Buddhism and Andrés Bonifacio: Difference between pages

Revision as of 15:57, 17 October 2006

Revision as of 06:39, 10 July 2007

Line 1:

{{Infobox Military Person

john roman is really cool i want him

|name=Andrés Bonifacio

[[Image:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg|thumb|260px|right|A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found in [[Sarnath]], near [[Varanasi]].]]

|lived=[[November 30]] [[1863]] – [[May 10]], [[1897]]

{{Buddhism}}

|placeofbirth=[[Tondo]], [[Manila]]

'''Buddhism''' (also known as ''Buddha [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'' (Pali: Dhamma), "the teachings of the awakened one") is a [[Dharmic religions|dharmic]], [[Nontheism|non-theistic]] [[religion]], a way of life, a practical [[philosophy]], and arguably a form of [[psychology]]. Buddhism focuses on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] (Pali: Gotama Buddha), who lived in [[Epic India]] around the fifth century BCE<ref>http://indology.info/papers/cousins/.</ref> Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]].

|placeofdeath=[[Maragondon, Cavite|Maragondon]], [[Cavite]]

|image=[[Image:Gat_Andres_Bonifacio.jpg|200px]]

|caption=A photo engraving of Andrés Bonifacio

|nickname=

|allegiance= [[Katipunan]]

|serviceyears=

|rank= Revolution leader

|commands=

|unit=

|battles= [[Philippine Revolution]]

|awards=

|laterwork=

}}

{{about|the person Andrés Bonifacio|other uses|Bonifacio (disambiguation)}}

Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. According to one source ([http://www.adherents.com]), "World estimates for Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million." However, other sources give up to approximately [[Buddhism by country|708 million adherents]].{{fact}} Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional Chinese religion]], respectively.<ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fourth-largest organised religion]] in the world, and the monks' order [[Sangha]] is amongst the oldest organisations on earth.

'''Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro''' ([[November 30]], [[1863]] &ndash; [[May 10]], [[1897]]) was one of the chief leaders of the [[Philippine Revolution|revolution]] of the [[Philippines]] against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial rule]]. The 1896 [[Philippine Revolution]] was the first revolution in Asia against [[Europe]]an [[colonialism|colonial rule]].

==Early life==

When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. [[Gautama Buddha]] is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to Gautama Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[morality|moral]] life, and purifying the [[mind]].

He was born to a Tagalog father and a Spanish [[mestiza]] mother, Catalina de Castro of [[Zambales]]<ref>http://www.visitzambales.com/newlayout/index.php?action=people&part=intfacts</ref>, in [[Tondo]], Manila. His father was a ''cabeza de barangay'' (a leading [[barangay]] official). He was orphaned at a young age. According to popular anecdote, he peddled canes and fans to support his family.

Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to the stress of existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state of the end of suffering ([[Nirvana]] or [[Nirodha]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things. In this way all ignorance and unhappiness is ended, and [[liberation]] attained. Buddhist teaching encourages individuals to practice and verify the Buddha's teachings based on their own personal experience, and also after consulting with 'the wise'. If they find the teachings are valid (leading to more happiness and less suffering), they can apply these teachings in a practical form into their daily life if they so wish.

{{TOCleft}}

==Doctrines==

Later, he worked as a clerk in a British firm in Manila. He married twice - his first wife was a woman named Monica, who died of leprosy. He read books about the French Revolution, ''[[Les Miserables]]'', and the novels of local reformist and future national hero [[Jose Rizal]], among others.

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism.

According to historians, Bonifacio - though projected by detractors as being unlettered - was in fact very literate because a British firm would not have hired him as a clerk if he was not. He was also highly intellectual to be keeping serious novels and political books, many were not even written in his native tongue. He also authored countless articles and poems in the course of organizing the revolution.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}

The Buddha taught that in life there exists [[dukkha|dissatisfaction / suffering]] which is caused by [[tanha|desire]] and it can be cured (ceased) by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]".

He was a [[Freemason]]. He also joined Rizal's ''[[La Liga Filipina]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] "The Philippine League"), a society that called for reforms in Spanish rule. However, the ''Liga'' was disbanded shortly after Rizal was arrested and deported to the town of [[Dapitan]] in [[Mindanao]] a day after the group's only meeting.

# '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.

# '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|desire]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth).

# '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|desire]].

# '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]];

==The Katipunan==

The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities.

