Race and intelligence (explanations) and Chelsea F.C.: Difference between pages

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*** POLITE SUGGESTION to potential editors: This article is only meant to be a summary and is already too long by Wikipedia standards. It has been suggested that the temptation to provide a match by match commentary or a blow by blow account of Chelsea's recent history be avoided. More detailed information should be added to the [[History of Chelsea F.C.]] article. See Talk page. ***
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{{Infobox Football club |
clubname = Chelsea Football Club |
image = [[Image:Chelsea crest.png|150px]] |
fullname = Chelsea Football Club |
nickname = ''The Pensioners''<br>''The Blues''|
founded = [[March 14]], [[1905]] |
ground = [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]]<br />[[Fulham Road]]<br/>[[London|London SW6]]<br/>[[England]] |
capacity = 42,055<ref name="capacity">{{cite web | url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/StadiumLayout | title=Stadium Layout |work=chelseafc.com | accessdate=21 January | accessyear=2007}}</ref> |
chairman = {{flagicon|USA}} [[Bruce Buck]] <br>(for {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Roman Abramovich]]) |
mgrtitle = Head Coach|
manager = {{flagicon|Portugal}} [[José Mourinho]] |
captain = {{flagicon|England}} [[John Terry]] |
Chief Executive = {{flagicon|England}} [[Peter Kenyon]]|
Life President = {{flagicon|England}} [[Richard Attenborough]] |
league = [[Premier League]] |
season = [[Premier League 2006-07|2006–07]] |
position = Premier League, 2nd |
pattern_la1=_whiteshoulders|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=_whiteshoulders|
leftarm1=0000FF|body1=0000FF|rightarm1=0000FF|shorts1=0000FF|socks1=FFFFFF|
pattern_la2=_blackshoulders|pattern_b2=_thinblacksides|pattern_ra2=_blackshoulders|
leftarm2=D4FF00|body2=D4FF00|rightarm2=D4FF00|shorts2=000000|socks2=000000|
shirtsupplier=[[Adidas]]|
shirtsponsors=[[Samsung|Samsung Mobile]]|}}
'''Chelsea Football Club''' (also known as '''The Blues''' or previously '''The Pensioners''') are an [[England|English]] professional [[football (soccer)|football]] [[football team|club]] based in west [[London]]. Founded in 1905, they play in the [[Premier League]] and have spent most of their history in the top tier in [[Football in England|English football]]. They have had two broad periods of success, one during the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], and the second from the late 1990s to the present day. Chelsea have won three league titles, four [[FA Cup]]s, four [[Football League Cup|League Cup]]s and two [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]s.<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/TrophyCabinet |
title=Trophy Cabinet |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=25 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref>
 
Chelsea's home is the 42,055 capacity<ref name="capacity"/> [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]] football stadium in [[Fulham]], [[West London]], where they have played since their foundation. Despite their name, the club are based just outside the [[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea]], in the [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham]]. In 2003, the club was bought by [[Russia]]n [[petroleum|oil]] tycoon [[Roman Abramovich]].<ref name="takeover">{{cite news |
date=[[2003-07-02]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3036838.stm |
title=Russian businessman buys Chelsea |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2007-02-11 |
author=}}</ref>
 
The club's traditional [[Kit (football)|kit]] colours are royal blue shirts and shorts with white socks. Their traditional crest is a ceremonial blue lion holding a staff; a modified version of this was adopted in 2005.<ref name="new crest">{{cite news |
The most common view among intelligence researchers is that [[IQ]] differences among ''individuals'' of the same [[race]] reflect real, functionally/socially significant, and substantially genetic differences in the [[general intelligence factor]].<ref name="lead1">Language by {{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}, p. 311. For consensus statements see {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} and {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}. For survey data see {{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}.</ref> Average IQ differences among races reflect real and significant differences in the same ''g'' factor.<ref name="lead1"/> HHowever, there is substantial debate about which environmental factors influence in the differences found in IQ test scores between races and ethnic groups in an given [[country]] and whether or not genetics may play a role.<ref name="lead1"/>
date=[[2004-11-12]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chelsea/4008257.stm |
title=Chelsea centenary crest unveiled |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2007-01-02 |
author=}}</ref> Chelsea are one of the best-supported clubs in the [[United Kingdom]], with an estimated fanbase of around four million.<ref name="fanbase">{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/article.asp?hlid=404437&m=7&y=2006&nav=news&sub=latest%20news |
title=Chelsea voted one of UK's top brands |
work=chelseafc.com |
accessdate=2006-09-28
}}</ref>
 
==History==
{{Details2|History of Chelsea F.C.}}
[[Image: Chelsea_Team_1905.jpg|right|thumb|The first Chelsea team in September 1905.|250 px]]
Chelsea were founded on [[March 14]], [[1905]] at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook), opposite the present-day main entrance to the ground on [[Fulham Road]], and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards. The club's early years saw little success; the closest they came to winning a major trophy was reaching the [[FA Cup]] final in 1915, where they lost to [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]. Chelsea gained a reputation for signing big-name players<ref name="glanville">{{cite news |
date=[[2004-01-10]] |
url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,27-958357_1,00.html |
title=Little sign of change for Chelsea and their impossible dreams |
publisher=[[The Times]] |
accessdate=2006-12-29 |
author=[[Brian Glanville]]}}</ref> and for being entertainers, but made little impact on the English game in the inter-war years.
 
Former [[England national football team|England]] centre-forward [[Ted Drake]] became manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club. He removed the club's [[Chelsea pensioner]] crest, improved the youth set-up and training regime, rebuilt the side, and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in [[1954-55 in English football|1954–55]]. The following season saw [[UEFA]] create the [[UEFA Champions League|European Champions' Cup]], but after objections from [[The Football League]] and the [[The Football Association|FA]] Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started.<ref>{{cite news |
== Overview ==
date=[[2005-04-27]] |
[[Image:Heritability plants.jpeg|thumb|right|350px|The height of this "ordinary genetically varied corn" is 100% heritable, but the difference between the groups is totally environmental.<ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/Heritability.html How Heritability Misleads about Race]</ref>]]
url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,762-1586242,00.html |
title=The great Chelsea surrender |
publisher=[[The Times]] |
accessdate=2006-12-29 |
author=[[Brian Glanville]]}}</ref>
 
The 1960s saw the emergence of a talented young Chelsea side under manager [[Tommy Docherty]]. They challenged for honours throughout the decade, and endured several near-misses. They were on course for a treble of League, FA Cup and [[Football League Cup|League Cup]] going into the final stages of the [[1964-65 in English football|1964-65]] season, winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill, Rick | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography - The Definitive Story of the First 100 Years| publisher=Headline Book Publishing Ltd| year=2006| id=ISBN 0-7553-1466-2 | pages=p. 196}}</ref> In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi-finals and were FA Cup runners-up. In 1970 Chelsea were FA Cup winners, beating [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] 2–1 in a [[FA Cup Final 1970|final replay]]. Chelsea took their first European honour, a [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] triumph, the following year, with another replayed win, this time over [[Real Madrid]] in [[Athens]].
Although, most intelligence researchers believe that IQ differences among '''individuals''' reflect the [[general intelligence factor]], ''g''.<ref>{{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}; {{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}; {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}; {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}}</ref> the question of whether IQ differences among '''groups''' are substantially genetic remains unsettled. Researchers, such as [[Richard E. Nisbett]] caution that the studies that are most directly relevant to the question of whether the Black/White IQ gap is genetic in origin provide no evidence for a correlation between IQ and African (rather than European) ancestry. The best modern studies, says Nisbett indicate little relation between skin color and IQ. One modern study of blood types weakly suggests African superiority; the other two suggest no difference between the races.<ref>[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nisbett/racegen.pdf. ''RACE, GENETICS, AND IQ''], [[Richard E. Nisbett]]</ref>
[[Image: ChelseaReserveProgramme.jpg|thumb|150px|left|One of the first post-[[World War II|War]] matchday programmes - Chelsea Reserves vs [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]] Reserves, [[27 October]] [[1945]].]]
The late 1970s and the 1980s were a turbulent period for Chelsea. An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club,<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 84-87}}</ref> star players were sold and the team were relegated. Further problems were caused by a notorious [[hooliganism|hooligan]] element among the support, which was to plague the club throughout the decade.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 143-157}}</ref> Chelsea were, at the nadir of their fortunes, acquired by [[Ken Bates]] for the nominal sum of £1, although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers, meaning the club faced losing their home.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 89-90}}</ref> On the pitch, the team had fared little better, coming close to relegation to the [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]] for the first time, but in 1983 manager [[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]] put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay. Chelsea won the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] title in [[1983-84 in English football|1983–84]] and established themselves in the top division, before being relegated again in 1988. The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in [[1988-89 in English football|1988-89]].
 
After a long-running legal battle, Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers, who had been bankrupted by a market crash.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 90-91}}</ref> Chelsea's form in the new [[Premier League]] was unconvincing, although they did reach the FA Cup final in [[FA Cup Final 1994|1994]]. It was not until the appointment of former [[European Footballer of the Year]] [[Ruud Gullit]] as [[player-manager]] in 1996 that their fortunes changed. He added several top-class international players to the side, particularly [[Gianfranco Zola]], as the club won the [[FA Cup]] in [[FA Cup Final 1997|1997]] and established themselves as one of England's top sides again. Gullit was replaced by [[Gianluca Vialli]], who led the team to victory in the [[Football League Cup Final 1998|League Cup]] and the [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1997-98|Cup Winners' Cup]] in 1998, the FA Cup in [[FA Cup Final 2000|2000]] and the [[UEFA Champions League]] quarter-finals in 2000. Vialli was sacked in favour of another Italian, [[Claudio Ranieri]], who guided Chelsea to the 2002 [[FA Cup]] final and Champions League qualification in [[2002-03 in English football|2002–03]].
According to the [[American Psychological Association]], the difference between the average IQ scores of Blacks and Whites in the U.S. cannot be attributed to any obvious biases in test construction or cultural biases, though, it is clear, they say, that these differences, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors.<ref>See for example APA's summary of their 1996 task force report ({{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}): "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" (Neisser et al. 1996); also: "It is clear, however, that these differences, whatever their origin, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors."(Neisser et al. 1996). The {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} collective statement likewise states: "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."</ref>
 
In June 2003, Bates sold Chelsea to [[Russia|Russian]] billionaire [[Roman Abramovich]] for £140 million, completing what was then the biggest-ever sale of an English football club.<ref name="takeover"/> Owing to Abramovich's Russian heritage, the club were soon popularly dubbed "Chelski" in the British media.<ref>{{cite news |
Although IQ differences between individuals is highly heritable, this does not mean that average IQ differences between racial groups are necessarily genetic in origin, because estimates of heritability depend on the range of environments tested.<ref>{{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, {{AYref|Murray|2005}}</ref> High heritability by itself is not informative about group differences, so any inferences made from within group heritability will depend on additional considerations.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}}</ref> However, many scholars agree that no considerations of heritabilty are sufficient if group differences are caused by environmental factors that uniquely and uniformly affect all members of one group but not another.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}} refers to such environmental factors as "Factor X", a name which he also applies to environmentalist hypotheses about group differences that posit the existence of a "Factor X". If group differences were caused by racism, then racism would be a "Factor X". {{AYref|Rowe et al.|1994}} and a number of subsequent studies sought and failed to find evidence for the existence of a Factor X. However, {{AYref|Gottfredson|2005}} warns that these studies are not "well replicated".</ref>
date=[[2003-08-24]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/3174605.stm |
title=Chasing 'Mr Chelski' |
publisher=[[The BBC]] |
accessdate=2006-01-30 |
author=Steve Rosenberg}}</ref> Over £100 million was spent on new players, but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies, so he was replaced by successful [[Portugal|Portuguese]] coach [[José Mourinho]], who had just guided [[FC Porto]] to victory in the UEFA Champions League.
 
In 2005, Chelsea's [[centenary]] year, the club became Premiership champions in a record-breaking season (most clean sheets, fewest goals conceded, most victories, most points earned),<ref name="records">{{cite news |
A recent review summarizing the arguments for a "partly-genetic" explanation can be found here.<ref>http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf</ref> A critique can be found here.<ref>http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html</ref>
date=[[2005-05-13]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/football/teams/c/chelsea/4545045.stm |
title=Mourinho proud of battling finish |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2006-12-28 |
author=}}</ref> [[Football League Cup Final 2005|League Cup]] winners with a 3–2 win over [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] at the [[Millennium Stadium]] and reached the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] semi-finals. [[2005-06 in English football|The following year]], they were again League Champions, equalling their own Premiership record of 29 wins set the previous season. They also became the fifth team to win back-to-back championships since the [[Second World War]] and the first London club to do so since [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in [[1933-34 in English football|1933-34]].<ref>{{cite news |
date= |
url=http://www.sportinglife.com/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=soccer/06/03/12/SOCCER_Chelsea.html&TEAMHD=soccer |
title=Terry Eyes Back-to-Back Titles |
publisher=Sporting Life |
accessdate=2007-01-22 |
author=Matt Barlow}}</ref> In [[2006-07 in English football|2007]] Chelsea won the [[Football League Cup Final 2007|League Cup]] for the second time in three years,<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2007-02-25]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/league_cup/6371613.stm |
title=Chelsea 2-1 Arsenal |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2007-03-19 |
author=}}</ref> and finished 2nd in the Premier League. To end the season, Chelsea beat Manchester United 1-0 in the [[FA Cup]] final, the first at the [[new Wembley Stadium]]<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2007-05-20]] |
title=Something old, new and Blue|
url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/sport/story/0,,2083889,00.html |
publisher=[[The Observer]] |
accessdate=2007-05-20 |
author=Mitchell, Kevin}}</ref>
 
==Stamford Bridge==
===Heritiblity vs. genetics===
[[Image: Chelsea_bt_W_Brom_1905.jpg |right|frame|Chelsea ''vs.'' [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] at Stamford Bridge on [[September 23]] [[1905]]; Chelsea won 1-0.]]
{{Race and intelligence vertical navbox}}
{{details|Stamford Bridge (stadium)}}
 
Chelsea have only ever had one home ground, Stamford Bridge, where they have played since foundation. It was officially opened on [[28 April]] [[1877]]. For the first 28 years of its existence it was used almost exclusively by the London Athletics Club as an arena for [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]] meetings and not at all for football.
According to Gould, a good example of the confusion of heritability is found in the statement of international scholars published in the Wall Street Journal: "If all environments were to become equal for everyone, heritability would rise to 100% because all remaining differences in IQ would necessarily be genetic in origin.". He says that this claim is at best misleading and at worst, false. First, it is very hard to conceive of a world in which everyone grows up in the exact same environment; the very fact that people are spatially and temporally dispersed means that no one can be in exactly the same environment (a simple example will illustrate how complex social environments are: a husband and wife may share a house, but they do not live in identical environments because each is married to a different person). Second, even if people grew up in exactly the same environment, not all differences would be genetic in origin. This is because embryonic development involves chance molecular events and random cellular movements that alter the effects of genes. Third, even as far as genetics is involved, heritability is not a measure of [[phenotypic]] differences between groups, but rather differences between genotype and phenotype within a population. Even within a group, if all members of the group grow up in exactly the same environment, it does not mean that heritability is 100%. All Americans (or New Yorkers, or upper-class New Yorkers -- one may define the population in question as narrowly as one likes) may eat exactly the same food, but their adult height will still be a result of both genetics and nutrition. In short, heritability is almost never 100%, and heritability tells us nothing about genetic differences between groups. This is true for height, which has a high degree of heritability; it is all the more true for intelligence. This is true for other reasons besides ones involving "heritability," as Gould goes on to discuss.
In 1904 the ground was acquired by businessman [[Gus Mears]] and his brother, J T Mears, who had previously acquired additional land (formerly a large [[market garden]]) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m²) site.<ref name="stadium">{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/StadiumHistoryHistory |
title=Stadium History |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref>
 
Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by the noted football architect [[Archibald Leitch]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 69-71}}</ref> They offered the stadium to [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham Football Club]], but the offer was turned down. As a consequence, the owners decided to form their own football club to occupy their new ground. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge. Since there was already a football club named Fulham in the borough, the founders decided to adopt the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea for the new club, having rejected names such as ''Kensington FC'', ''Stamford Bridge FC'' and ''London FC''.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=p. 55}}</ref>
==Test bias==
It has been suggested that IQ tests may be biased against minorities, and that this accounts for part or all of the IQ gap. Some claim that there is no evidence for test bias. IQ tests are equally good predictors of IQ-related factors (such as school performance) for U.S. Blacks and Whites.<ref name="APA">{{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}</ref> The performance differences persist in tests and testing situations in which care has been taken to eliminate bias.<ref name="APA">{{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}</ref> It has also been suggested that IQ tests are formulated in such a way as to disadvantage minorities.<ref name="APA">{{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}</ref> Controlled studies have shown that test construction does not substantially contribute to the IQ gap.<ref name="APA">{{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}</ref> Studies have shown that the race of the test administrator does not have an effect on the U.S. Black-White gap ({{AYref|Caldwell and Knight|1970}}).
 
