[Mahajanapadas|mahājanapada]]) of the [[Shakya|Śākyas]] (Pāli: Sakyas). Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact ___location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth.

According to historians, Bonifacio - though projected by detractors as being unlettered - was in fact very literate because a British firm would not have hired him as a clerk if he was not. He was also highly intellectual to be keeping serious novels and political books, many were not even written in his native tongue. He also authored countless articles and poems in the course of organizing the revolution.

Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death.

He was a [[Freemason]]. He also joined Rizal's ''[[La Liga Filipina]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] "The Philippine League"), a society that called for reforms in Spanish rule. However, the ''Liga'' was disbanded shortly after Rizal was arrested and deported to the town of [[Dapitan]] in [[Mindanao]] a day after the group's only meeting.

Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still.

==The Katipunan==

[[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]]

The ''Republika ng Katagalugan'' (Tagalog Republic), with him as President and the members of the ''Katipunan'' high council as his cabinet. "Tagalog", in this sense, was a term used to refer to the Philippines as a whole, not [[Tagalog people|the ethnic group]].

On the night of [[July 7]], [[1892]] (the eve of Rizal's arrest, in fact), Bonifacio founded the [[Katipunan]], a revolutionary secret society which would later spark the [[Philippine Revolution]] of [[1896]] against Spanish rule. In this period, he met his second wife, [[Gregoria de Jesus]], who became a rebel leader in her own right. His right-hand man was [[Emilio Jacinto]]. Within the society, Bonifacio's codename or ''nom de guerre'' was ''Maypagasa'' (There is hope).

After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] — a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{cite book | publisher=Wisdom Publications | pages=1843–1847 | author=Bhikkhu Bodhi | title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" | year=2000 | ___location=Somerville}}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India.

With the establishment of the Katipunan, Andrés Bonifacio became popularly known as the ''Father of the Revolution'' and eventually held the title of ''Supremo''.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all — from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he attained enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]].

He wrote the patriotic poem, ''Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa'' (loosely, Love for the Motherland), which saw print in the first and only issue of the ''Katipunan'' periodical, ''Kalayaan'' (Freedom), edited by Jacinto. Allegedly, he also made the first translation of Jose Rizal's final poem, ''[[Mi Ultimo Adios]]'' (My Last Farewell) into [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].

==Doctrines==

[[Image:buddhistswastika.jpg|thumb|180px|A Buddhist temple in Korea with [[Swastika]]]]

Just before the Revolution broke out, he formed a revolutionary government called "Republika ng mga Katagalugan" with himself as the president.

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism.

==Downfall==

=== Dependent Origination ===

{{main|Pratitya-samutpada}}

While Bonifacio's personal campaigns were less than successful, the revolutionaries in Cavite had greater success, led by officers coming from the upper classes, including the celebrated [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. Thus, they sent out a manifesto calling for a revolutionary government of their own, disregarding Bonifacio's leadership.

The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''.

A council comprising of Bonifacio's men and the ''[[Magdalo]]'' and the ''Magdiwang'', two locally-based rival Katipunan factions, held a convention in Tejeros, Cavite to establish a unified front and settle the issue of leadership of the revolutionary movement. The Magdalo faction was led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, cousin to Emilio Aguinaldo. In the elections, the Cavitenos voted their own Emilio Aguinaldo President. Bonifacio, due to the lack of a power base in the province, was voted Director of the Interior.

=== The Five Aggregates of Attachment ===

{{main|Skandha}}

The Five Aggregates of Attachment are the five ways in which people attach themselves to the world and to the Self. Basically, there are five factors in the human person, all of which are constantly changing, and which make up the illusion of the human Self. The five factors are:

* 1. Matter (rupa). The material factor – physical matter, sights, odours, sounds etc. This physical existence, combined with brain functions, make up the illusion of You.

* 2. Sensation (vedana). When material elements in the world bump into each other, in the human body sensations arise e.g. a sound you hear results in the sensation of ‘sound’. Happiness and sadness are in this category because they are the effects of material causes.

* 3. Perception (samjna). The Buddha said that Perception is recognising physical or mental functions e.g. recognising a certain sound as the sound of music. A person has no control over their perceptions; they are reflexes resulting from “matter” and “sensations”.

* 4. Formation of Mind (samskara). When you direct your mind towards a particular thought/action, you experience a “mental formation” e.g. when you hear music you may decide to turn up the volume. Mental formations also include concentration (forcing your mind to think about one thing for a while), desire, hate, jealousy etc. There is no You controlling these mental formations; there are just the formations themselves.