The ''Republika ng Katagalugan'' (Tagalog Republic), with him as President and the members of the ''Katipunan'' high council as his cabinet. "Tagalog", in this sense, was a term used to refer to the Philippines as a whole, not [[Tagalog people|the ethnic group]].

On the night of [[July 7]], [[1892]] (the eve of Rizal's arrest, in fact), Bonifacio founded the [[Katipunan]], a revolutionary secret society which would later spark the [[Philippine Revolution]] of [[1896]] against Spanish rule. In this period, he met his second wife, [[Gregoria de Jesus]], who became a rebel leader in her own right. His right-hand man was [[Emilio Jacinto]]. Within the society, Bonifacio's codename or ''nom de guerre'' was ''Maypagasa'' (There is hope).

The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness<ref>http://lazar-meditation-research.info/Lazar_Meditation_Plasticity_05.pdf</ref>. A possible fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]].

With the establishment of the Katipunan, Andrés Bonifacio became popularly known as the ''Father of the Revolution'' and eventually held the title of ''Supremo''.

=== Nirvana ===

{{main|Nirvana| Four stages of enlightenment}}

Nirvana is the extinguishment of all desire, delusion and ignorance. It has been likened to the snuffing out of a candle, where the spirit is freed from all worldly passions; it is the realization that the Self does not exist, and that human desires are empty. An enlightened Buddhist is able to act in this world with complete detachment (without desire), and their actions have no [[karma]]. A Buddhist who has attained Nirvana has escaped the world of cause-and-effect (they are free from the cycle of birth and rebirth). The realisation of Nirvana is a happy experience (but not the sensation of joy). Nirvana is fully realized at death, but can be experienced before death. There are four stages in the Buddhist life:

* 1. The “Stream-Entrant” (novice) catches a glimpse of Nirvana, understands the concept of non-self and eliminates the possibility of being reborn in the lower realms of existence. (S)he also develops a strong faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha and will only be reborn a maximum of seven more lives.

* 2. The “Once-Returner” eliminates sensual desires and will be born into the human world only once more.

* 3. The “Non-Returner” after passing away from the human realm is born in the "Brahma" heaven, where the body does not exist as desire and delusion have been destroyed. After achieving this stage the person has already destroyed the first 5 fetters.

* 4. The “Holy One” (Arhat) is completely pure and free from desire, delusion and ignorance. That person has experienced Nirvana and will know it fully at death, when all matter, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness will disappear forever.

He wrote the patriotic poem, ''Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa'' (loosely, Love for the Motherland), which saw print in the first and only issue of the ''Katipunan'' periodical, ''Kalayaan'' (Freedom), edited by Jacinto. Allegedly, he also made the first translation of Jose Rizal's final poem, ''[[Mi Ultimo Adios]]'' (My Last Farewell) into [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].

===The Noble Eightfold Path===

{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}

{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200"

|

|According to [[Buddha]] if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref>

|-

|}

[[Image:Dharma_wheel.svg|thumb|The eight-spoked [[Dharmachakra]]. The eight spokes represent the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] of Buddhism.]]

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of:

Just before the Revolution broke out, he formed a revolutionary government called "Republika ng mga Katagalugan" with himself as the president.

#Right Viewpoint - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}'''

#Right Values - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}'''

#Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}'''

#Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}'''

#Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}'''

#Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}'''

#Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}'''

#Right Meditation - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}'''

==Downfall==

The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration).

While Bonifacio's personal campaigns were less than successful, the revolutionaries in Cavite had greater success, led by officers coming from the upper classes, including the celebrated [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. Thus, they sent out a manifesto calling for a revolutionary government of their own, disregarding Bonifacio's leadership.

=== Bodhi ===

{{main|Bodhi}}

'''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.-->

A council comprising of Bonifacio's men and the ''[[Magdalo]]'' and the ''Magdiwang'', two locally-based rival Katipunan factions, held a convention in Tejeros, Cavite to establish a unified front and settle the issue of leadership of the revolutionary movement. The Magdalo faction was led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, cousin to Emilio Aguinaldo. In the elections, the Cavitenos voted their own Emilio Aguinaldo President. Bonifacio, due to the lack of a power base in the province, was voted Director of the Interior.