Starting with an open bowl-like design and one covered terrace, Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100,000.<ref name="stadium">{{cite web |
The lack of test bias due to test construction or methodology is widely accepted in the research community. From the American Psychological Association's [http://www.apa.org/releases/intell.html summary] of their 1996 task force report, [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"]: "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" ({{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}). From [http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/intell/mainstream.html ''The Wall Street Journal: Mainstream Science on Intelligence''] ([http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf PDF]): "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/StadiumHistoryHistory |
title=Stadium History |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> The early 1930s saw the construction of a terrace on the southern part of the ground with a roof that covered around one fifth of the stand. It eventually became known as the "Shed End", the home of Chelsea's most loyal and vocal supporters, particularly during the 1960s, 70s and 80s. The exact origins of the name are unclear, but the fact that the roof looked like a [[corrugated iron]] shed roof played a part.<ref name="stadium">{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/StadiumHistoryHistory |
title=Stadium History |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref>
[[Image:Chelsea stand.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The East Stand, during a game with [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in March 2006.]]
During the late 1960s and early 70s, the club's owners embarked on a modernisation of Stamford Bridge with plans for a 50,000 all-seater stadium.<ref name="stadium">{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/StadiumHistoryHistory |
title=Stadium History |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref>
Work began on the East Stand in the early 1970s but the cost almost brought the club to its knees, and the [[Fee simple|freehold]] was sold to [[Real estate developer|property developers]]. Following a long legal battle, it was not until the mid-1990s that Chelsea's future at the stadium was secured and renovation work resumed.<ref name="stadium">When Stamford Bridge was nearly no more</ref> The north, west and southern parts of the ground were converted into all-seater stands and moved closer to the pitch, a process completed by 2001.
 
The Stamford Bridge [[Football pitch|pitch]], the freehold, the turnstiles and Chelsea's [[naming rights]] are now owned by [[Chelsea Pitch Owners]], a non-profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders. The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers. It also means that if someone tries to move the football club to a new stadium they could not use the Chelsea FC name.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 91-92}}</ref>
This does not mean that anyone is claiming that there is no bias in the tests whatsoever.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Somewhat but not directly related to the idea of cultural bias, is the concept of "labeling bias", described by Jencks and Phillips (1998). They insist that there exists a labeling bias in the tests, stating that most psychologists agree that IQ tests measure developed ability rather than innate ability—although the tests supposedly measure innate ability.<ref>Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (1998). The black-white test score gap: An introduction. In C. Jencks and M. Phillips (Eds.), The black-white test score gap (pp. 1-51). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. ". . . we find it hard to see how anyone reading these studies with an open mind could conclude that innate ability played a large role in the black-white gap." </ref> Their assertion is that non-cultural environmental factors cause gaps measured by the tests, rather than any possible innate difference based on genetics, and to use these tests as a measure of innate difference is misleading and improper. In a [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sats/interviews/jencks.html PBS interview], Jencks states, "If we change the names of the tests, they still measure the same thing but it wouldn't convey this idea that somehow you've gotten the potential of somebody when you measured their IQ. And I think that creates a big bias, because the people who do badly on the tests are labeled as people with low potential in many people's minds and they sometimes even believe that about themselves."
 
The club plans to increase its capacity to over 50,000. Owing to its ___location in a built-up part of London on a main road and next to two [[railway]] lines, fans can only enter the stadium through the [[Fulham Road]] entrance, which places severe constraints on expansion due to [[health and safety]] regulations.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=p. 76 }}</ref> As a result, Chelsea have been linked with a move away from Stamford Bridge to sites including the [[Earls Court Exhibition Centre]], [[Battersea Power Station]] and the [[Chelsea Barracks]].<ref>{{cite news
Since the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] outlawed employee selection, including testing, which is "fair in form, but discriminatory in operation" (''[[Griggs v. Duke Power Co.]]'', [[1971]]; see [http://www.hr-guide.com/data/G702.htm this page] on disparate impact), American companies have had a strong incentive to construct [[Predictive validity|valid]] tests which do not produce an IQ gap between ethnic groups, called "selection bias" in employment. Despite this incentive, these efforts have generally failed. For example, in one case regarding a police selection test in [[Nassau County, New York]], a scandal ensued when tests which showed no "selection bias" (Black-White score gap) were found to have been denuded of their ability to measure intelligence ({{AYref|Gottfredson|2005a}}, pp. 24-26 [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf PDF]).
| date = [[2006-01-20]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chelsea/4630618.stm
| title = Chelsea plan Bridge redevelopment
| publisher = BBC
| accessdate = 2007-01-01
}}</ref> However, the club have reiterated their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home. <ref>{{cite news
| date = [[2006-04-12]]
| url = http://www.rte.ie/sport/2006/0412/stamfordbridge.html?rss
| title = Kenyon confirms Blues will stay at Stamford Bridge
| publisher = RTÉ Sport
| accessdate = 2007-01-01
}}</ref>
 
==Crest==
While the existence of average IQ test score differences has been a matter of accepted fact for decades, during the 1960s and 1970s a great deal of controversy existed among scholars over the question of whether these score differences reflected real differences in cognitive ability. The critics of testing argued that IQ tests are predominantly measures of cultural variables, and that these variables have nothing to do with intelligence, but they do differ between racial-ethnic and socio-economic groups. If the culture of one group prevents them from developing the skills and abilities that IQ tests measure, then that group is ''[[culturally disadvantaged]]''. In contrast, if people from different cultures score differently despite possessing the relevant skills and abilities to the same extent, then the IQ test is ''[[culturally biased]]''.
[[Image:Cfcpensioner.gif|thumb|left|150px|Chelsea's first crest.]]
[[Image:Chelsea's old badge.jpg|thumb|150px|Club crest 1953-1986.]]
 
[[Image:vilogo.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Club Crest 2005- (Centenary).]]
Cultural bias can be distinguished from cultural disadvantage. To do this, a precise definition of bias is required. ''Bias as mean differences'' merely begs the question. IQ tests must be standardized against a representative sample of people, and so one suggestion was ''bias as improper standardization''. This has been ruled out in part because re-standardization does not affect the IQ gap. ''Bias as content'' could exist if test items presuppose knowledge that is more common in one group. This has been ruled out in part because test item difficulty levels are nearly identical for Blacks and Whites. Arguably the most important condition is ''bias as differential predictive validity''. If test scores predict performance on some other criteria (e.g., school grades) less well for one group than another, then the test shows differential validity. IQ tests have equivalent predictive validity for Blacks and Whites across a range of criteria ({{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}}). Other kinds of bias have been proposed, but none have been found. Of these, ''bias as motivation'' is the most difficult to resolve because empirical tests are difficult. It is argued that Blacks are less motivated than Whites to perform well on IQ tests, but if equally motivated the IQ score gap would disappear. At least two views exist on the question of motivation. One view is that intelligence is an abstract concept related to potential, and the possibility of motivation affecting IQ scores is a problem. The second and more common view is that intelligence is a behavior, and performance is more relevant than potential. Under this view, the equal predictive validity of IQ for Blacks and Whites implies that IQ tests are right to be sensitive to motivation if motivation affects performance in important life outcomes.
Since the club's foundation, Chelsea have had four main crests, though all underwent minor variations. In 1905, Chelsea adopted as their first crest the image of a [[Chelsea pensioner]], which obviously contributed to the "pensioner" nickname, and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. As part of [[Ted Drake]]'s modernisation of the club from 1952 onwards, he insisted that the pensioner badge be removed from the match day programme in order to change the club's image and that a new crest be adopted.<ref name="crests">{{cite web |
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/ClubBadges |
title=Club Badges |
work=chelseafc.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> As a stop-gap, a temporary emblem comprising simply the initials C.F.C. was adopted for one year. In 1953, Chelsea's crest was changed to an upright blue [[lion]] looking backwards and holding a [[staff (stick)|staff]], which was to endure for the next three decades. [[Image:Chelseaoldcrest.gif|thumb|150px|left|Club crest 1986-2005.]]
This crest was based on elements in the [[coat of arms]] of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea]]<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html#chelsea%20bc |
title=CAMBERWELL METROPOLITAN BOROUGH COUNCIL |
work=civicheraldry.co.uk|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president [[Earl Cadogan|Viscount Chelsea]] and the staff from the [[Westminster Abbey|Abbots of Westminster]], former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. It also featured three red roses, to represent England, and two footballs. This was the first club badge to appear on shirts, since the policy of putting the crest on the shirts was only adopted in the early 1960s.<ref name="crests"/>
In 1986, with new owners now at the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and to capitalise on new marketing opportunities.<ref name="crests"/> The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, yellow and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. It lasted for the next 19 years, with some modifications such as the use of different colours. With new ownership, and the club's [[centenary]] approaching, combined with demands from fans for the club's traditional badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2004. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the [[2005-06 in English football|2005-06]] season and marks a return to the older design of the blue heraldic lion holding a staff.<ref name="new crest"/> As with previous crests, this one has appeared in various colours, including white and gold.
 
==Colours==
According to Denny Borsboom, mainstream contemporary test analysis does not reflect substantial recent developments in the field and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric state of the art as it existed in the 1950s." This applies to many areas of mainstream experimental and quasi-experimental research, such as research on personality, attitudes, cognitive development, and intelligence. For example, it reports that some of the most influential recent studies on race differences in intelligence, in order to show that the tests are unbiased, use outdated methodology, the results if anything indicative of that test bias exists.<ref>[http://users.fmg.uva.nl/dborsboom/papers.htm The attack of the psychometricians]. DENNY BORSBOOM. PSYCHOMETRIKA VOL 71, NO 3, 425–440. SEPTEMBER 2006.</ref>
{{Football kit box |
align = left |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
pattern_b = |
pattern_ra = |
leftarm = 4682b4 |
body = 4682b4 |
rightarm = 4682b4 |
shorts = FFFFFF |
socks = 191970 |
title = Chelsea's first home colours, used from 1905 till c.1912.
}}
 
Chelsea have always worn blue shirts, although they initially adopted a lighter shade than the current version, and unlike today wore white shorts and dark blue socks. The lighter blue was taken from the racing colours of then club president, [[Earl Cadogan]]. The light blue shirts were short-lived, however, and replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912.<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill, Rick | title=Chelsea Football Club: The Official History in Pictures| year=2006| id=ISBN 0-75531-467-0}} p.212</ref> When [[Tommy Docherty]] became manager in the early 1960s he changed the kit again, adding blue shorts (which have remained ever since) and white socks, believing it made the club's colours more distinctive, since no other major side used that combination; this kit was first worn during the [[1964-65 in English football|1964–65]] season.<ref>{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: Football Under the Blue Flag| publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2002| id=ISBN 1-84018-658-5 | pages=p.42 }}</ref>
== Environmental explanations ==
[[Image:TBC-BW-IQ-SES-withDiff.png|right|thumb|250px|According to a 1975 study cited by a 1995 report released by the American Psychological Association, the black-white score gap ''is not eliminated when groups or individuals are matched for SES''. The report concludes that no ''simple income- and education-based index can adequately describe the situation of African Americans though, it is clear, they say, that these differences, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors''.<ref>Reviewed in {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}. Data from the [[National Longitudinal Surveys|NLSY]] as reported in figure adapted from {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, p. 288.</ref> A recent 1996 study using multiple socio-economic factors have accounted for 80% of the gap, and suggest that any remaining gap is statistically insignificant.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-3920%28199604%2967%3A2%3C396%3AEDICIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics], Jeanne Brooks-Gunn; Pamela K. Klebanov; Greg J. Duncan Child Development, Vol. 67, No. 2. (Apr., 1996), pp. 396-408.]</ref>]]
Chelsea's traditional away colours are all yellow or all white with blue trim, but, as with most teams, they have had some more unusual ones. The first away strip consisted of black and white stripes and for one game in the 1960s the team wore [[Internazionale|Inter Milan]]-style blue and black stripes, again at Docherty's behest.<ref>The "Inter Milan" kit was worn for an [[FA Cup]] semi-final against [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]], on [[23 April]] [[1966]]. Reference: Mears (2002), p. 58</ref> Other memorable away kits include a mint green strip in the 1980s, a red and white checked one in the early 90s and a graphite and tangerine addition in the mid-1990s.<ref>All kits are discussed on the club's official website {{cite web
| url = http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/ClassicKits
| title= Kits
| work = chelseafc.com
| accessdate = 2007-01-01
}}</ref> The 2007-2008 Chelsea away strip consists of an 'electric yellow' shirt with thick black lines forming separate panels of the shirt. The [[adidas]] three stripes are black, and run down the arms. It is worn with black shorts and black socks, but in the case of further clashes it is worn with "electric yellow" shorts and/or socks. The crest on the shirt is in "electric yellow" and black to go with the rest of the kit, instead of the usual blue, white, red and gold.
 