* 5. Consciousness (vijnana). This is simply an “awareness” (not “perception”) of the presence and characteristics of a thing (physical or mental) e.g. “consciousness” is the awareness of sound, whereas “perception” identifies that sound as the sound of music.

However, a member of the ''Magdalo'' faction, Daniel Tirona, questioned Bonifacio's qualifications for high office, declaring him uneducated and unfit for the position. Bonifacio was slighted, all the more so since he had previously asked that the results of the election be respected by all. Invoking his authority as ''Supremo'', he threatened those in attendance with a pistol and declared the results of the Tejeros Convention as null and void and left in a rage. Later, he wrote to Jacinto about his misgivings about the whole matter, as he suspected Tirona of spreading black propaganda against him and fixing the ballots (as some other leaders also suspected).

What the Buddha is trying to say is that the sum of these five parts does not make up a greater whole called the Self; all that exists are the parts. The Buddha wanted to remove the notion of the Self because he believed that the idea of the Self is the root of all suffering. It is your desire for self-satisfaction, self-existence, and self-advancement that create pain. If you remove the Self (realise there never was such a thing) suffering will go away.

Since there is no soul or You, then there is no reincarnation. Buddha instead taught Rebirth. Rebirth does not involve getting a new body for an old soul (as taught in [[Hinduism]]). Instead, it is the continuation of the Five Aggregates in a long chain of cause and effect. Buddha taught that prior “sensations”, “perceptions”, and “mental formations” determine the “sensations”, “perceptions”, and “mental formations” of the next life; death does not end this chain.

It is believed the Supremo from this point headed towards Batangas to lead another Katipunan faction where he would establish his own government. Word of this got back to the Magdalo group. In fear of a separate rival government along with an ongoing revolution, Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his brothers. The Magdalo soldiers caught up with Bonifacio in the town of Indang. They surrounded the house and asked Bonifacio and his men to disarm and come out peacefully. Bonifacio refuted and stated that bullets would settle this matter. The stand off lasted through the night.

At dawn, the soldiers closed in and opened fire. Bonifacio ordered his men not to shoot. His men yelled, "Brothers, don't shoot! Tell us what you want?" The soldiers made their way in. [[Procopio Bonifacio]] was tied up and beaten with a revolver. [[Ciriaco Bonifacio]] was held down by two soldiers and shot to death. Bonifacio was stabbed and beaten with a rifle butt. [[Gregoria de Jesus]](wife of Andres Bonifacio) recounted that after the capture of the Supremo, the leading officer approached her, asking where they had stashed the Treasury money.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}

The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]".

The brothers were taken to Naic and tried in a kangaroo court headed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Both were charged with treason and sedition, punishment was death by firing squad. In Emilio Aguinaldo's biography, Aguinaldo claims he superseded this judgment and ordered the Supremo to be exiled and banished to Mt. Nagpatong. Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]], along with four soldiers, was given orders to lead the Bonifacio brothers to Mt. Nagpatong. Makapagal was also given a sealed envelope with strict orders not to open it until they reached the mountains. On [[May 10]], [[1897]], at Mt. Nagpatong, Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]] opened the letter, faced the Supremo and his brother, and read its contents aloud. Andres and Procopio were to be executed by firing squad or he himself would be shot. It was signed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Makapagal turned his back and his soldiers opened fire on the Bonifacio brothers. The Supremo was only 34 years old. Fearing their gunfire being heard by Spanish forces, they quickly dug a shallow grave and covered the two bodies with twigs and branches. Co-patriots of the Revolution regarded this an ugly blot laid at Aguinaldo's door, though Aguinaldo originally wanted them banished instead.

# '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.

# '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth).

# '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]].

# '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]];

In 1918, an expedition lead by one of the former soldiers found the grave of Andres Bonifacio. His remains were exhumed and placed in a urn at the Legislative Building (today National Museum) in Manila. In 1945, near the end of WWII during the [[Battle of Manila]], the building was completely destroyed. The Supremo's remains are lost forever.

The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities.

==Controversy==

The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. A possible fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]].

Some historians, like [[Renato Constantino]], see him as a champion of the masses who was slighted by ambitious members of the upper class. Others like [[Gregorio Zaide]], favor Aguinaldo and company over him. [[Glenn May]] goes as far as saying that his role as a national hero was largely invented. Also, there is debate whether he should be considered the first Philippine President instead of Aguinaldo and the national hero instead of Rizal until now.