=== Karma ===

{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}

In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said:

However, a member of the ''Magdalo'' faction, Daniel Tirona, questioned Bonifacio's qualifications for high office, declaring him uneducated and unfit for the position. Bonifacio was slighted, all the more so since he had previously asked that the results of the election be respected by all. Invoking his authority as ''Supremo'', he threatened those in attendance with a pistol and declared the results of the Tejeros Convention as null and void and left in a rage. Later, he wrote to Jacinto about his misgivings about the whole matter, as he suspected Tirona of spreading black propaganda against him and fixing the ballots (as some other leaders also suspected).

:“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”.

It is believed the Supremo from this point headed towards Batangas to lead another Katipunan faction where he would establish his own government. Word of this got back to the Magdalo group. In fear of a separate rival government along with an ongoing revolution, Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his brothers. The Magdalo soldiers caught up with Bonifacio in the town of Indang. They surrounded the house and asked Bonifacio and his men to disarm and come out peacefully. Bonifacio refuted and stated that bullets would settle this matter. The stand off lasted through the night.

At dawn, the soldiers closed in and opened fire. Bonifacio ordered his men not to shoot. His men yelled, "Brothers, don't shoot! Tell us what you want?" The soldiers made their way in. [[Procopio Bonifacio]] was tied up and beaten with a revolver. [[Ciriaco Bonifacio]] was held down by two soldiers and shot to death. Bonifacio was stabbed and beaten with a rifle butt. [[Gregoria de Jesus]](wife of Andres Bonifacio) recounted that after the capture of the Supremo, the leading officer approached her, asking where they had stashed the Treasury money.

According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being:

The brothers were taken to Naic and tried in a kangaroo court headed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Both were charged with treason and sedition, punishment was death by firing squad. In Emilio Aguinaldo's biography, Aguinaldo claims he superseded this judgment and ordered the Supremo to be exiled and banished to Mt. Nagpatong. Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]], along with four soldiers, was given orders to lead the Bonifacio brothers to Mt. Nagpatong. Makapagal was also given a sealed envelope with strict orders not to open it until they reached the mountains. On [[May 10]], [[1897]], at Mt. Nagpatong, Major [[Lazaro Makapagal]] opened the letter, faced the Supremo and his brother, and read its contents aloud. Andres and Procopio were to be executed by firing squad or he himself would be shot. It was signed by General [[Mariano Noriel]]. Makapagal turned his back and his soldiers opened fire on the Bonifacio brothers. The Supremo was only 34 years old. Fearing their gunfire being heard by Spanish forces, they quickly dug a shallow grave and covered the two bodies with twigs and branches. Co-patriots of the Revolution regarded this an ugly blot laid at Aguinaldo's door, though Aguinaldo originally wanted them banished instead.

:"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.)

In 1918, an expedition lead by one of the former soldiers found the grave of Andres Bonifacio. His remains were exhumed and placed in a urn at the Legislative Building (today National Museum) in Manila. In 1945, near the end of WWII during the [[Battle of Manila]], the building was completely destroyed. The Supremo's remains are lost forever.

In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ([[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action).

== Middle Way Controversy==

Some historians, like [[Renato Constantino]], see him as a champion of the masses who was slighted by ambitious members of the upper class. Others like [[Gregorio Zaide]], favor Aguinaldo and company over him. [[Glenn May]] goes as far as saying that his role as a national hero was largely invented. Also, there is debate whether he should be considered the first Philippine President instead of Aguinaldo and the national hero instead of Rizal until now.

The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.

Some analytical historians, claim that what happened at Tejeros, Cavite was actually a coup de etat to wrest power from Bonifacio by the bourgeois or upper class represented by Aguinaldo. (Aguinaldo and members of his class enjoyed more privilege status even before the revolution. They would not allow a victorious president Bonifacio ordering land and wealth distribution as his first decree.) Hence, the Tejeros Convention was a farce intended to lure Bonifacio to the Caviteño territory. The presidential election wasn't a national election at all. Participated only by mostly Caviteños. The other revolting provinces such as Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and others, were not participants. Bonifacio, who was too fueled with idealism, was too naive to understand maneuvering politicians. Bonifacio was not allowed to get out of Cavite. He was tried then executed promptly for treason. Many now asks: Had Bonifacio able to slip to Manila could he have declared that the Aguinaldo was the one who betrayed the revolution?