Chelsea's kit is currently manufactured by [[Adidas]], which is contracted to supply the club's kit from 2006 to 2011. Their previous kit manufacturer was [[Umbro]]. Chelsea's first shirt sponsor was [[Gulf Air]], agreed midway through the [[1983-84 in English football|1983-84]] season. Following that, the club were sponsored by [[Grange Farms]], [[Bai Lin]] tea and [[Italy|Italian]] company [[Simod]] before a long-term deal was signed with computer manufacturer [[Commodore International]] in 1989; [[Amiga]], an off-shoot of Commodore, also appeared on the shirts. Chelsea were subsequently sponsored by [[Coors Brewing Company|Coors]] beer (1995-97), [[Autoglass]] (1997-2001) and [[Emirates Airline]] (2001-05). Chelsea's current shirt sponsor is [[Samsung|Samsung Mobile]].<ref>{{cite news |
Regarding the IQ gaps in the U.S., numerous explanations beside genetics have been proposed. Joel Wiesen lists more than a hundred.<ref>Joel Wiesen, "[http://appliedpersonnelresearch.com/papers/adimpact.pdf An Annotated List of Many Possible Reasons for the Black-White Mean Score Differences Seen With Many Cognitive Ability Tests: Notes to File]," Applied Personnel Research, March 18, 2005.</ref> It has been suggested{{who}} that [[African-American]] culture disfavors academic achievement and fosters an environment that is damaging to IQ.<ref>{{AYref|Boykin|1994}}</ref> Likewise, it is argued{{who}} that the persistence of negative racial stereotypes reinforces this effect. Dr. [[John Ogbu]] writes that the condition of being a "caste-like minority" affects motivation and achievement, depressing IQ.<ref>Ogbu JU, Davis A (2003). Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. ISBN 0-8058-4515-1</ref><ref name="Ogbu1978">Ogbu</ref>
date=[[2005-05-02]] |
url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,27-958357_1,00.html |
title=Clubs to cash in on mobile advertising |
publisher=[[The Times]] |
accessdate=2007-01-01 |
author=Ashling O'Connor}}</ref>
 
==Supporters==
Arguing that IQ tests are often wrongly described as measuring "innate" rather than developed ability, {{AYref|Jencks and Phillips|1998}} write that this "labeling bias" causes people to inappropriately attribute the Black-White gap to "innate" differences.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sats/interviews/jencks.html PBS Jencks Interview] "If we change the names of the tests, they still measure the same thing but it wouldn't convey this idea that somehow you've gotten the potential of somebody when you measured their IQ. And I think that creates a big bias, because the people who do badly on the tests are labeled as people with low potential in many people's minds and they sometimes even believe that about themselves."</ref>
[[Image:Chelsea defend corner.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Chelsea fans at a match with [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], on [[March 11]] [[2006]].]]
They argue that non-cultural environmental factors cause gaps measured by the tests, rather than innate difference based on genetics, and that to use these tests as a measure of innate difference is misleading and improper.<ref>{{AYref|Jencks and Phillips|1998}} "... we find it hard to see how anyone reading these studies with an open mind could conclude that innate ability played a large role in the black-white gap."</ref>
Chelsea have the fifth highest average all-time attendance in [[Football in England|English football]]<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.nufc.com/html/attendance-all-time.html |
title=All Time League Attendance Records |
work= |
accessdate=2006-08-27
}}</ref> and regularly attract over 40,000 fans to Stamford Bridge; they were the fifth best-supported Premiership team in the [[2005-06 in English football|2005-06]] season, with an average gate of 41,870.<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.footballeconomy.com/stats/stats_att_04.htm |
title=Top 30 English Football Clubs by Attendance |
work=footballeconomy.com attendance table 2002-2005 |
accessdate=2006-09-28
}}</ref> Chelsea's traditional fanbase comes from working-class parts of [[West London]], such as [[Hammersmith]] and [[Battersea]], from wealthier areas like [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]] and [[Kensington]], and from the [[Home Counties]]. The club estimates its UK fanbase at around four million.<ref name="fanbase"/> In addition to the standard [[football chant]]s, Chelsea fans sing songs like "Carefree", "Blue is the Colour", "We all follow the Chelsea" (to the tune of [[Land of Hope and Glory]]), "Ten Men Went to Mow", "Zigga Zagga", "Hello! Hello!" and the celebratory "Celery", with the latter often resulting in fans ritually throwing [[celery]].<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2002-04-17]] |
url=http://football.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/0,1563,685859,00.html |
title=Fans sent spinning after tossing salad |
publisher=[[The Guardian]] |
accessdate=2007-01-01 |
author=Scott Murray}}</ref>
 
Chelsea do not have a traditional rivalry, in the manner that [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and [[Everton F.C.|Everton]], or [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] and [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] do. The club's nearest neighbours are [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], but they are not seen as big rivals by Chelsea fans, because the clubs have spent most of the last 40 years in separate divisions. A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with (in order): Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]<ref>{{cite web |
Estimates of the significance of genetics vs. environment are dependent on the strength of environmental factors. For example, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15133590&dopt=Abstract schizophrenia], regarded as being highly heritable,<ref>''Relative risk for cognitive impairments in siblings of patients with schizophrenia.'' Biological Psychiatry, Volume 50, Issue 2, Pages 98-107 M. Egan</ref><ref>''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8197420 Impaired attention, genetics, and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.]''</ref> has seen increased rates in second and third generation immigrants to Western European countries which do not seem to be the result of increased genetic susceptibility, but another, as yet unidentified, environmental factor(s) that seems to have become more influential.{{who}}
url=http://www.sportnetwork.net/main/s120/st44186.htm |
title=Football Rivalries: The Complete Results |
work=Planetfootball.com |
accessdate=2007-01-02
}}</ref> Additionally, a strong rivalry with [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the [[FA Cup Final 1970|FA Cup final in 1970]]. <ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 321-325}}</ref> A more recent rivalry has grown with [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] following several clashes in cup competitions. In European competition, Chelsea's biggest rivals are [[F.C. Barcelona|Barcelona]], with the two competing to be among the best sides in [[Europe]] and having played in some highly controversial matches in the [[UEFA Champions League]] in recent seasons.<ref>For more details on the controversies in recent Chelsea vs FC Barcelona matches, see [[Chelsea F.C. and FC Barcelona football rivalry]]</ref>
 
During the 1970s and 1980s in particular, Chelsea supporters were long associated with [[Football (soccer) hooliganism|football hooliganism]]. The club's "[[football firm]]", known as the [[Chelsea Headhunters]], became nationally notorious for violent acts against hooligans from other teams, such as [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]'s [[Inter City Firm]] and [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]]'s Bushwhackers, both during and after matches.<ref>{{cite web |
===Caste-like minorities===
[[Image:John Ogbu.jpg|thumb|140px|right|[[John Ogbu|John Uzo Ogbu]]<br> Anthropologist known for his theories on "caste-like minorities" and "The effort gap"]]
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/hooligans/1962503.stm |
title=Making a new start |
work=BBC.com |
accessdate=2007-01-21
}}</ref> The increase in hooliganism in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch; the proposal was rejected by the [[Greater London Council|GLC]].<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chelsea/3037508.stm |
title=Bates: Chelsea's driving force |
work=BBC.com|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> Chelsea's hooligan element were revealed to have links with [[neo-nazi]] groups such as [[Combat 18]], and other far-right or racist organisations including the [[British National Party]].<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://macintyre.com/content/view/62/105/ |
title=Headhunters unmasked |
work=MacIntyre.com |
accessdate=2007-01-21
}}</ref> Since the 1990s there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches, as a result of stricter policing, [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] in grounds and the advent of [[All-seater stadium|all-seater stadia]].<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[1998-06-02]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/hooligans/60146.stm |
title=Soccer hooliganism: Made in England, but big abroad |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2007-01-01 |
author=}}</ref>
 
==Records==
Some{{who}} cite research that they believe indicates that discriminated or lower-status minorities do tend to have lower IQ, some without apparent genetic differences. John Ogbu writes that these [[Caste|caste-like]] minorities are not the same as other racial minorities. Castelike minorities are incorporated into a country involuntarily and permanently. These include Blacks, American Indians, Mexicans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans and others. Membership is a low caste acquired at birth and retained permanently. Caste members are regarded by the white majority as inferior and not desirable as neighbors or workmates. Often, they lack political power and are economically subordinate. They face a job ceilings, and are not hired on the basis of training and skills like other minorities. Castelike groups also reject the ideology and beliefs of the dominant group culture. They believe their problems are due to the "system" and racism than their own inadequacies. They may develop a "collective institutional discrimination perspective". This leads them into channel efforts into collective struggle.<ref>Ogbu, J. U., ''The Consequences of the American Caste System, In U. Neisser (Ed.), The School Achievement of Minority Children: New Perspectives'', 1986</ref>
{{Details|Chelsea F.C. statistics}}
[[Image:Frank Lampard cropped.jpg|thumb|150 px|Among Chelsea's current players, [[Frank Lampard]] has made the most appearances and scored the most goals.]]
Chelsea's highest appearance-maker is ex-captain [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]], who played in 795 first-class games for the club between 1961 and 1980.<ref name="stats">For the appearance and goalscoring records of all Chelsea players, see {{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 399-410}}</ref> This record is unlikely to be broken in the near future; Chelsea's current highest appearance-maker is [[Frank Lampard]] with 317.<ref name="current player">{{cite web |
url=http://www.soccerbase.com/ |
title=soccerbase.com |
work= |
accessdate=4 February|
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> The record for a Chelsea goalkeeper is held by Harris's contemporary, [[Peter Bonetti]], who made 729 appearances (1959-79). With 116 [[Cap (sport)|caps]] (67 while at the club), [[Marcel Desailly]] of [[France national football team|France]] is Chelsea's most capped international player.
 
[[Bobby Tambling]] is Chelsea's all-time top goalscorer, with 202 goals in 370 games (1959-70).<ref name="stats"/> Six other players have also scored over 100 goals for Chelsea: [[George Hilsdon]] (1906-12), [[George Mills (footballer)|George Mills]] (1929-39), [[Roy Bentley]] (1948-56), [[Jimmy Greaves]] (1957-61), [[Peter Osgood]] (1964-74 & 1978-79), and [[Kerry Dixon]] (1983-92), who is the only player in the club's recent history to have come close to matching Tambling's record, with 193 goals. Greaves holds the record for the most goals scored in one season (43 in [[1960-61 in English football|1960-61]]). Chelsea's current top-scorer is Frank Lampard with 89.<ref name="current player"/>
Like Blacks and Hispanics in the U.S., minorities in non-US societies show achievement gaps (such as the [[Māori]] in New Zealand, [[Australian Aborigine|aboriginals]] in Australia, scheduled castes ("[[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchables]]") in India, non-European Jews in Israel, and the [[Burakumin]] in Japan). The most prominent finding cited is that Northern Irish Catholics used to score about 15 points lower than Protestants. Similarly, Irish, Italian and Polish immigrants in the U.S. are reported to have all scored about 80 in the beginning of the 19th century, but now tend to reach 100. The same is true of persons from rural versus urban areas in general (see e.g., [http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/Issues/bell-curve/sowell.html this article] by conservative columnist and economist [[Thomas Sowell]] and [http://dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/greekiq/ this page] on European and Greek IQ. More arguments of the kind are to be found [http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-inferiorIQ.htm here]).
 
Officially, Chelsea's highest home attendance is 82,905 for a [[Football League First Division|First Division]] match against [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] on [[12 October]] [[1935]]. However, an estimated crowd of over 100,000 attended a [[friendly match]] against [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] team [[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]] on [[13 November]], [[1945]].<ref>The turnstiles for the Dynamo match were closed with 74,496 in the ground, but thousands continued to enter illegally. The attendance is invariably put at around 100,000. See {{cite web |
=== Socio-economic factors ===
IQ is correlated with economic factors. Blacks and Hispanics suffer poorer economic conditions than Whites. It has been suggested that the effects of poverty are responsible for some or all of the IQ gap. However, in the American Psychological Association report {{A(Y)ref|Neisser et al.|1996}} argue that economics cannot be the whole explanation. According to Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, authors of ''The Bell Curve'', to the moderate extent that IQ and income are related, it appears that IQ determines income, and not the other way around ({{AYref|Murray|1998}}). There are, however, many other potential Socio-economic factors factors beside income.
url=http://www.chelseafc.com/xxchelsea180706/index.html#/page/TeamHistory |
title= Team History |
work=chelseafc.com |
accessdate=29 December|
accessyear=2006 }}. </ref> The modernisation of Stamford Bridge during the 1990s and the introduction of all-seater stands mean that neither record will be broken for the foreseeable future. The current legal capacity of Stamford Bridge is 42,055.<ref name="capacity"/>
 
Chelsea hold numerous records in [[Football in England|English]] and European football. They hold the record for the highest points total for a league season (95), the fewest goals conceded during a league season (15), the most consecutive [[clean sheet]]s during a league season (10), the highest number of Premier League victories in a season (29), the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season (25) (all set during the [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] season),<ref name="records"/> and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season (6) ([[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005-06]]). Their 21–0 [[Aggregate score|aggregate]] victory over [[Jeunesse Hautcharage]] in the [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1971-72|UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1971]] remains a record in European competition.<ref>{{cite web |
Researchers have reported that many American Blacks and Hispanics are not given sufficient opportunity to learn language and thinking skills during the first three years of life, possibly due to economic status. The first three years are especially critical years for neural development of the brain, and previous studies have shown that when human children were deprived of most or all language skills at an early age, they never developed the ability to master language at a later age; if they only mastered a small amount of language and thinking skills at a young age, then they could only make small improvements in later years. A recent study has shown that many American Blacks and Hispanics are raised in homes where their parents speak relatively few sentences, and the sentences usually show only simple grammar. As a result, their children never hear millions of words during the time when their brains are developing linguistic skills. Without this linguistic input during their developing years, many are observed to quickly fall behind, and they can never catch up. Children in poorer welfare families, which includes a higher percentage of many minority populations, apparently hear up to 30 million fewer words by age three than children in higher income, usually White, families. (Source: ''The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3'')
url=http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/cwc.html#rec |
title=Cup Winners' Cup Trivia |
work=RSSSF |
accessdate=26 September |
accessyear=2006 }}</ref> Chelsea may also hold the [[British football transfer record|British transfer record]], but the fee for [[Andriy Shevchenko]], estimated at around £30m, remains unconfirmed.<ref name="sheva">Shevchenko's transfer fee is undisclosed and estimates vary from £25m to £35m, although this does top the £24m paid for [[Michael Essien]] (The official Chelsea website states that it is close on £30m). See {{cite news |
date=[[2006-05-31]] |
url=http://home.skysports.com/list.aspx?hlid=391445&CPID=8&CLID=8&lid=&title=Shevchenko+moves+to+Chelsea&channel= |
title=Shevchenko moves to Chelsea |
publisher=Skysports.com |
accessdate=2006-12-29 |
author=}} and {{cite news |
date=[[2006-05-31]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chelsea/5035604.stm |
title=Chelsea complete Shevchenko deal |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2006-12-29 |
author=}}</ref> [[Roberto Di Matteo]] holds the record for fastest goal in an FA Cup final at Wembley, which came 42 seconds into Chelsea's win over [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] in [[FA Cup Final 1997|1997]].<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.thefa.com/TheFACup/TheFACup/NewsAndFeatures/Postings/2003/05/48711.htm |
title=FA Cup Trivia |
work=thefa.com |
accessdate=1 July |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref>
 