Some analytical historians, claim that what happened at Tejeros, Cavite was actually a coup de etat to wrest power from Bonifacio by the bourgeois or upper class represented by Aguinaldo. (Aguinaldo and members of his class enjoyed more privilege status even before the revolution. They would not allow a victorious president Bonifacio ordering land and wealth distribution as his first decree.) Hence, the Tejeros Convention was a farce intended to lure Bonifacio to the Caviteño territory. The presidential election wasn't a national election at all. Participated only by mostly Caviteños. The other revolting provinces such as Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and others, were not participants. Bonifacio, who was too fueled with idealism, was too naive to understand maneuvering politicians. Bonifacio was not allowed to get out of Cavite. He was tried then executed promptly for treason. Many now asks: Had Bonifacio able to slip to Manila could he have declared that the Aguinaldo was the one who betrayed the revolution?

=== Nirvana ===

{{main|Nirvana}}

Nirvana is the extinguishment of all desire. It has been likened to the snuffing out of a candle, where the spirit is freed from all worldly passions; it is the realization that the Self does not exist, and that human desires are empty. An enlightened Buddhist is able to act in this world with complete detachment (without desire), and their actions have no karma. A Buddhist who has attained Nirvana has escaped the world of cause-and-effect (they are free from the cycle of birth and rebirth). The realisation of Nirvana is a happy experience (but not the sensation of joy). Nirvana is fully realised at death, but can be experienced before death. There are four stages in the Buddhist life:

* 1. The “Stream-Entrant” (novice) only catches a glimpse of Nirvana in the teaching of the Buddha.

* 2. The “Once-Returner” is destined to be reborn into this physical world once more before experiencing full Nirvana.

* 3. The “Never-Returner” has an even deeper knowledge of Nirvana and is assured that they will not be reborn.

* 4. The “Worthy-One” (Arhat) is completely pure and free from desire. That person has experienced Nirvana and will know it fully at death, when all matter, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness will disappear forever.

==Today==

===The Noble Eightfold Path===

[[Image:Bonifacio_Monument.JPG|left|thumb|100px|Bonifacio Monument in [[Caloocan City]], sculpted by [[Guillermo Tolentino]]]]

{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}

[[Image:Php_bill_10_front.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Andrés Bonifacio (right) on the 10-peso bill]]

{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200"

Bonifacio's birthday on [[November 30]] is celebrated as '''Bonifacio Day''' (Filipino: ''Araw ni Bonifacio'') and is a public holiday in the Philippines.

|

|According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref>

|-

|}

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of:

There are many monuments to Bonifacio across the nation, with the most famous being two sculptures, one by [[Napoleon Abueva]] and the other by [[Guillermo Tolentino]], both [[National Artist of the Philippines|National Artists]].

#Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}'''

#Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}'''

#Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}'''

#Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}'''

#Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}'''

#Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}'''

#Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}'''

#Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}'''

In current [[Philippine peso|Philippine currency]], he is depicted in the 10-peso bill (currently out of production) and 10-peso coin, along with fellow patriot [[Apolinario Mabini]].

The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration).

===In Bodhi =film==

Bonifacio was portrayed by Julio Diaz in ''Bayani'' (Hero), a feature film loosely based on his life directed by experimental ''auteur'' Raymond Red, and an educational television series also named ''Bayani''.

{{main|Bodhi}}

'''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.-->

In ''[[José Rizal (film)|Jose Rizal]]'', a film about the national hero, he was portrayed by [[Gardo Verzosa]].

=== Karma ===

{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}

In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said :

== References ==

:“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”.

*{{cite book | author=Zaide, Gregorio F. | title=Philippine History and Government|publisher=National Bookstore Printing Press |year=[[1984]]}}

* Ocampo, Ambeth. Bones of Contention: The Bonifacio Lectures

* Agoncillo, Teodoro. The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan

* Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: a Past Revisited

<div class="references-small">

<references/>

</div>

== Further reading ==

According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being:

*{{cite journal

| first =Isagani A.

| last =Cruz

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 27

| title =The Tragedy Of Andres Bonifacio

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =14

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html

}}

*{{cite book

| last =Clair

| first =Francis St.