=== Refuge in the Three Jewels ===

[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]

{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

==Today==

Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The Buddha who chooses the Bodhisattva-path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

[[Image:Bonifacio_Monument.JPG|left|thumb|100px|Bonifacio Monument in [[Caloocan City]], sculpted by [[Guillermo Tolentino]]]]

[[Image:Php_bill_10_front.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Andrés Bonifacio (right) on the 10-peso bill]]

Bonifacio's birthday on [[November 30]] is celebrated as '''Bonifacio Day''' (Filipino: ''Araw ni Bonifacio'') and is a public holiday in the Philippines.

There are many monuments to Bonifacio across the nation, with the most famous being two sculptures, one by [[Napoleon Abueva]] and the other by [[Guillermo Tolentino]], both [[National Artist of the Philippines|National Artists]].

The '''Three Jewels''' are:

* The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard Gautama Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.

* The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction).

* The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). It also consists of laywomen and laymen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

In current [[Philippine peso|Philippine currency]], he is depicted in the 10-peso bill (currently out of production) and 10-peso coin, along with fellow patriot [[Apolinario Mabini]].

[[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}}

==In film==

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma.

Bonifacio was portrayed by Julio Diaz in ''Bayani'' (Hero), a feature film loosely based on his life directed by experimental ''auteur'' Raymond Red, and an educational television series also named ''Bayani''.

In ''[[José Rizal (film)|Jose Rizal]]'', a film about the national hero, he was portrayed by [[Gardo Verzosa]].

=== Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)===

{{main|Sila}}

== References ==

'''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (sila - samadhi - panya) and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.

*{{cite book | author=Zaide, Gregorio F. | title=Philippine History and Government|publisher=National Bookstore Printing Press |year=[[1984]]}}

* Ocampo, Ambeth. Bones of Contention: The Bonifacio Lectures

* Agoncillo, Teodoro. The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan

* Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: a Past Revisited

<div class="references-small">

<references/>

</div>

== Further reading ==

sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behaviour. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' ([[Vinaya]] or [[Patimokkha]]). Laypeople generally undertake to live by the [[pancasila|five precepts]] which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism. The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

*{{cite journal

| first =Isagani A.

| last =Cruz

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 27

| title =The Tragedy Of Andres Bonifacio

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =14

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html

}}

*{{cite book

| last =Clair

| first =Francis St.

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =1902

| title =[http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN03016030&id=hNFEgCAB9rAC&dq=%22Andr%C3%A9s+Bonifacio%22+%22Katipunan%22 The Katipunan: Or, The Rise and Fall of the Filipino Commune]

| publisher =Francis St. Clair

| ___location =

| id =

}}Full book on Google

*{{cite journal

| first =Manuel L.

| last = Quezon III

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2005

| month =November 21

| title =The Supremo Lives

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid2

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Roberto

| last =Lazaro

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2005

| month =November 29

| title =Thinking Aloud Dead Ends Need Not Be Dead

| journal =Manila Times

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid3

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Marlon

| last =Ramos

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year = 2004

| month =December 9

| title =Bonifacio: The Neglected Hero

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid4

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Ambeth R.

| last =Ocampo

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =December 1

| title =Where Are the Bones of Bonifacio?

| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer

# To refrain from taking life.

# To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).

# To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior).

# To refrain from lying.

# To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

| volume =

In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

| issue =

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid5

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Fr. Bel R.

| last =San Luis

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November 29

| title =Bonifacio & our changing notion of 'hero'

| journal =Opinion & Editorial Manila Bulletin

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid6

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =

| last =

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November

| title =Cavite to Unviel Bonifacio Mural Inquirer

| journal =Philippine Daily

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid7

}}

*{{cite journal

| first =Ellalyn B.

| last =De Vera

| authorlink =

| coauthors =

| year =2004

| month =November 27

| title =Andres Bonifacio: The Katipunan Supremo

| journal =Manila Bulletin

| volume =

| issue =

| pages =

| id =

| url =http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/84994.html#cutid8

}}

== External links ==

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon).<br>

7. To refrain from dancing, using jewellery, going to shows, etc.<br>

8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000005&page=1&epage=3 The Courtmartial of Andres Bonifacio] Historical court documents and testimonies in the trial and execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio processed by [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks. In includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.

*[http://www.filipiniana.net/read_content.jsp?filename=BKW000000004&page=1&epage=1 Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog] Summary and full text of an article written by Andres Bonifacio in the Katipunan newspaper Kalayaan posted in [http://www.filipiniana.net Filipiniana.net]

*[http://www.bibingka.com/phg/books/bonifacio.htm Book Review Inventing a Hero by Glenn May]

*[http://bonifaciopapers.blogspot.com A site on the ''Supremo'' and the Katipunan]

{{Philippine Revolution}}

In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see [[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]).