Chelsea have recorded several "firsts" in English football. Along with Arsenal, they were the first club to play with shirt numbers on [[25 August]] [[1928]] in their match against [[Swansea Town F.C.|Swansea Town]].<ref>{{cite web |
Work by {{A(Y)ref|Carneiro et al.|2005}} on average Black-Hispanic-White differences in IQ, education, and income casts doubt on conventional explanations of Black-White differences:
<blockquote>Hispanic children start with cognitive and noncognitive deficits similar to those of black children. They also grow up in similarly disadvantaged environments and are likely to attend schools of similar quality. Hispanics complete much less schooling than blacks. Nevertheless, the ability growth by years of schooling is much higher for Hispanics than for blacks. By the time they reach adulthood, Hispanics have significantly higher test scores than do blacks. Conditional on test scores, there is no evidence of an important Hispanic-white wage gap. Our analysis of the Hispanic data illuminates the traditional study of black-white differences and casts doubt on many conventional explanations of these differences because they do not apply to Hispanics, who also suffer from many of the same disadvantages. The failure of the Hispanic-white gap to widen with schooling or age casts doubt on the claim that poor schools and bad neighborhoods are the reasons for the slow growth rate of black test scores.</blockquote>
url=http://www.englandfootballonline.com/TeamUnif/UnifNosNames.html |
title=Shirt Numbers |
work=England Football Online |
accessdate=1 October |
accessyear=2006 }}</ref> Chelsea were the first English side to travel by [[Fixed-wing aircraft|aeroplane]] to a domestic away match, when they visited [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] on [[19 April]] [[1957]],<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=p. 96}}</ref> and the first [[Football League First Division|First Division]] side to play a match on a Sunday, when they faced [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] on [[27 January]] [[1974]]. On [[December 26]] [[1999]], Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign (non-[[United Kingdom|UK]]) starting line-up in a [[Premier League]] match against [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]].<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[1999-12-27]] |
url=http://www.sportinglife.com/football/premiership/chelsea/reports/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=soccer/99/12/26/SOCCER_Southampton_Nightlead.html&TEAMHD=chelsea&DIV=prem&TEAM=CHELSEA&RH=Chelsea&PREV_SEASON=1998 |
title=Southampton 1 Chelsea 2 |
publisher=[[Sporting Life (newspaper)|Sporting Life]] |
accessdate=2007-01-27 |
author=Bradley, Mark}}</ref> On [[May 19]] [[2007]], they became the first team to win the FA Cup at the new [[Wembley Stadium]], having also been the last to win it at the old Wembley. <ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2007-05-20]] |
title=Something old, new and Blue|
url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/sport/story/0,,2083889,00.html |
publisher=[[The Observer]] |
accessdate=2007-05-20 |
author=Mitchell, Kevin}}</ref>
 
==In popular culture==
===Culture===
In [[1930 in film|1930]], Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films, ''[[The Great Game (film)|The Great Game]]''.<ref>{{cite web |
Many anthropologists{{who}} have argued that intelligence is a cultural category; some cultures emphasize speed and competition more than others, for example. Speculations about innate differences in intelligence between ethnic groups have occurred throughout history. [[Aristotle]] in the 4th century B.C. and [[Cicero]] in the 1st. century B.C. disparaged the intelligence of the northern Europeans of the time, as did the [[Moors]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] in the 11th century.<ref>Aristotle: "Having spoken of the number of the citizens, we will proceed to speak of what should be their character. This is a subject which can be easily understood by any one who casts his eye on the more celebrated states of [[Greece|Hellas]], and generally on the distribution of races in the habitable world. Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery. But the Hellenic race, which is situated between them, is likewise intermediate in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent. Hence it continues free, and is the best-governed of any nation, and, if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the world." (Aristotle, ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', [http://www.constitution.org/ari/polit_07.htm ch. 7]).
<br>
url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0020936/ |
[[Cicero]]: "Do not obtain your slaves from Britain because they are so stupid and so utterly incapable of being taught that they are not fit to form a part of the household of Athens." Attributed to Cicero's ''Epistulae ad Atticum'' (Letters to Atticus), 68 BC-43 BC ([http://ebooks.cib.unibo.it/archive/00000151/ latin text]). Translation: {{AYref|Cicero|1918}}.
title=The Great Game |
<br>
work=[[IMDb]] |
"Races north of the [[Pyrenees]] are of cold temperament and never reach maturity; they are of great stature and of a white colour. But they lack all sharpness of wit and penetration of intellect." Attributed to "Said of Toledo (a [[Moors|Moorish]] savant)" by {{AYref|Benedict|1999}} (p.34), originally quoted in {{AYref|Hogben|1931}}.</ref>
accessdate=1 October |
accessyear=2006 }}</ref> One-time Chelsea centre forward, [[Jack Cock]], who by then was playing for [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]], was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]], including the pitch, the boardroom and the [[dressing room]]s. It included guest appearances by then-Chelsea players [[Andrew Nesbit Wilson|Andrew Wilson]], [[George Mills (footballer)|George Mills]] and [[Sam Millington]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Glanvill | year=2006 | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography | pages=pp. 120-121}}</ref> Owing to the notoriety of the [[Chelsea Headhunters]], a [[football firm]] associated with the club, Chelsea have also featured in films about football [[hooliganism]], most recently ''[[The Football Factory]]''.<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2004-05-10]] |
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3687227.stm |
title=Football firms hit the film circuit |
publisher=BBC |
accessdate=2007-01-25 |
author=Steve Hawkes}}</ref> Chelsea also appear in the [[Hindi language|Hindi]] film, ''[[Jhoom Barabar Jhoom]]''.<ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2006-09-25]] |
url=http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1055099 |
title=Chelsea teams up with Yash Raj Films |
publisher=DNA India |
accessdate=2007-01-01 |
author=}}</ref>
 
Up until the 1950s, the club had a long-running association with the [[music hall]]s, with their underachievement often providing material for comedians such as [[George Robey]].<ref>{{cite news |
Ogbu elaborates on this idea suggesting that African American popular culture serves to disengage students from academic achievement by proving the wrong kind of role models.
date=[[2002-09-30]] |
url=http://football.guardian.co.uk/Match_Report/0,1527,-39862,00.html |
title=Di Canio has last laugh at Chelsea comedy store |
publisher=[[The Guardian]] |
accessdate=2007-01-01 |
author=Scott Murray}}</ref> It culminated in comedian Norman Long's release of a [[Novelty song|comic song]] in 1933, ironically titled "On The Day That Chelsea Went and Won The Cup", the lyrics of which described a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy.<ref name="glanville"/>
 
The song "[[Blue is the Colour (Chelsea)|Blue is the Colour]]" was released as a single in the build-up to the 1972 [[Football League Cup|League Cup]] final, with all members of Chelsea's first team squad singing; it reached number five in the [[UK Singles Chart]].<ref>{{cite web |
<blockquote>"What amazed me is that these kids who come from homes of doctors and lawyers are not thinking like their parents; they don't know how their parents made it," [[John Ogbu|Professor Ogbu]] said in an interview. "They are looking at rappers in [[ghetto]]s as their [[role model]]s, they are looking at entertainers. The parents work two jobs, three jobs, to give their children everything, but they are not guiding their children."<ref>[http://www.racematters.org/whyareblackstudentslagging.htm Why Are Black Students Lagging?] By FELICIA R. LEE, The New York Times, November 30, 2002</ref></blockquote>
url=http://www.chartstats.com/songinfo.php?id=5791 |
title=Blue Is The Colour |
work=Chart Stats|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> The song was later adapted to "White is the Colour" and adopted as an anthem by the [[Vancouver Whitecaps]].<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.vancourier.com/issues02/045202/sports.html |
title=Caps' 'Proclaim' season opener |
work=vancourier.com |
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> In the build-up to the [[FA Cup Final 1997|1997 FA Cup final]], the song "Blue Day", performed by [[Suggs (singer)|Suggs]] and members of Chelsea's squad, reached number 22 in the UK charts.<ref>{{cite web |
url=http://www.chartstats.com/songinfo.php?id=25206 |
title=Blue Day |
work=Chart Stats|
accessdate=21 January |
accessyear=2007 }}</ref> [[Bryan Adams]], a fan of Chelsea, dedicated the song "We're Gonna Win" from the [[album]] [[18 Til I Die]] to the club.
 
==Players==
Many anthropologists have argued that intelligence is a cultural category; some cultures emphasize speed and competition more than others, for example. During WWI African-Americans from the north tested higher than those from the south. This could be because African-Americans in the north had received more formal education (see ''Race: Science and Politics'', written by Ruth Benedict in 1940). Thousands of ethnographic studies indicate that innate capacities for cultural evolution are equal among all human populations. The American Anthropological Association has endorsed a statement deriding all studies of race and intelligence <!--DEAD Link<ref>http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/race.htm</ref>-->.
''As of [[10 July]] [[2007]].''
 
===First-team squad===
Speculations about innate differences in intelligence between ethnic groups have occurred throughout history. [[Aristotle]] in the 4th century B.C. and [[Cicero]] in the 1rst. century B.C. disparaged the intelligence of the northern Europeans of the time, as did the [[Moors]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] in the 11th century.<ref>Aristotle: "Having spoken of the number of the citizens, we will proceed to speak of what should be their character. This is a subject which can be easily understood by any one who casts his eye on the more celebrated states of [[Greece|Hellas]], and generally on the distribution of races in the habitable world. Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery. But the Hellenic race, which is situated between them, is likewise intermediate in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent. Hence it continues free, and is the best-governed of any nation, and, if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the world." (Aristotle, ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', [http://www.constitution.org/ari/polit_07.htm ch. 7]).
{{Fs start}}
<br>
{{Fs player|no=1|nat=Czech Republic|pos=GK|name=[[Petr Čech]]}}
[[Cicero]]: "Do not obtain your slaves from Britain because they are so stupid and so utterly incapable of being taught that they are not fit to form a part of the household of Athens." Attributed to Cicero's ''Epistulae ad Atticum'' (Letters to Atticus), 68 BC-43 BC ([http://ebooks.cib.unibo.it/archive/00000151/ latin text]). Translation: {{AYref|Cicero|1918}}.
{{Fs player|no=2|nat=England|pos=DF|name=[[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]]}}
<br>
{{Fs player|no=3|nat=England|pos=DF|name= [[Ashley Cole]]}}
"Races north of the [[Pyrenees]] are of cold temperament and never reach maturity; they are of great stature and of a white colour. But they lack all sharpness of wit and penetration of intellect." Attributed to "Said of Toledo (a [[Moors|moor]]ish savant)" by {{AYref|Benedict|1999}} (p.34), originally quoted in {{AYref|Hogben|1931}}.</ref>
{{Fs player|no=4|nat=France|pos=MF|name=[[Claude Makélélé]]}}
{{Fs player|no=5|nat=Ghana|pos=MF|name=[[Michael Essien]]}}
{{Fs player|no=6|nat=Portugal|pos=DF|name=[[Ricardo Carvalho]]}}
{{Fs player|no=7|nat=Ukraine|pos=FW|name=[[Andriy Shevchenko]]}}
{{Fs player|no=8|nat=England|pos=MF|name=[[Frank Lampard]]|other=[[vice-captain (football)|vice-captain]]}}
{{Fs player|no=9|nat=England|pos=MF|name=[[Steve Sidwell]]}}
{{Fs player|no=10|nat=England|pos=MF|name=[[Joe Cole]]}}
{{Fs player|no=11|nat=Ivory Coast|pos=FW|name=[[Didier Drogba]]}}
{{Fs player|no=12|nat=Nigeria|pos=MF|name=[[John Obi Mikel]]}}
{{Fs player|no=13|nat=Germany |pos=MF|name=[[Michael Ballack]]}}
{{football squad mid}}
{{Fs player|no=16|nat=Netherlands|pos=MF|name=[[Arjen Robben]]}}
{{Fs player|no=18|nat=England|pos=DF|name=[[Wayne Bridge]]}}
{{Fs player|no=19|nat=France|pos=MF|name=[[Lassana Diarra]]}}
{{Fs player|no=20|nat=Portugal|pos=DF|name=[[Paulo Ferreira]]}}
{{Fs player|no=21|nat=Ivory Coast|pos=FW|name=[[Salomon Kalou]]}}
{{Fs player|no=23|nat=Italy|pos=GK|name=[[Carlo Cudicini]]}}
{{Fs player|no=24|nat=England|pos=MF|name=[[Shaun Wright-Phillips]]}}
{{Fs player|no=26|nat=England|pos=DF|name=[[John Terry]]|other=[[captain (football)|captain]]}}
{{Fs player|no=40|nat=Portugal|pos=GK|name=[[Henrique Hilário]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|nat=Peru|pos=FW|name=[[Claudio Pizarro]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|nat=France|pos=MF|name=[[Florent Malouda]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|nat=Netherlands|pos=DF|name=[[Khalid Boulahrouz]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|nat=Israel|pos=DF|name=[[Tal Ben Haim]]}}
<!--Alex has been added to this list at least twice before he has signed. Please do not add him again until he is eligible for the first team. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a transfer gossip page, and should deal in facts, not rumours.-->
{{Fs end}}
 
===Players out on loan===
It has been suggested that Black culture disfavors academic achievement and fosters an environment that is damaging to IQ ({{AYref|Boykin|1994}}). Likewise, it is argued that a persistence of racism reinforces this negative effect. John Ogbu<ref name="Ogbu">{{AYref|Ogbu|1978}}; {{AYref|Ogbu|2002}}; {{AYref|Ogbu|2003}}</ref> has developed a hypothesis that the condition of being a "caste-like minority" affects motivation and achievement, depressing IQ. However, Arthur Jensen has criticized these arguments on the grounds that they cannot explain the higher scores of East Indians and East Asians.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 512</ref> Even proponents of the view that the IQ gap is caused partly by genetic differences, such as Arthur Jensen, recognize that non-genetic factors are likely involved. Indeed, one author has compiled a list of over one hundred possible causes of the Black-White IQ gap.<ref name="Wiesen">Joel Wiesen, "[http://personnelselection.com/adverse.impact.htm An Annotated List of Many Possible Reasons for the Black-White Mean Score Differences Seen With Many Cognitive Ability Tests: Notes to File]," Applied Personnel Research, March 18, 2005.</ref>
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=–– | nat=Argentina | pos=FW | name= [[Hernán Crespo]]| other=at [[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]] until the end of his Chelsea contract, will not return to Chelsea}}
{{Fs player | no=—-| nat=Brazil | pos=DF | name= [[Alcides Araújo Alves|Alcides]]| other=at [[PSV Eindhoven]], until August 2008 <ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2007-01-10]] |
url=http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ucl/news/kind=1/newsid=495890.html |
title=Alcides makes PSV loan move |
publisher=UEFA |
accessdate=2007-01-10 |
author=}}</ref> }}
{{Fs player | no=–– | nat=Serbia | pos=DF | name= [[Slobodan Rajković]]| other=at [[PSV Eindhoven]], until August 2008 <ref>{{cite news |
date=[[2007-06-18]] |
url=http://home.skysports.com/list.aspx?hlid=472460 |
title=Blues starlet to join PSV |
publisher=Sky Sports |
accessdate=2007-06-19 |
author=Gerrit van Leeuwen}}</ref> }}
 
{{Fs blank column}}
Cultural explanations for the IQ deficit among Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites and East Asian minorities are complemented &ndash; and sometimes challenged &ndash; by the observation that East Asian minorities score well on IQ tests and on average enjoy greater economic success than other minorities. Along these lines, East Asians are sometimes referred to as "[[model minority|model minorities]]". East Asian and Jewish populations have suffered [[Model minority#History of discrimination|past discrimination]] and persecution which some argue is evidence against the importance of discrimination for IQ differences.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 510; {{AYref|Murray and Herrnstein|1994}}</ref> While the severe discrimination against Jews and East Asians have today diminished, many argue that discrimination continue against blacks and that this is impacting the IQ scores of Blacks.
{{Fs end}}
 