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =1902

| title =[http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN03016030&id=hNFEgCAB9rAC&dq=%22Andr%C3%A9s+Bonifacio%22+%22Katipunan%22 The Katipunan: Or, The Rise and Fall of the Filipino Commune]

| publisher =Francis St. Clair

| ___location =

| id =

}}Full book on Google

*{{cite journal

| first =Manuel L.

| last = Quezon III

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2005

| month =November 21

| title =The Supremo Lives

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid2

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Roberto

| last =Lazaro

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 29

| title =Thinking Aloud Dead Ends Need Not Be Dead

| journal =Manila Times

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid3

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Marlon

| last =Ramos

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2004

| month =December 9

| title =Bonifacio: The Neglected Hero

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid4

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Ambeth R.

| last =Ocampo

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =December 1

| title =Where Are the Bones of Bonifacio?

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

:"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.)

| volume =

In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action).

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid5

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Fr. Bel R.

| last =San Luis

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November 29

| title =Bonifacio & our changing notion of 'hero'

| journal =Opinion & Editorial Manila Bulletin

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid6

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =

| last =

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November

| title =Cavite to Unviel Bonifacio Mural Inquirer

| journal =Philippine Daily

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid7

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Ellalyn B.

| last =De Vera

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November 27

| title =Andres Bonifacio: The Katipunan Supremo

| journal =Manila Bulletin

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid8

}}

== MiddleExternal Waylinks ==

The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind").

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000005&page=1&epage=3 The Courtmartial of Andres Bonifacio] Historical court documents and testimonies in the trial and execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio processed by [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

=== Refuge in The Three Jewels ===

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000004&page=1&epage=1 Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog] Summary and full text of an article written by Andres Bonifacio in the Katipunan newspaper Kalayaan posted in [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]

*[http://www.bibingka.com/phg/books/bonifacio.htm Book Review Inventing a Hero by Glenn May]

{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

*[http://bonifaciopapers.blogspot.com A site on the ''Supremo'' and the Katipunan]

{{Philippine Revolution}}

Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The Buddha who chooses the Bodhisattva-path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

<!--Categories-->

The '''Three Jewels''' are:

[[Category:Philippine Revolution people|Bonifacio, Andres]]

* The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]].

[[Category:Filipino revolutionaries|Bonifacio, Andres]]

* The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction).

[[Category:Paramilitary Filipinos|Bonifacio]]

* The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment).

[[Category:People from Manila|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:Filipinos of Spanish descent|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:People executed by firing squad|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:Deaths by firearm in the Philippines|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:1863 births|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:1897 deaths|Bonifacio, Andres]]

<!--Other languages-->

[[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}}

[[cbk-zam:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[es:Andrés Bonifacio]]

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma.

[[fr:Andrés Bonifacio]]

[[ilo:Andres Bonifacio]]

=== Prajñā (Wisdom) ===

[[ia:Andres Bonifacio]]

{{main|Prajñā|Paramita}}

[[la:Andreas Bonifacio]]

[[ja:アンドレス・ボニファシオ]]

'''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]].

[[no:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[sv:Andrés Bonifacio]]

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation (Citation needed) to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

[[tl:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[zh:安達斯·波尼斯奧]]

=== Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)===

{{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}}

'''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.

In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good.

Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature.

It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well.

# To refrain from taking life.

# To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).

# To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.)

# To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).

# To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures, and different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]).

=== Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) ===

{{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}}

In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna''').

=== Buddhism Symbols ===

{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:

* the Conch Shell

* the Lotus

* the Wheel

* the Parasol (Umbrella)

* the Endless Knot

* the Pair of Golden Fishes

* the Banner Proclaiming Victory

* the Treasure Vase

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

{{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}}

Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya).

===Buddha's instructions for Buddhism after his Passing Away===

Gautama Buddha made a few statements which refer to practicing his teachings (Dhamma-Vinaya) after the Buddha had passed away, and which can also be used as guidelines in the current age.

1). Buddha refused to appoint a succesor to himself, saying that the Dhamma-Vinaya that he taught is the ultimate authority.

2). Buddha diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, and to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. He forbade translating his teachings into the specific official religious language of the time: [[Sanskrit]].

3). On one occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that the lesser and minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be abolished, if the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]] unanimously agrees to do so.

4). Buddha also taught the [[Four Great Standard]]s ([[Pali]]: mahapadesa), concerning future developments and new situations concerning the monks' discipline (Vinaya), which did not arise during the Buddha's time. In brief the Four Great Standards say that what ever concords with what is allowable, is allowable. Whatever concords with what is unallowable, that is unallowable. (Vin. i. 250-1)

5). Buddha also gave another four standards in the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]]. There he gave advice on how to validate teachings subscribed to Buddha. In short, he advised to receive those teachings in an open and objective manner, and compare them (line by line) to the [[Suttapitaka|Sutta]]s and the [[Vinayapitaka|Vinaya]]. If the teachings discord one should reject those teachings, if the teachings concord one should accept them.