<!--Categories-->

=== Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) ===

[[Category:Philippine Revolution people|Bonifacio, Andres]]

{{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}}

[[Category:Filipino revolutionaries|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:Paramilitary Filipinos|Bonifacio]]

[[Category:People from Manila|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:Filipinos of Spanish descent|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:People executed by firing squad|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:Deaths by firearm in the Philippines|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:1863 births|Bonifacio, Andres]]

[[Category:1897 deaths|Bonifacio, Andres]]

<!--Other languages-->

In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[cbk-zam:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[es:Andrés Bonifacio]]

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna''').

[[fr:Andrés Bonifacio]]

[[ilo:Andres Bonifacio]]

=== Prajñā (Wisdom) ===

[[ia:Andres Bonifacio]]

{{main|Prajñā}}

[[la:Andreas Bonifacio]]

[[ja:アンドレス・ボニファシオ]]

'''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]].

[[no:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[sv:Andrés Bonifacio]]

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation (Citation needed) to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

[[tl:Andres Bonifacio]]

[[zh:安達斯·波尼斯奧]]

=== Buddhism Symbols ===

{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:

* the Conch Shell

* the Lotus

* the Wheel

* the Parasol (Umbrella)

* the Endless Knot

* the Pair of Golden Fishes

* the Banner Proclaiming Victory

* the Treasure Vase

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

{{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}}

Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya).

=== Early Buddhism ===

{{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}}

{{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose regarding 9 (subtle) points of discipline. A [[Second Buddhist Council]] (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute, and these were resolved. The result was that those 9 practices were declared unallowed according to Vinaya. After the second council however, some schisms occurred, and to resolve those schism and determine orthodoxy, a [[Third Buddhist Council]] was held at Pataliputta.}}

These schisms occurred ''within'' the [[early Buddhist schools|traditions of Early Buddhism]], at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

{{unicode|One of the basic schisms was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. The fortunate survival of accounts of schisms from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}}

{{unicode|Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. Such commentaries probably existed in the time of the Buddha as very early of simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new [[Pitaka]]: the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, the [[Mahasanghika]] school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims [[Fa Xian]] (5th century) and Yuan Chwang (7th century), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the Mahasanghika School.}}

[[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]]

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Central Asia]], beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of [[Sri Lanka]] south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.

=== Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) ===

{{main|Theravada}}

{{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}}

The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive; this branch of the school is now known as Theravada. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council.

It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat.

=== Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) ===

[[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]

{{main|Mahayana}}

{{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}}

Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE.

=== Emergence of the Vajrayāna ===

[[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]]

{{main|Vajrayana}}

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]].

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology.

There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition.

=== Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia ===

{{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]].

Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder. Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had resulted in the rise of a 'Buddha-Mazda' divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref>

The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief.

From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the [[Silk Road]] as far as China.

The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists.

When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Iranian rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref>

Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area.

After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan".

The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim.

In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate became hostile towards Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html ucalgary.ca]</ref>

Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]].

Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]].

In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries.

After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]].

Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. Furthermore, much of Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed into Hinduism.

==Main Traditions==

[[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Dazu Rock Carvings|Rock carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]]

Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongolian]] translation) and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions.

Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]:

*All accept [[Gautama Buddha]] as their teacher.

*All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].

*All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).

*All accept two [[types of Buddha]] and consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment.

===Theravāda===

{{main|Theravada}}

'''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders". Theravāda teaches one to encourage [[parami|wholesome states of mind]], avoid unwholesome states of mind, and to train the mind in [[Buddhist meditation|meditation]]. The ultimate aim of practice, according to Theravāda Buddhism, is the attainment of [[Nirvana|freedom from suffering]]. Theravāda teaches that this experience of suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained though putting into practice teachings like the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].

The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. The [[sutra|Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[early Buddhist schools]]. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as portions of [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. It has a growing presence in [[Europe]] and [[Americas|America]].

===Mahāyāna===

[[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]]

{{main|Mahayana}}

The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), [[prajna-paramita]] and [[Buddha-nature]]. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and give expression to a form of mentalist [[pantheism]] or [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

In addition to the [[Tripitaka]] scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Sri Lanka]] and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of [[Vajrayāna]]. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]].

===Vajrayāna===

[[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]

{{main|Vajrayana}}

The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan.