''For recent transfers, see [[List of English football transfers 2007-08]].''
===The effort gap===
Reserachers Stephan Thernstrom and John Ogbu have suggested that black students perform poorly in part due to simple lack of effort. Stephan Thernstrom studied different kinds of schools and concluded that, while many environmental factors play a role in the achievement gap, a strong commitment to education was an essential element for academic success. Ogbu wrote that the black students were quite open in telling the researchers that, in general, their white classmates studied more, worked harder and cared more about getting good grades.
<blockquote>"In spite of the fact that the students knew and asserted that one had to work hard to succeed in Shaker schools, black students did not generally work hard. In fact, most appeared to be characterized by the low-effort syndrome ... (They) were not highly engaged in their schoolwork and homework." --John Ogbu<ref>[http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com/cgi-bin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?c=1&slug=raspberry07&date=20031007&query=teachers The academic gap may be an effort gap]</ref></blockquote>
 
===Reserves===
One environmental source of the IQ gap which has been suggested is poor motivation among low scorers. This hypothesis has been disputed by the researcher [[Arthur Jensen]] (1998). For example, one such test asks the subject to lift a finger from a depressed button to strike a light when it flashes. When more than one light is offered as a target the task involves a decision of which to hit (i.e. the one which is lit). These tests measure both reaction time (from when the bulb illuminates to when the subject lifts their finger) and movement time (from when the subject lifts their finger to when the subject reaches the bulb). While movement time measurements show no difference, reaction time measurements negatively correlate with IQ scores and show the same performance gaps between races ({{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Whang|1994}}). Jensen argues that it is difficult to imagine that people could be motivated during one part of each segment of the test but not motivated during the other, although no correlation between movement speed and intelligence is claimed. The correlation between IQ and reaction time is low (from .20 to .40).{{Off-topic-inline}} <!--this study isn't related directly to "the effort gap-->
 
{{main|Chelsea F.C. Reserves}}
===Pidgin language barriers===
{{seealso|African American Vernacular English}}
 
===Player of the year (1967–2007)===
[[Sandra Lee McKay]] author of ''Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching'' writes that language may present a barrier for students who speak pidgin and creole languages. Unlike other languages such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Chinese]] [[pidgin]] and creole languages such as [[African American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) are not commonly recognized in classroom settings. As a result of this, students are not taught the [[Standard American English]] (SAE) used on tests ''as a second language'' in the same way as students who speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Chinese]]. Students who speak AAVE face challenges similar to those learning English as a Second Language. ([[ESL]])<ref>[http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ608154&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&objectId=0900000b8001f636 TOEFL to the Test: Are Monodialectal AAL-Speakes Similar to ESL Students?]</ref>
{{Seealso|List of Chelsea F.C. players}}
 
{|
John Russel Rickford author of ''Unequal partnership: Sociolinguistics and the African American speech community''<ref>“Unequal partnership: Sociolinguistics and the African American speech community” John Russel Rickford. Language and Society 26/2 (1997), pp.161-97</ref> rebutts misconceptions about the cognitive limitations of the use of [[African American Vernacular English|AAVE]] notes the unfair disadvantages IQ tests pose for its speakers. Geneva Smitherman writes that "80 to 90 percent of American blacks” speak AAVE “at least some of the time".<ref>Geneva Smitherman, ''Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America'' <!-- No, there's neither a "g" nor an apostrophe for the words in the main title --> (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 2.</ref> The preponderance of code-switching indicates that AAVE and SAE are met with different reactions or discernments. AAVE is often perceived by members of mainstream American society as indicative of low intelligence or limited education.<ref>William Labov, ''Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972).</ref>
|valign="top"|
 
The effects of test construction on minority groups, such as the use of standard English, were examined by the 1996 APA report, which wrote that "controlled studies have shown, however, that none of them contributes substantially to the Black/White differential under discussion here (Jensen, 1980; Reynolds 82 Brown, 1984; for a different view see Helms, 1992). Moreover, efforts to devise reliable and valid tests that would minimize disadvantages of this kind have been unsuccessful."<ref>[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]] [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]</ref> However the language gap still presents a barrier to education through adverse impacts in classroom settings where the need to teach english as a second language to students who come to school speaking AAVE is not commonly recognized.<ref>[http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/ebonics/overview.php American Shibboleth: Ebonics] by Stanley M. (Ben) Novak</ref>
 
===Positive language effects===
Some argue that the higher IQ test scores in East Asian nations are in part attributed to some IQ tests' inherent bias towards testing spatial reasoning.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} They argue that logographic writing systems, like those used by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], develop spatial reasoning better than the alphabetic writing systems prevalent in Europe and America, though there are no studies that support this hypothesis. The same reasoning has been used to explain why students from some Asian countries (e.g., Singapore) tend to score better than average in tests of mathematics. Some argue that the East Asian advantage can also be explained by more rigorous education programs. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, even though few native-born Asian Americans learn to read and write [[Chinese characters]], their performance is above-average on IQ tests.
 
A direct comparative test between Greek and Chinese students showed no difference in IQ or ''g'', contradicting earlier studies which do not take the finer architecture of mental processing into account. The Chinese did outperform the Greeks in visuo/spatial ability, but this difference was smaller at earlier ages, grew during the first years of schooling and decreased later. The authors suggest that this pattern can be explained as follows: the Chinese students train their visuo/spatial ability during their early school years, as they have to learn many characters of the Chinese writing system. Later in life, the Greek students adopt compensating strategies to deal with visuo/spatial information, and therefore the difference decreases in this realm.<ref name="language">[http://dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/greekiq/ Greek IQ]</ref>
 
===Quality of education===
Some researches have written that studies that find test performance gaps between races even after adjusting for education level, such as the analysis found in The Bell Curve, fail to adjust for the quality of education. Not all high school graduates or college graduates have received the same quality of education. A 2006 study reported that that years of education is an inadequate measure of the educational experience among multicultural elders, and that adjusting for quality of education greatly reduced the overall effect of racial differences on the tests.<ref>''Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders'' JENNIFER J. MANLY, DIANE M. JACOBS, PEGAH TOURADJI, SCOTT A. SMALL and YAAKOV STERN</ref> A 2004 study reported that quality of education and cultural experience influence how older African Americans approach neuropsychological tasks and concluded that adjustment for these variables may improve specificity of neuropsychological measures.<ref>''Acculturation, Reading Level, and Neuropsychological Test Performance Among African American Elders
'' Jennifer J. Manly‌, Desiree A. Byrd‌, Pegah Touradji‌, Yaakov Stern‌</ref> Yet another study reported that, although significant differences were observed between the ethnic groups when matched for years of education, equating for literacy level eliminated all performance differences between African Americans and Whites on both cancellation tasks which assess visual scanning.<ref>''Cancellation test performance in African American, Hispanic, and White elderly'' DESIREE A. BYRD, PEGAH TOURADJI, MING-XIN TANG and JENNIFER J. MANLY</ref> (Like reaction time tests cancellation task tests are sometimes regarded as "culture free" tests of intelligence.)
 
===Health===
{{Main|Health and intelligence}}
In the developing world there are are many factors can greatly decrease IQ scores. Examples include nutrition deficiencies in [[iodine]] and [[iron]]; certain diseases like [[malaria]]; unregulated toxic industrial substances like [[lead]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]; and poor health care for pregnant women and infants. Also in the developed world there are many biological factors that can affect IQ. Increased rates of low birth weight babies and lower rates of breastfeeding in Blacks as compared to Whites are some factors of many that have been proposed to affect the IQ gap.<ref name="seeHandI">Health</ref>
 
Other researchers have come across what they see as additional reasons for the IQ gap. The paper ''Poverty and Brain Development in Early Childhood'' holds that there is a large amount of neural damage in many American Black and Hispanic children due to inadequate nutrition, substance abuse of the children's parents, a high incidence of maternal depression, exposure to environmental toxins, psychological trauma, and the neural effects of physical abuse. {{A(Y)ref|Masters|1997}} has proposed a "neurotoxity hypothesis" where pre- and post-natal exposure to heavy metal poisons differentially impacts Blacks. Drug abuse during pregnancy (e.g., [[alcohol]] and [[phenobarbital]]) can negatively affect IQ.
 
Infant mortality may be an indicator of environmental conditions that are sublethal but damaging to health. The rate of infant mortality in the U.S. Black population is twice that of the White population, which in turn is twice the rate of infant mortality among Asians.<ref name="NatHealthStats"> National Center for Health Statistics: Vital Statistics of the United States (1988).</ref> The rates of low birth weight (LBW), defined as less than 5.5 pounds, are correlated with infant death. LBW is different than premature birth; LBW can occur in full-term babies. LBW babies are at risk for many developmental, behavioral and cognitive abnormalities, including mental retardation. LBW (and premature birth) affect Blacks at twice the overall rate for the U.S. population.<ref name="LBWrate"> ''Scientific American'', April 1996, p.25.</ref> Mother's age is the strongest predictor of LBW, where teenagers are especially susceptible. Most of the Black-White differences in LBW are not account for by other environmental variables such as socioeconomic status, poverty status, mother's age, and education; but differential prenatal care explains some of the gap ({{AYref|Naylor and Myrianthopoulos|1967}}). Thus, the cause of the Black-White gap in LBW is a mystery. Environmental intervention has strong but short-lasting effects on IQ among LBW babies ({{AYref|Brooks-Gunn et al.|1994}}). Studies of LBW Black and White babies matched for birth weight and gestational age still find a one standard deviation IQ gap ({{AYref|Montie and Fagan|1998}}).
 
A study of LBW babies indicates that breastfeeding can significantly improve their IQ scores tested at 8 years old ({{AYref|Lucas et al.|1996}}). After controlling for possible confounding factors, an improvement of 8.3 IQ points was reported in the breastfed group as compared to the formula fed group. Black mothers are known to breastfeed infants less and for a shorter time than White mothers ({{AYref|Ryan et al.|1996}}; {{AYref|Leary|1988}}). Studies have shown IQ gains lasting into adulthood with increased duration of breastfeeding. Several recent studies shows that the intake of certain [[micronutrient]]s, like those present in breast milk or fish oil, affects IQ scores even in developed nations. {{A(Y)ref|Helland et al|2003}} have shown larger head size at birth and higher IQ scores at 4 years of age when mothers took fish oil supplements during pregnancy and lactation.<ref name="nutrition">"[http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/0020b.htm Fat, Fitness And Performance]," Peak Performance; I.B. Helland et al., "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12509593&dopt=Abstract Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age]," ''Pediatrics'' 111, no. 1 (January 2003): 39&ndash;44.</ref> {{A(Y)ref|Jensen|1998}} believes that dietary supplementation is a promising avenue of research for raising Black children's levels of ''g''. {{A(Y)ref|Lynn|1990}} has proposed a nutritional hypothesis for the Flynn effect.
 
=== Exposure to violence ===
Exposure to violence in childhood has been associated with lower school grades<ref name="trauma">''[http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/156/3/280 Violence Exposure, Trauma, and IQ and/or Reading Deficits Among Urban Children]'' Virginia Delaney-Black, MD, MPH; Chandice Covington, PhD, RN, CPNP; Steven J. Ondersma, PhD; Beth Nordstrom-Klee, PhD; Thomas Templin, PhD; Joel Ager, PhD; James Janisse, PhD; Robert J. Sokol, MD Vol. 156 No. 3, March 2002</ref> and lower IQ in children of all races.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/p56w670331216805/ Q and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Children Exposed to Interpersonal Violence]</ref> Recent research shows it may also have an impact on IQ. A group of largely African American urban first-grade children and their caregivers were evaluated using self-report, interview, and standardized tests, including IQ tests. The study reported that exposure to violence and trauma-related distress in young children were associated with substantial decrements in IQ and reading achievement. Exposure to Violence or Trauma lead to a 7.5-point (SD, 0.5) decrement in IQ and a 9.8-point (SD, 0.66) decrement in reading achievement.<ref name="trauma">...</ref> Neighborhood risk has been related to lower school grades for African-American adolescents in another study from 2006.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/9387678780625375/ Family, peer, and neighborhood influences on academic achievement among African-American adolescents: One-year prospective effects]</ref>
 
===Impact of racial categorizations===
Reserchers such, as Jack Demaine find racial categorizations problematic in educational settings.<ref>''Race, Categorisation and Educational Achievement'' British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1989), pp. 195-214</ref> Racial categorizations, Jack Demaine writes, may in and of themselves have adverse impacts on the education of minorities. Similarly, Alastair Bonnett, Bruce Carrington state:
 
<blockquote>The collection of ethnic and racial statistics has become common in a growing number of institutional settings. Yet contemporary approaches to race and ethnicity suggest that the very process of compelling people to assign themselves to one of a small number of racial or ethnic 'boxes' is, at best, essentialist and, at worst, racist.<ref>''Fitting into Categories or Falling Between Them? Rethinking ethnic classification'' Alastair Bonnett, Bruce Carrington. British Journal of Sociology of Education Volume 21, Number 4 / December 1, 2000 Pages:487 - 500</ref></blockquote>
 
===The Flynn effect===
[[Image:James Flynn.jpg|right|thumb|140px|[[James R. Flynn]] discovered the [[Flynn effect]], that average IQ scores are increasing worldwide.]]
{{Main|Flynn effect}}
The secular, international increase in test scores, commonly called the [[Flynn effect]], is seen by Flynn and others as reason to expect the eventual convergence of average black and white IQ scores. Flynn argues that the average IQ scores in several countries have increased about 3 points per decade during the 20th century, which he and others attribute predominantly to environmental causes.<ref>{{AYref|Flynn|1987}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1987b}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999b}}</ref> This means, given the same test, the mean black American performance today could be higher than the mean white American performance in 1920, though the gains causing this appear to have occurred predominantly in the lower half of the IQ distribution.<ref>{{AYref|Colom et al.|2005}}</ref> If changes in environment can cause changes in IQ over time, they argue, then contemporary differences between groups could also be due to an unknown environmental factor. On the supposition that the effect started earlier for whites, because their social and economical conditions began to improve earlier than did those of blacks, they anticipate that the IQ gap among races might change in the future or is even now changing. An added complication to this hypothesis is the question of whether the secular IQ gains can be predominantly a real change in cognitive ability. Flynn's face-value answer to this question is "No",<ref>{{AYref|Flynn|1999}}</ref> and other researchers have found reason to concur. {{AYref|Wicherts et al.|2004}} wrote that "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure". An analysis by {{AYref|Rushton|1999}} reported that the IQ increases associated with the Flynn effect did not produce changes in ''g'', which Rushton compares to the finding by {{AYref|Jensen|1998a}} that IQ increases associated with adoption likewise do not increase ''g''. {{AYref|Flynn|1999b}} disagrees with Rushton's analysis.
 
{{AYref|Dickens and Flynn|2001}} have proposed a solution which rests on genotype-environment correlation, hypothesizing that small initial differences in environment cause feedback effects which magnify into large IQ differences. {{AYref|Rowe and Rodgers|2002}} and others find this hypothesis unsupported by the available evidence. {{AYref|Dickens and Flynn|2002}} respond to these criticisms. Such differences would need to develop before age 3, when the black-white IQ gap can be first detected.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}}</ref>
 
The [[Flynn effect]] consists of large documented worldwide increases in IQ scores for at least several decades. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and [[heterosis]].
 