During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha used the analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction instead of removing the arrow and treating the wound. Gautama Buddha said that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm]. Some later controversies in Buddhism deal with these very questions.

=== Early Buddhism ===

{{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}}

{{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}}

This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline.

{{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}}

{{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}}

[[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]]

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.

=== Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) ===

{{main|Theravada}}

{{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}}

The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council.

It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat.

=== Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) ===

[[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]

{{main|Mahayana}}

{{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}}

Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE.

=== Emergence of the Vajrayāna ===

[[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]]

{{main|Vajrayana}}

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]].

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology.

There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition.

=== Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia ===

{{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder. Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had resulted in the rise of a 'Buddha-Mazda' divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref>

From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China.

The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists.

When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref>

[[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim.

In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html].

Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]].

Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|Nirvāna]].

In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries.

After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]].

Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. Furthermore, much of Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed into Hinduism.

==Main Traditions==

[[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]]

Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation) and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions.

Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]:

*All accept [[Gautama Buddha]] as their teacher.

*All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].

*All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).

*All accept two [[types of Buddha]] and consider Buddhahood as the highest attainment.

===Theravāda===

{{main|Theravada}}

'''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "elder person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]] and its commentaries. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[early Buddhist schools]]. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as portions of [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. The ultimate aim of practice according to Theravāda Buddhism is the attainment of [[Nirvana|freedom from suffering]]. This experienc of suffering is taught to be caused by greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained though practicing the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. [[Nirvana|Nibbāna]] refers to freedom from suffering, and also entails freedom from [[rebirth]].

===Mahāyāna===

[[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]]

{{main|Mahayana}}

The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), [[prajna-paramita]] and [[Buddha-nature]]. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and give expression to a form of mentalist [[pantheism]] or [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

In addition to the [[Tripitaka]] scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of [[Vajrayāna]]. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]].

===Vajrayāna===

[[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]

{{main|Vajrayana}}

The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan.

===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview===

{{main|History of Buddhist schools}}

In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]].

In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there:

"The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112).

Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]].

== Buddhist texts ==

[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]

{{main|Buddhist texts}}

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.

*The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]].

*The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true".

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

== Present state of Buddhism ==

{{sectstub}}

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]

Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary but the most common figure today is 708 million.

*[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]].

*[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West.

*[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the [[Russian Federation]]. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the [[Russian Federation]] are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion.

*The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of Hindu [[Untouchables]] now known as [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]])

See also [[Buddhism by country]]

== Buddhist Culture and Art ==

{{main|Buddhist culture and art}}

== Comparative Study ==

{{sectstub}}

Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''

*[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief)

*[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)

*[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism)

*[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]]

*[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)

*[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)

*[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science)

*[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html]

==See also==

{{portal}}

*[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]

*[[Buddhist terms and concepts]]

*[[List of Buddhist topics]]

*[[List of Buddhists]]

==References==

*{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}}

*{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}

*[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25.

*{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 983-40071-2-7.

*{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}

*{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php]

*{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}

*{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.

*{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}

*{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.

*{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.

*{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}

*{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.

*{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}

* John Dickson, A Spectator’s Guide to World Religions. Sydney: Blue Bottle Books, 2004.

* A View on Buddhism: http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/

* E-Asia digital library: http://e-asia.uoregon.edu/

* Buddhism: http://en.wikipedia.org/

* Presenting Theravada Buddhism in its Pristine Form: http://web.ukonline.co.uk/

* Thangka Paintings: http://www.buddhart.com/

* Islam and Buddhism: http://www.harunyahya.com/

* The public’s library and digital archive: http://www.ibiblio.org/

* Buddhism and the Bible: http://www.islamawareness.net/

* Spiritual – Buddhism: http://www.isymbolz.com/

* Buddhism – an overview: http://www.religions-and-spiritualities-guide.com/

* Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism: http://www.thaiexotictreasures.com/

==Notes==

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# {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web.

# {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42

# {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]''

# {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web.

# {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001

==External links==

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*[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ]

*[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]

*[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism]

*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism.

*[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]

*[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com]

*[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]

*[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras]

*[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide.

*[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]

*[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article]

*[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism]

*[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles.

*[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956]

*[http://www.justbegood.net/ For people who want to learn the basics of Buddhism] Also related to the slogan: ''Anyone can go to Heaven, Just Be Good''.

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