===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview===

{{main|History of Buddhist schools}}

In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]].

In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there:

"The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112).

Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]].

== Buddhist texts ==

[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]

{{main|Buddhist texts}}

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.

*The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]].

*The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true".

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

== Present state of Buddhism ==

{{sectstub}}

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]

Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary but the most common figure today is 350 million.

*[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]].

*[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West.

*[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]]/[[China]], and the [[Russian Federation]]. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the [[Russian Federation]] are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion.

*The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of Hindu [[Untouchables]] now known as [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]])

See also [[Buddhism by country]]

== Buddhist Culture and Art ==

{{main|Buddhist culture and art}}

== Comparative Study ==

{{sectstub}}

Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''

*[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief)

*[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)

*[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism)

*[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]]

*[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)

*[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)

*[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science)

*[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html]

==See also==

{{portal}}

*[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]

*[[Buddhist terms and concepts]]

*[[List of Buddhist topics]]

*[[List of Buddhists]]

==References==

*{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}}

*{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}

*[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25.

*{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 983-40071-2-7.

*{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}

*{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php]

*{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}

*{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.

*{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}

*{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.

*{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.

*{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}

*{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.

*{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}

* John Dickson, A Spectator’s Guide to World Religions. Sydney: Blue Bottle Books, 2004.

==Notes==

<!--<nowiki>

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how

to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below

</nowiki>-->

{{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}}

# {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web.

# {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42

# {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]''

# {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web.

# {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001

==External links==

{{cleanup-spam}}

<!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.-->

*[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]

*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism.

*[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]

*[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide.

*[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article]

*[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles.

*[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]

*[http://www.justbegood.net/ Basic Buddhism for Beginners]

*[http://www.buddhaweb.org Essentials of Buddhism] A minimalist overview of the key teachings

*[http://americanbuddhist.net/ American Buddhist Net] Buddhist News & Forums

*[http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/ What Buddha Taught] A Collection of the Essence of Buddhism.

*[http://www.thatsqingdao.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=169&Itemid=42 Qingdao's ZhanShan Buddhist Temple]

{{Link FA|ar}}

{{Link FA|vi}}

[[Category:Buddhism| ]]

[[Category:Dharmic religions]]

[[Category:Eastern culture]]

[[Category:Religion in India]]

[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]

[[af:Boeddhisme]]

[[als:Buddhismus]]

[[ar:بوذية]]

[[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]]

[[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]]

[[br:Boudaegezh]]

[[bg:Будизъм]]

[[ca:Budisme]]

[[cs:Buddhismus]]

[[da:Buddhisme]]

[[de:Buddhismus]]

[[et:Budism]]

[[el:Βουδισμός]]

[[es:Budismo]]

[[eo:Budhismo]]

[[eu:Budismo]]

[[fa:بوداگرایی]]

[[fr:Bouddhisme]]

[[ko:불교]]

[[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]]

[[hr:Budizam]]

[[io:Budismo]]

[[ilo:Budhismo]]

[[ia:Buddhismo]]

[[is:Búddismi]]

[[it:Buddhismo]]

[[he:בודהיזם]]

[[jv:Buddha]]

[[ka:ბუდიზმი]]

[[kw:Bouddhisteth]]

[[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]]

[[la:Religio Buddhistica]]

[[lv:Budisms]]

[[lt:Budizmas]]

[[li:Boeddhisme]]

[[jbo:bu'ojda]]

[[hu:Buddhizmus]]

[[mt:Buddiżmu]]

[[ms:Agama Buddha]]

[[mn:Буддизм]]

[[nl:Boeddhisme]]

[[ja:仏教]]

[[no:Buddhisme]]

[[nn:Buddhismen]]

[[ug:بذددا دعنع]]

[[nds:Buddhismus]]

[[pl:Buddyzm]]

[[pt:Budismo]]

[[ro:Budism]]

[[ru:Буддизм]]

[[sco:Buddhism]]

[[simple:Buddhism]]

[[sk:Budhizmus]]

[[sl:Budizem]]

[[sr:Будизам]]

[[fi:Buddhalaisuus]]

[[sv:Buddhism]]

[[tl:Budismo]]

[[ta:பௌத்தம்]]

[[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]]

[[vi:Phật giáo]]

[[tpi:Budisim]]

[[tr:Budizm]]

[[uk:Буддизм]]

[[yi:בודהיזם]]

[[zh:佛教]]