The secular, international increase in test scores, commonly called the [[Flynn effect]], is seen by Flynn and others as reason to expect the eventual convergence of average Black and White IQ scores. As demonstrated by Flynn, the average IQ scores in several countries have increased about 3 points per decade during the 20th century, which he and others attribute predominantly to environmental causes.<ref>{{AYref|Flynn|1987}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1987b}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999b}}</ref> This means, given the same test, the mean Black American performance today could be higher than the mean White American performance in 1920, though the gains causing this appear to have occurred predominantly in the lower half of the IQ distribution.<ref>{{AYref|Colom et al.|2005}}</ref> If changes in environment can cause such large changes in IQ over time, they argue, then contemporary differences between groups could also be due to an unknown environmental factor. On the supposition that the effect started earlier for Whites, because their social and economical conditions began to improve earlier than did those of Blacks, they anticipate that the IQ gap among races might change in the future or is even now changing. An added complication to this hypothesis is the question of whether the secular IQ gains can be predominantly a change in real intelligence. Flynn's face-value answer to this question is "No",<ref>{{AYref|Flynn|1999}}</ref> and other researchers have found reason to concur.<ref>{{AYref|Wicherts et al.|2004}} concluded that "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure"; in other words, some of the inter-generational difference in IQ is attributable to bias or other artifacts, and not real gains in general intelligence or higher-order ability factors, unlike the B-W IQ gap. An analysis by {{AYref|Rushton|1999}} reported that the IQ increases associated with the Flynn effect did not produce changes in ''g'', which Rushton compares to the finding by {{AYref|Jensen|1998a}} that IQ increases associated with adoption likewise do not increase ''g''. {{AYref|Flynn|1999b}} disagrees with Rushton's analysis.</ref> Responding to such concerns, {{AYref|Dickens and Flynn|2001}} have proposed a solution which rests on genotype-environment correlation, hypothesizing that small initial differences in environment cause feedback effects which magnify into large IQ differences.<ref>{{AYref|Rowe and Rodgers|2002}} and others find this hypothesis unsupported by the available evidence. {{AYref|Dickens and Flynn|2002}} respond to these criticisms.</ref> Such differences would need to develop before age 3, when the Black-White IQ gap can be first detected.
 
Comparing the Flynn effect (IQ differences within races over time) to contemporary IQ differences between races is contested; for example, one report concludes "the nature of the Flynn effect is qualitatively different from the nature of black-white differences in the United States," and that "the implications of the Flynn effect for black-white differences appear small" However, this refers to "measurement invariance", is not a statement about the role of genetics in the B-W gap, and is a relatively minor statement that not mentioned in the abstract.({{AYref|Wicherts et al.|2004}}).
 
A recent theory hypothesizes that fluid cognition (gF') may be separable from general intelligence, and that gF' may be very susceptible to environmental factors, in particular early childhood stress. Some IQ tests, especially those used with children, are poor measures of gF', which means that the effect of the environment on intelligence regarding racial differences, the Flynn effect, early childhood intervention, and life outcomes may have been underestimated in many studies. The article has received numerous peer commentaries for and against.<ref>[http://scholar.google.se/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=S%C3%B6k+Scholar&as_epq=How+similar+are+fluid+cognition+and+general+intelligence&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=&as_publication=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=sv&lr=]</ref>
 
A recent, newly available, large, and nationally representative data set find only very small (0.06 SD between whites and blacks) racial differences on measures for mental function for children aged eight to twelve months. These differences disappear when controlling for a limited set of factors such as differences in SES. "These findings pose a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function." "To the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."<ref>[http://post.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/papers/fryer_levitt_ecls_babies.pdf]</ref>
 
=== Stereotype threat ===
{{main|Stereotype threat}}
[[Image:Claude Steele.jpg|right|140px|thumb|'''Claude Mason Steele''' is a social psychologist at [[Stanford University]] known for his work on [[stereotype threat]]]]
 
Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing [[stereotype]] of a group with which one identifies. This fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005). Stereotype threat has been documented by the social psychologists Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, Irwin Katz, and Steven Spencer, who have conducted several studies on this topic.
 
<blockquote>"When capable black college students fail to perform as well as their white counterparts, the explanation often has less to do with preparation or ability than with the threat of stereotypes about their capacity to succeed."<br>- [[Claude M. Steele]], [[The Atlantic Monthly]], August 1999 ''[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/199908/student-stereotype <br>Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and Black College Students]''</blockquote>
 
 
Steele and Aronson write that making race salient when taking a test of cognitive ability negatively affected high-ability African American students.<ref>Steele, C. M. and Aronson, J. (Nov 1995). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7473032 Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans]". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (5): 797-811.</ref> Steele writes that the stigma of being African American is still relevant, as it has an effect on the educational outcomes of African Americans. Stereotypes such as: Asian-Americans excelling in mathematics or African-Americans always testing poorly can be extremely harmful. Stereotype threats can seriously alter academic achievement and motivation.<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.pitts/stereotype_threat_ Racial Identity and Academic Achievement]</ref>
 
In a paper prepared for APA convention, Steele writes: "''Thus the predicament of 'stereotype vulnerability': The group members then know that anything about them or anything they do that fits the stereotype can be taken as confirming it as self-characteristic, in the eyes of others, and perhaps even in their own eyes. This vulnerability amounts to a jeopardy of double devaluation: once for whatever bad thing the stereotype-fitting behavior or feature would say about anyone, and again for its confirmation of the bad things alleged in the stereotype.''"
 
Steele and Aronson are not first to test stereotype threat. During the 1960’s Irwin Katz, psychologist, suggested that stereotype threat could also influence performance on IQ tests. Katz found that Blacks were able to score better an IQ subtest if the test was presented as a test of eye-hand coordination. Blacks also scored higher on an IQ test when they believe the test will be compared to that of other blacks.<ref>''Review of Evidence Relating to Effects of Desegregation on the Intellectual Performance of Negroes'' I Katz - American Psychologist, 1964</ref> Katz concluded that his subjects were thoroughly aware of the judgment of intellectual inferiority held by many white Americans. With little expectation of overruling this judgment, their motivation was low, and so were their scores.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,902708,00.html Race and IQ] TIME. Monday, Sep. 07, 1970</ref> Paul Sackett, a psychologist agress that stereotype threat is a real phenomenon and that it is is a potentially important contributor to the racial achievement gap. He cautions however, that these findings may be widely misinterpreted to mean that eliminating stereotype threat eliminates the entire Black-White performance gap, and encourages researchers to continue their study of this and other phenomena. <ref>Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M. and Cullen, M. J. (Apr 2005). "On Interpreting Research on Stereotype Threat and Test Performance". American Psychologist 60 (3): 271-272. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.60.3.271 DOI:10.1037/0003-066x.60.3.271].</ref>
 
====Physiological responses to stereotype threat====
Stereotype threat can result in physiological responses since the pressure and fear caused by negative stereotypes is so great. For example, a study by Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D and Steele C. reported that African Americans under stereotype threat exhibited larger increases in arterial blood pressure during an academic test, and performed more poorly on difficult test items. Some researchers feel this may explain the higher death rates from hypertension related disorders among African Americans.<ref>African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat. Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D and Steele C. Department of Psychology, [[University of California]], Santa Barbara 93106, USA.</ref>
 
A study by Toni Schmader and Michael Johns reported that stereotype threat can effectively reduce working memory capacity, another factor in poor test performance.<ref>''Converging Evidence That Stereotype Threat Reduces Working Memory Capacity'' Toni Schmader and Michael Johns 2003</ref>
 
Stereotype threat may undermine intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Jean-Claude Croizet, Gérard Després, Marie-Eve Gauzins, Pascal Huguet, Jacques-Philippe Leyens and Alain Méot reported increased heart rates for test subject operating under stereotype threat.<ref>''Stereotype Threat Undermines Intellectual Performance by Triggering a Disruptive Mental Load'' 2004 Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.</ref>
 
===Other Factors===
Many studies that attempt to test for heritability find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis.<ref name=mackenzie/> They include studies on IQ and skin color,<ref>{{AYref|Shuey|1966}} reported the average correlation between skin color and IQ among American blacks is .1; for comparison {{AYref|Parra|2004}} reported the correlation between skin color and fraction of West-African ancestry is .4.</ref> self-reported European ancestry,<ref>{{AYref|Jenkins|1936}}</ref> children in post WWII Germany born to black and white American soldiers,<ref>{{AYref|Eyferth|1961}}; see note below</ref> blood groups,<ref>{{AYref|Scarr et al.|1977}}, {{AYref|Loehlin et al.|1973}}</ref> and mixed-race children born to either a black or a white mother.<ref>{{AYref|Willerman et al.|1974}}</ref> Many intervention and adoption studies also find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis.<ref>{{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}</ref> Non-hereditarians have argued that these are direct tests of the genetic hypothesis and of more value than indirect variables, such as skull size and reaction time.<ref>{{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}</ref> Hereditarians argue that these studies are flawed due to their age, lack of replication, problems with their sample population, or that they do in fact support the genetic hypothesis.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005b}} argue that these studies are "peculiarly old, the mean year of publication being 1960" and "actually very weak and nondecisive, not having been replicated even once". {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, for example, points out that while the study of children born in post-WWII Germany finds no difference between white and interracial children, it does find a large difference in IQ between boys and girls, suggesting that sampling artifacts have affected the results.</ref>
 
{{AYref|Fryer and Levitt|2006}}, with data from "the first large, nationally representative sample" of its kind, report finding only a very small racial difference when measuring mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, and that even these differences disappear when including a "limited set of controls".<ref name="Fryer and Levitt">{{AYref|Fryer and Levitt|2006}} [http://post.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/papers/fryer_levitt_ecls_babies.pdf Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children] "On tests of intelligence, Blacks systematically score worse than Whites, whereas Asians frequently outperform Whites. Some have argued that genetic differences across races account for the gap. Using a newly available nationally representative data set that includes a test of mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, we find only minor racial differences in test outcomes (0.06 standard deviation units in the raw data) between Blacks and Whites that disappear with the inclusion of a limited set of controls. The only statistically significant racial difference is that Asian children score slightly
worse than those of other races. To the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."</ref> They argue that their report poses "a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function."<ref name="Fryer and Levitt"/> They conclude that "to the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."<ref name="Fryer and Levitt"/>
 
Another recent theory hypothesizes that fluid cognition (gF') may be separable from general intelligence, and that gF' may be very susceptible to environmental factors, in particular early childhood stress. Some IQ tests, especially those used with children, are poor measures of gF', which means that the effect of the environment on intelligence regarding racial differences, the Flynn effect, early childhood intervention, and life outcomes may have been underestimated in many studies. The article has received numerous peer commentaries for and against.<ref>''How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability'', Behavioral and Brain Sciences (2006), 29: 109-125 Cambridge University Press, Clancy Blair. Multiple comments can be seen on [http://scholar.google.se/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=S%C3%B6k+Scholar&as_epq=How+similar+are+fluid+cognition+and+general+intelligence&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=&as_publication=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=sv&lr= Google Scholar.]</ref>
 
== Genetic explanation ==
{{seealso|Inheritance of intelligence}}
 
[[Arthur Jensen]] and others argue that the Black-White IQ gap is significantly genetic. That is, they argue that the same mix of genetic and environment factors that cause IQ differences among individuals or between families of the same race also causes the differences seen between races. In this view, the genetic contribution to average intelligence differences among races are like average skin color differences: a product of different allelic frequencies within each population. Others are critical of Jensen's methods and evaluation ({{AYref|Sternberg|2005}}; {{AYref|Suzuki and Aronson|2005}}; {{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}).
 
The results of most (indirect) analyses used to test the genetic hypothesis do not logically contradict a primarily environmental explanation of the lower IQ of Blacks. That is, a plausible (but some argue ''[[ad hoc]]'') environmental explanation for the lower mean IQ in Blacks can be offered in most cases.
[[Image:Jensen2.jpg|right|thumb|140px|The contemporary debate can be traced{{cn}} to psychologist [[Arthur Jensen]] in 1969.]]
Arthur Jensen and others{{who}} have concluded that the US IQ gap is partially genetic. Rushton and Jensen say that while plausible environmental explanation for the lower mean IQ in Blacks in the U.S. can be offered in many cases, these explanations are less capable of explaining the higher average IQ of East Asians than Whites.
 
To support their theory, they often cite several arguments and observations:
 
# Black–White–East Asian differences in IQ, reaction time, and brain size are observed worldwide in a range of cultures and environments. In the United States, significant Black-White IQ differences are observable at every age above 3 years, within every occupation or socioeconomic level tested, in every region of the country, and at every time since the invention of ability tests.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}</ref>
# Jensen and others{{who}} have argued that the magnitude of race differences on different IQ subtests correlate with the extent to which those subtests measures ''g'',<ref>For example, see {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2003}}; see also [[Spearman's hypothesis]]</ref> which also correlates with measures of the subtests heritability.<ref>for example, [[inbreeding depression]] scores measured in Japan predict the magnitude of the Black-White gap in the United States. ({{AYref|Rushton|1989a}})</ref> From these and other findings, they argue that race differences have a partly biological basis.<ref>reviewed by {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}</ref>
# The rising [[IQ#Development|heritability of IQ]] with age (within all races; studies have reported on average in the developed world heritability starts at 20% in infants, rises to 40% in middle childhood, and peaks at 80% in adulthood); and studies showing the virtual disappearance (~0.0) by adulthood of shared environmental effects on IQ (for example, family income, education, and home environment), with adopted siblings partaking in the studies no more similar in IQ than with strangers<ref>{{AYref|Plomin et al.|2001}}</ref> From these studies, they argue that most suggested environmental explanations for IQ difference between groups do not have a strong enough effect on IQ to fully account for group differences.
# Studies of US comparisons of both parents to children and siblings to each other finding [[Regression toward the mean|regression]] to differing means for different races (85 for Blacks and 100 for Whites) across the entire range of IQs,<ref>for example, the children of wealthy, high IQ Black parents score lower than the children of poor, low IQ White parents ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 358); and for Black and White children with an IQ of 120, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 100 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 110; in comparison, for Black and White children with an IQ of 70, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 78 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 85 ({{AYref|Jensen|1973}}, pp. 107–119))</ref> despite the fact that siblings are matched for shared environment and genetic heritage, with regression unaffected by family socioeconomic status and generation examined<ref>http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/cmurraybga0799.pdf</ref>
#Evidence against test construction and cultural bias: the internal consistency of item difficulty for all groups, the equivalent validity of tests in predicting academic and occupational outcomes for all groups, and the persistence of the IQ gap on relatively culture-free tests.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1980}}</ref>
 
{{A(Y)ref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}} believe that the best explanation is that 50%-80% of the group differences in average US IQ is genetic.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}}, cited in "[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-04/cdri-bai042505.php Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal]", and {{AYref|Murray|2005}}</ref>
 
Other evidence, such as [[Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study|transracial adoption]], certain racial admixture studies, behavior genetic modeling of group differences, "life-history" traits, and evolutionary explanations have also been proposed to indicate a genetic contribution to the IQ gaps and explain how these arose.<ref>Reviewed by {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005}}.</ref> Critics of this view, such as [[Robert Sternberg]], argue that these studies are either flawed and thus inconclusive, or else that they support a primarily environment (<20% genetic) hypothesis.<ref>For example: {{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}, {{AYref|Suzuki and Aronson|2005}}, {{AYref|Sternberg|2005}}, {{AYref|Dickens|2005}}</ref> For example, {{AYref|Dolan and Hamaker|2001}} argue that the statistical methods linking the Black-White gap to ''g'' are insufficient.<ref>{{AYref|Dolan and Hamaker|2001}} reanalyzed the data from several earlier studies and concluded that Spearman's hypothesis is not an "empirically established fact" (i.e., that Black-White IQ differences may be due to differences in common factors other than ''g'') due to insufficient power in the data to choose between alternative models. "This leaves the validity of Spearman's hypothesis, considered a central justification for the genetic explanation, an unresolved question." However, they did confirm that the Black-White IQ gap is not due to measurement artifacts, and is instead due to some measured factor that varies both within and between groups.</ref>
 
According to [[Linda Gottfredson]], a controversial researcher at the University of Delaware [[IQ]] differences among individuals of the same [[race]] reflect (1) real, (2) functionally/socially significant, and (3) substantially genetic differences in the [[general intelligence factor]] ({{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}, p. 311). Also, again according to Dr Gottfredson, average IQ differences among races reflect (1) real and (2) significant differences in the same ''g'' factor ({{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}, p. 311). However, it is a matter of debate whether IQ differences among races in a given [[country]] are primarily environmental, primarily genetic or simply an artifact of an inaccurate use of social racial identification as a proxy for genetics.<ref name=cooper>[http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/amp60171.pdf Race and IQ: Molecular Genetics as Deus ex Machina], Richard S. Cooper</ref>
 
A recent review summarizing the arguments for a genetic explanation can be found here.<ref>http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf</ref> A critique of genetic explanations can be found here.<ref>http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html</ref>
 
===Null Hypothesis===
{{originalresearch}}
{{totallydisputed-section}}
 
Since the science of genetics has not yet found a gene that determines intelligence<ref>[http://www.gene-watch.org/programs/determinism/Intell.html Brief on Intelligence and Genetic Determinism] May 2006</ref> much of the research that supports the genetic explanation of race and intelligence difference is based on a statistical method called "[[Null hypothesis]]." To use a null hypothesis one first sets up a 'false' hypothesis then disproves it using statical analysis of the data. The null hypothesis for the genetic explanation of race and intelligence differences is that none of the other non-genetic factors such as the existence of caste-like minorities, socio-economic factors, culture, the effort gap, pidgin language barriers, quality of education, health, racism, exposure to violence, the Flynn effect stereotype threat, and none of the possible combinations of these factors can fully explain the gap between tests scores of people of different races. To disprove this null hypothesis (and thereby prove the genetic hypothesis) researches who support the genetic explanation must show that ''all'' of the other possible causes for the gap, alone ''or'' together in any combination cannot eliminate the gap from testing scores.
 
Gordon M. Harrington writes that the factor analysis used by Jensen reverses the normal logic used for the null hypothesis by interpreting acceptance of the null as confirmation of the substantive hypothesis. The Jensen's 'g model', he writes is not consistent with mainstream twentieth century work in evolution and in genetics.<ref>[http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00000714/ Born Before Genes: the G Legacy] Harrington, Gordon M.</ref> Jensen responds, saying that "This is an extreme minority stance entirely at odds with current views and findings in this field. ... the arguments adduced in its support ... either misrepresent what is actually said in "The g Factor" (Jensen, 1998; 1999) or have long since been refuted, both in the book under review and in the recent literature on human intelligence and behavioral genetics."<ref>http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00000039/</ref>
 
Loring Brace writes that Jensen has labelled the 'null hypothesis' an 'egalitarian fallacy,' adding that it is 'gratuitous' and 'scientifically unwarranted' (Jensen, 1980:370).<ref>Brace, C. Loring (1999) Racialism, Racism, and the Bigot Brigade, Psycoloquy: 10,#62</ref> Jensen responds, saying that "Brace's ad hominem criticism and nihilistic stance regarding key concepts in my book (Jensen 1998, 1999), particularly the g factor and race, as I have carefully defined these terms, can serve only one useful purpose: It gives present-day readers a view of one of the remote outposts of the 1970's style of attack by the ideologically committed opponents of my position 30 years ago."<ref>http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00000009/</ref>
 
=== Shared and nonshared environmental effects ===
:''see also [[IQ#Genetics vs environment|IQ: genetics vs environment]]''
 
The heritability of intelligence within groups is high. It is widely recognized that within-group heritability does not in itself indicate that between-group differences are genetic in origin, although it is likely a necessary condition. Different kinds of evidence are needed to address the question of between-group heritability. {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}} explain this view:
<blockquote>The cause of individual differences ''within'' groups has no necessary implication for the cause of the average difference ''between'' groups. A high heritability ''within'' one group does not mean that the average difference ''between'' it and another group is due to genetic differences, even if the heritability is high in both groups. However, ''within''-groups evidence does imply the plausibility of the ''between''-groups differences being due to the same factors, genetic or environmental. If variations in level of education or nutrition or genes reliably predict individual variation ''within'' Black and within White groups, then it would be reasonable to consider these variables to explain the differences ''between'' Blacks and Whites. Of course, independent evidence would then be needed to establish any relationship.</blockquote>
 
According to {{AYref|Loehlin et al.|1975}}, there is some evidence suggesting lower heritability in Blacks than Whites (e.g., {{AYref|Scarr-Salapatek|1971}}), but a larger body of evidence suggested equal heritabilities for both races. An analysis of the Georgia Twin Study by {{AYref|Osborne|1980}} reported equal heritabilities for both Blacks and Whites. According to Eric Turkheimer and colleages, the heritability of IQ among young children is lower for poor families, meaning that for poor children environmental influences play a greater role than genetics.<ref>''[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x?cookieSet=1 Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children]'' Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, and
Irving I. Gottesman. "The models suggest that in impoverished families, 60% of the variance in IQ is accounted for by the shared environment, and the contribution of genes is close to zero; in affluent families, the result is almost exactly the reverse."</ref> They suggest that the role of shared environmental factors may have been underestimated in older studies which often only studied affluent middle class families. The effect of restriction of range on IQ was examined by Matt McGue and colleagues, who write that "restriction in range in parent disinhibitory psychopathology and family SES had no effect on adoptive-sibling correlations [in] IQ".<ref>http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10519-007-9142-7</ref>
 
Two kinds of environmental effects can be distinguished: shared and nonshared effects (see [[nature versus nurture]]). Twin and adoption studies, used to measure heritability, can also be used to quantify the two types of environmental effects ({{AYref|Plomin et al.|1977}}). Shared environmental effects are due to factors experienced in common by all children raised in the same family but that differ among families. Examples of shared environmental effects include socio-economic factors, family cultural practices, and parental influences on children. Nonshared effects are unique for each child, and thus differ among families. Examples include chance events such as accidents, illness, and childhood friends. Anything that happens to one sibling and not to the other contributes to nonshared effects.
 
{{A(Y)ref|McGue et al.|1993}} reported (among a population of people studied in the U.S.) that the nonshared environmental effects on IQ remain approximately constant throughout life. Shared environmental effects in their study remained approximately constant (40% to 30%) from 4 to 20 years of age but then drop to zero in adulthood. Genetic factors increase throughout development (from 40% to 50%) but especially after 20 years of age (from 50% to 80%). {{A(Y)ref|Plomin et al.|2001}} corroborates these results. Environmental factors usually proposed to explain the Black-White gap are shared effects (e.g. social class, religion, cultural practices, father absence, and parenting styles). {{A(Y)ref|Jensen|1997}} argues that because these effects account for little variance within a race, they are unlikely to account for the differences among races in developed nations.
 
However, others studies do support that shared environmental factors in developed nations can affect IQ, including IQ gains lasting into adulthood ([http://encyclopedia.adoption.com/entry/intelligence/188/1.html Capron and Duyme, 1989]).<ref name="intervention">"[http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-intervention.htm Myth: Social intervention cannot raise IQ]; [http://encyclopedia.adoption.com/entry/intelligence/188/1.html Intelligence Quotient], ''The Encyclopedia of Adoption''.</ref> However, many such studies measure IQ in children (those shared effects that have disappeared in studies don't disappear until adulthood) or, some critics claim, do not have the controls needed to differentiate genetic and environmental effects. Others argue that some IQ gains disappear exactly because the interventions cease, continuing interventions like Head Start have showed that the IQ gains then remain.
 
In a re-analysis of adoption data from {{AYref|Capron and Duyme|1989}}, {{AYref|Jensen|1998a}} reported that the IQ gains that result from being adopted into high socioeconomic-status homes do not produce gains in ''g'', but only in non-''g'' factors. Jensen also reported that the ''g'' factor scores of the adopted children reflected the socioeconomic level of their ''biological'' parents, not their adopted parents. This is consistent with Jensen's theory that ''g'' is the predominant genetic component of IQ scores; see ''Spearman's hypothesis'' below from the relationship between ''g'' and racial difference in IQ.
 
Only shared environmental effects captured in heritability studies disappear in adulthood; more extreme environmental deprivation may likely have a lasting impact on IQ in adults. Heritability only tells us what ''is'' the contribution of genes to variation in a trait, not what it ''could be'' ({{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005}}). Thus, heritability measures in the U.S. population cannot be extrapolated to populations in developing nations.{{who}}{{fact}}
 
Devlin and colleages, who are noted skeptics of the heritability of IQ<ref>Buchard and McGue 2003</ref>, argue that shared maternal (foetal) environment effects account for 20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings, and the effects of genes are correspondingly reduced, with heritability being 49%. They argue that the shared maternal environment may explain the striking correlation between the IQs of twins, especially those of adult twins that were reared apart.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9242404&dopt=Citation The heritability of IQ.] Devlin B, Daniels M, Roeder K. Nature. 1997 Jul 31;388(6641):417-8.</ref>
 
Bouchard and McGue reviewed the literature in 2003, arguing that Devlin's conclusions about the magnitude of hertiability is not substantially different than previous reports and that their conclusions regarding prenatal effects stands in contradiction to many previous reports.<ref>{{doi|10.1002/neu.10160}}</ref> They write that: <blockquote>Chipuer et al. and Loehlin conclude that the postnatal rather than the prenatal environment is most important. The Devlin et al. (1997a) conclusion that the prenatal environment contributes to twin IQ similarity is especially remarkable given the existence of an extensive empirical literature on prenatal effects. Price (1950), in a comprehensive review published over 50 years ago, argued that almost all MZ twin prenatal effects produced differences rather than similarities. As of 1950 the literature on the topic was so large that the entire bibliography was not published. It was finally published in 1978 with an additional 260 references. At that time Price reiterated his earlier conclusion (Price, 1978). Research subsequent to the 1978 review largely reinforces Price’s hypothesis (Bryan, 1993; Macdonald et al., 1993; Hall and Lopez-Rangel, 1996; see also Martin et al., 1997, box 2; Machin, 1996).<ref>{{doi|10.1002/neu.10160}}</ref></blockquote>
 
=== Spearman's hypothesis ===
 
IQ tests contain one or more sets of test questions of different varieties. Individually administered tests often are composed of subtests that have different homogeneous item contents. The mean Black-White difference varies considerably across tests with different contents. For example, the BW gap is larger on tests that require the recall of a series of digits in reverse order than on tests that require the recall of a series of digits in forward order. Across a large number of test, the standardized mean Black-White gap varies from near zero to over one standard deviation. According to {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, "this variation between tests in the size of the standardized mean W-B difference is not explainable in terms of test bias or in terms of differences in types of item content or other formal or superficial characteristics of the tests."
 
The English psychologist [[Charles Spearman]], in his 1904 book, ''General Intelligence - Objectively Determined and Measured'', described his two-factor theory of intelligence, using statistics. The theory is still used today by researches such as Jensen. It states that individual differences in the [[general intelligence factor]], ''g'', and its various biological correlates (e.g., the volume of [[gray matter]] in the [[frontal cortex]]) are partly caused by genetic differences between individuals. ''g'' has the highest measured [[heritability]] of any cognitive ability factor. Jensen formulated a hypothesis now referred to as ''[[Spearman's hypothesis]]'' which states that the degree of difference between black and white cognitive test scores will be correlated with the degree to which the test measures ''g'' (called the test's ''g''-loading). Spearman's hypothesis has a ''strong form,'' which says that all test-score differences can be traced to ''g'', and a ''weak form,'' which claims that some but not all differences are due to ''g''.
 
Jensen reported that black-white cognitive test score differences and test ''g''-loadings correlate with a [[correlation|correlation coefficient]] of 0.6 ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}), and concluded that the weak form of Spearman's hypothesis was thus confirmed. Jensen's study combined scores on 149 psychometric tests obtained from 15 independent samples totaling 43,892 Blacks and 243,009 Whites ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}). {{AYref|Dolan and Hamaker|2001}} have reanalyzed the data from several previous studies ({{AYref|Jensen and Reynolds|1982}}; {{AYref|Naglieri and Jensen|1987}}) that used the statistical method invented by Jensen (the method of correlated vectors) with a more recent and improved method (multigroup confirmatory factor analysis). "On the basis of the present, as well as other results (Dolan, 2000), we are convinced that the Spearman correlation cannot be used to demonstrate the importance of g in b-w differences with any confidence." and "It is possible that the analysis of all available data sets (perhaps using an appropriate meta-analytic procedure) will demonstrate that a model incorporating the weak version of Spearman's hypothesis provides the best description of the data. However, until this work is undertaken, we cannot accept Spearman's hypothesis as an "empirically established fact"<ref name="papers">[http://users.fmg.uva.nl/cdolan/index.html#_Papers_relating_to Papers relating to group difference in IQ test scores & Spearman's hypothesis].</ref>
 
Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould rejected that idea that IQ is measures "general intelligence" (or ''g''). Gould's writings about ''g'' are disputed by many scholars, including statistician David J. Bartholomew<ref>David J. Bartholomew (2004) ''Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies'' Cambridge University Press</ref> and Arthur Jensen. According to {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}} "Virtually all present day researchers in psychometrics now accept as a well established fact that individual differences in all complex mental tests are positively correlated, and that a hierarchical factor model, consisting of a number of group factors dominated by g at the apex (or the highest level of generality), is the best representation of the correlational structure of mental abilities."
 
Similarly, in a group paper ''Famous artefacts: Spearman's hypothesis. Author's reply'' researchers reported that positive correlations predicted by Spearman's hypothesis are likely only psychometric artefacts which also arise with measures which have nothing to do with 'general ability', for example, the number of toys or books a child has. In fact, these positive correlations will arise with any set of moderately correlated random data, once the sample is split into high and low groups.<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2098867 Famous artefacts : Spearman's hypothesis. Author's reply] SCHÖNEMANN P. H., GARRIGA-TRILLO A., HAY D. A., HIRSCH J., HORN J., HUMPHREYS L. G., KADLEC H., MARAUN M. D., MILLSAP R. E., NAGOSHI C. T., STEIGER J. H., [[Robert Sternberg|STERNBERG R. J.]], GRIGORENKO E. L., TURKHEIMER E. and WAHLSTEN D.</ref> Zack Z. Cernovsky has said that "''Hasty and eager acceptance of weak, biased, and unrepresentative data as scientific evidence of genetically based and relatively immutable racial differences in human potential amounts to psychological warfare on oppressed racial groups.''"<ref>''[Rushton's Defenders and Their Hasty Rejection of the Null Hypothesis http://jbp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/3/325]'' Zack Z. Cernovsky Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 3, 325-333 (1994)</ref> and that it "''causes major psychological harm to millions of black children and adults (with respect to self-esteem, career expectations, interracial relationships, etc.''".<ref>''[http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf How “Caucasoids” Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank:From Morton to Rushton]'' by Leonard Lieberman </ref>
 
=== Gene-environment interactions ===
 
Minority-specific effects on intelligence arising from cultural background differences between the races would be expected to affect the correlations between the measures of environmental background variables and outcome measures. Rowe et al. (1994) compared cross-sectional correlation matrices using both independent variables (e.g., home environment, peer characteristics) and developmental outcomes (e.g., achievement, delinquency). {{A(Y)ref|Rowe et al.|1995}} compared correlations between academic achievement and family environment. They reported that the covariance matrix of each group were equal. That is, they failed to find evidence for distortions in the correlations between the background variables and the outcome measures that would suggest a minority-specific developmental factor. Similarly, {{A(Y)ref|Carretta|1995}}, {{A(Y)ref|Owen|1992}}, and {{A(Y)ref|Rushton et al.|2000}}, {{A(Y)ref|Rushton et al.|2002}}, {{A(Y)ref|Rushton et al.|2003}}) reported nearly identical statistical structure on [[psychometry|psychometric]] variables in each group. The factor structure of cognitive ability is nearly identical for Blacks and for Whites; there were no race-specific factors.
 
Using structural equation modeling {{A(Y)ref|Rowe and Cleveland|1996}} estimated the genetic architecture for Black and White siblings. They reported that the best-fitting model for the source of differences between and within races was the same: both genetic and environmental factors. {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}} (p. 465) reanalyzed a subset of this data. This analysis reported that the Black-White IQ difference was best explained by a model of both genetic and environmental factors, and that the genetic-only and the environmental-only models were inadequate.
 
{{A(Y)ref|Nichols|1972}} using differential heritabilities among Blacks and Whites and later {{A(Y)ref|Rushton|1989}} using inbreeding depression calculated in Japan reported that the Black-White gap is least on IQ subtests most affected by the environment, and greatest on subtests that are least affected by the environment. It is difficult to attribute the relationship between inbreeding depression from Japan with the Black-White IQ gap in the U.S. to an environmental (not-genetic) cause.
 
===Rushton's application of r-K theory===
{{Main|Race, Evolution and Behavior}}
In his controversial 1995 work ''[[Race, Evolution and Behavior]]'', [[J. Philippe Rushton]] argued that racial differences in IQ, as well as a number of other racial differences, could be explained by [[r/K selection theory]], where one evolutionary strategy favors reproduction potential over other strengths ([[r-selection]]) and one favors traits that are highly adaptive in a stable environment ([[K-selection]]). Rushton claims that humans are extremely K-selected, and that it was less extreme (there was more r-selection) in the African environment than elsewhere. He posits that the comparatively cold and harsh environment of Europe caused the evolution of those who migrated there slightly more to a K-selected pattern than those who remained in Africa, and the even harsher environment of Northeastern Asia forced the evolution of East Asians to an even higher level of K-selective behavior. This theory has been severely criticized.<ref name="web_1">Joseph L. Graves, "[http://ant.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/2/2/131 What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies and Rushton's life history theory]," ''Anthropological Theory'' 2, no. 2 (2002): 131&ndash;54; Leonard Lieberman et al., "[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?id=doi:10.1086/318434&erFrom=-2713168571825039959Guest How 'Caucasoids' Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank],"; ''Current Anthropology'' 42 (2001): 69&ndash;95; Zack Cernovsky, "[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/People/Rushton/rushton-black-reply.html On the similarities of American blacks and whites: A reply to J.P. Rushton]," ''Journal of Black Studies'' 25 (1995): 672.</ref>
 
[[Richard Lynn]] has developed similar theories and argues that the [[ice age]] that took place in East Asia from about 28,000 to 12,000 years ago acted as a selection force on East Asians to increase intelligence by requiring the building of shelter, making clothes, and making fires, and selected especially strongly for spatial skills such as those needed to hunt large prey and build the tools necessary to do so. ({{AYref|Lynn|1991}}). {{A(Y)ref|Rushton|1996}} has cited the fact that the order in Blacks, Whites, and East Asians appeared is the same as the order of their respective brain sizes as additional evidence. This theory, however, has difficulty explaining why [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], who appeared even later and emigrated from the northernmost parts of Asia, do not currently have high scores on IQ tests. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} On the other hand, {{A(Y)ref|Rushton|1995}} argues that lower scores of Native Americans can be attributed to the evolutionary relaxation of cognitive demands due to the more temperate environment and comparative ease with which North American fauna could be hunted. But it can be argued that life along the fertile river plains in China was not particularly harsh.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} It is also questionable that conditions in deserts are no less harsh but people living there do not currently score high on IQ tests.
 
The theory is directly contradicted by the only comparative study on IQ scores in different European nations that showed a statistically insignificant association between the average IQ and latitude of various European nations.<ref name="EuropeIQ">[http://dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/greekiq/ Greek IQ]</ref> In contrast, {{AYref|Beals et al.|1984}} (p. 309) reported a correlation of 0.62 ([[p-value|p]]=0.00001) between latitude and cranial capacity in samples worldwide and reported that each degree of latitude was associated with an increase of 2.5 cm³ in cranial volume. A more recent study finds this pattern only when including a Siberian population living in extremely cold condition. The explanation may be natural selection for a thermoregulatory capacity in extremely cold environments, resulting in brachycephalization, rather than a selection for intelligence.<ref name="Cold">Charles C. Roseman, "[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/35/12824 Detecting interregionally diversifying natural selection on modern human cranial form by using matched molecular and morphometric data]" ''Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences of the United States'' vol. 101 no. 35 (August 31, 2004):12824-12829.</ref>
 
Rushton sources, such as s "semi-pornographic book" and the [[Penthouse (magazine)|Penthouse]] magazine, have been dismissed by other researchers, or have been criticized as extremely biased and inadequate reviews of the literature, as misreporting the results, or as simply false.<ref>http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/People/Rushton/rushton-black-reply.html</ref> There have also been many other criticisms of the theory.<ref>http://ant.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/2/2/131</ref><ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=14992214&dopt=Citation</ref><ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1488860&dopt=Citation</ref><ref>http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/miller-r-personality</ref><ref>http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/Library/Miller/env-vary.html</ref><!--delspacex--><ref>http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://els/10905138/2003/00000024/00000005/art00040&unc=</ref><ref>http://www.crispian.demon.co.uk/RUSHRV.htm</ref> More recent studies contradicts Rushton's claims. A [[meta-analysis]] shows that blacks are not more psychopathic,<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15638207&dopt=Citation</ref> nor do they differ in from whites when testing for the [[big five personality traits]],<ref>http://www.getcited.org/pub/103361483</ref> differences in sex hormones between whites and East Asians are best explained by environmental differences,<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9626146&dopt=Citation</ref> and the prediction of the theory that blacks have a higher frequency of twins is incorrect.<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/pdf/nvsr52_10t50.pdf</ref> However, the rate of twin births in the US has doubled since 1971, the time of the study Rushton cited, due to older moms (for which twin births are naturally more common) and fertility treatments,<ref>http://www.azcentral.com/families/articles/0228fam_twins.html</ref> both demographic characteristics that are more common among Whites.<ref>http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0014-7354(200005%2F06)32%3A3%3C132%3AUOISIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z</ref> A scholarly article reviewing Rushton's claims regarding twinning makes various criticisms and concludes "Moreover, Rushton misinterprets a number of relevant aspects related to the biology of twinning. The claim that ethnic differences in twinning rates provide evidence for an r/K typology in human populations with respect to reproductive strategies does not appear to be warranted."[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1488860&dopt=Citation]
 
===Other evolutionary explanations for putative genetic differences===
There are two mainstream theories of the evolution of contemporary humans. The [[single-origin hypothesis]] proposes that [[Homo sapiens|modern humans]] evolved in Africa and later replaced hominids in other parts of the world. The [[multiregional hypothesis]] proposes that modern humans evolved to some degree from independent hominid populations. An emerging synthesis theory proposes that the genes of contemporary human are predominantly descended from a recent African origin, but that interbreeding with other hominids may have contributed genes to local populations ({{AYref|Templeton|2002}}). {{A(Y)ref|Eswaran et al.|2005}} speculate that "as much as 80% of the nuclear genome is significantly affected by assimilation from archaic humans (i.e., 80% of loci may have some archaic admixture, not that the human genome is 80% archaic)."
 
Populations within continents are more closely related to one another than to populations on other continents ({{AYref|Mountain and Cavalli-Sforza|1997}}; {{AYref|Stephens et al.|2001}}; {{AYref|Rosenberg et al.|2002}}; {{AYref|Bamshad et al.|2003}}). Thus, to the extent that racial labels correspond to ancient ancestry, racial groups (especially in the U.S.) are statistically distinguishable on the basis of genetics ({{AYref|Tang et al.|2005}}).
 
The [[Imperial examination]] system in China and similar systems in other East Asians nations have been proposed as an explanation for the higher average IQ, compared for example with the [[caste]] system in India which made if much more difficult for the intelligent but poor to gain SES. [[Celibacy]] for priests have been invoked as an explanation for claimed lower IQ in Catholic countries, although this also seems to be contradicted by the equal IQ in northern and southern Europe. The earlier mentioned comparative European IQ study reported that there was a larger variation in IQ scores in southern Europe. Possible explanations for the earlier mentioned difference for this include sample selection, larger environmental differences affecting IQ scores between urban and rural areas in southern Europe at the time of the test (1981), and/or that northern Europe became socially stratified later in history, causing less genetic variation in IQ.
 
Constant persecutions favoring a high IQ have been proposed as an explanation for the higher average Ashkenazi IQ, but other persecuted groups like the [[Romani]] do not score highly on IQ tests. Another theory suggests that there was selective breeding for Talmudic scholarship, but this seems unlikely to have been important because there weren't very many professional rabbis. A selective force that only affects a tiny fraction of the population can never be strong enough to cause important evolutionary change in tens of generations. A more plausible, but difficult to evaluate without detailed demographic information, variant of this is that achievement in [[Talmudic]] scholarship had high status and that rich families therefore preferred to marry their daughters to males who excelled in this. Yet another explanation, according to a 2005 study,<ref name="Ashkenazi">Gregory Cochran, Jason Hardy, Henry Harpending, "[http://harpend.dsl.xmission.com/Documents/AshkenaziIQ.jbiosocsci.pdf Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence]," '' Journal of Biosocial Science'' (June 2005).</ref> the most likely, is that they mostly worked jobs in which increased IQ strongly favored economic success, in contrast with other populations, who were mostly peasant farmers. (See [[Ashkenazi#.22Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence.22|"Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence"]])
 
== Other interpretations ==
 
The two most widely-known works concerning race and intelligence are ''The Mismeasure of Man'' by Stephen Jay Gould, originally published in 1981, and ''The Bell Curve'' by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, published in [[1994]]. Media controversy surrounding ''The Bell Curve'' motivated Gould to revise and expand ''The Mismeasure of Man'' to respond to arguments from ''The Bell Curve'', publishing the book's second edition in [[1996]]. Many current researchers think that both books are outdated due to new research.
 
A recent paper in the ''[[Psychological Review]]'', "Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved" by William T. Dickens of The Brookings Institution and [[James R. Flynn]] presents a mechanism by which environmental effects on IQ may be magnified by feedback effects. This work may provide a resolution of the contradiction between the viewpoint of <i>The Bell Curve</i>'s authors and the 'nurture' effects observed by others. A latter paper responded to objections.<ref name="Paradox">William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, "[http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/dickens/20020205.pdf The IQ Paradox: Still Resolved]," ''Psychological Review'' 109, no. 4 (2002).</ref>
 
For additional relevant discussion, see:
http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/05-02-18.html
Two book reviews, by Paul R. Gross and Alondra Oubre, of Sarich’s and
Miele’s book, Race: The Reality of Human Differences.
 
=== Comparison of explanations ===
{{disputed}}
{{cleanup|November 2006}}
<!-- In general, we should limit these lists to the most salient and informative points; else they would surely grow to be too long. Please use discerning judgment. -->
The Black-White IQ gap in the U.S. may be explained by a variety of explanations on various axes of dispute. There are questions as to the magnitude, direction and causes of gaps, as well as questions regarding the fundamental assumptions of how to frame the question.
 
This table includes arguments put forward by a wide variety of sources on a wide variety of positions, and also includes some rebuttal and counter-rebuttal on those arguments. Neither column represents a single major POV.
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Winner
|-
|1967||{{flagicon|England}} [[Peter Bonetti]]
!colspan=2|Adoption and admixture
|-
|1968||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]
| Some Black-White-East Asian differences in IQ (both positive and negative) remain following transracial [[adoption]]. Two studies of Asian children adopted by White families reported average IQ scores in the adopted Asian children that are higher than Whites.({{AYref|Clark and Hanisee|1982}}; {{AYref|Frydman and Lynn|1989}}. {{A(Y)ref|Burrow and Finley|2004}} reported Black-White-East Asian differences in cognitive and psychological variables among adolescents adopted by white families. They also found that Black-White mixed-race children fell in between the White and Black averages.
| Nisbett (2005) reports the results of the three three major adoption studies that address the question of genetic contribution to the Black-White IQ difference. Two of the studies shows unambiguous lack of support for the hereditarian model and one study showing at most ambiguous support for it.<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310 </ref> Several other adoption studies finds no IQ difference between Whites and East Asians.<ref name="adoption">Marinus H. van IJzendoorn, Femmie Juffer, and Caroline W. Klein Poelhuis, "[http://www.apa.org/journals/features/bul1312301.pdf Adoption and Cognitive Development: A Meta-Analytic Comparison of Adopted and Nonadopted Children’s IQ and School Performance]," ''Psychological Bulletin'' 131, no. 2 (2005): 301&ndash;316.</ref>
|-
| {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005b}} argue that these studies are "peculiarly old, the mean year of publication being 1960" and "actually very weak and nondecisive, not having been replicated even once". No studies of Black-White genetic admixture have been performed with the multi-locus DNA sequencing required to make reliable conclusions. Lynn (2002) reports that skin color is corrlated with intelligence among African Americans.
| There are numerous studies of the association between skin color and IQ. The correlation between lightness of skin and IQ, averaged over a large number of studies reviewed by Shuey (1966), is very low (0.1). The average correlation between IQ and judged “Negroidness” of features is even lower.
<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310 </ref>
 
A 2002 reanalysis of Lynn's data concluded "that his bivariate association disappears once childhood environmental factors are considered. Therefore, a genetic link between skin color and intelligence among African Americans cannot be supported in his data."<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/r1w3611872535w60/ Skin Color and Intelligence in African Americans: A Reanalysis of Lynn's Data] Mark E. Hill. Population & Environment. Volume 24, Number 2 / November, 2002</ref>
 
IQ have very low positive to low negative correlation with several studies concerning the degree of European blood groups, or self-reported degree of European ancestry among Blacks.
<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310 </ref>
|-
| {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}} points out that while the study of children born in post-WWII Germany finds no difference between white and interracial children, it does find a large difference in IQ between boys and girls, suggesting that sampling artifacts have affected the results.
| A study which showed near-disappearance (difference of 0.5 IQ ponts) of the black-white gap among children of black and white servicemen raised by German mothers after World War II. Some, like the [[American Psychological Association]], consider this study be strong evidence against the genetic explanation.<ref name="future">William T. Dickens, "[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/future_of_children/v015/15.1dickens.pdf&session=94978699 Behavioral Genetics and School Readiness]," ''The Future of Children'' 15, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 55&ndash;69; "[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]," Report of a Task Force established by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the APA.</ref> Because the Black-White gap in the military was similar to that for the U.S. population, these data imply that the Black-White gap in the U.S. population as a whole is not genetic, even in part (Flynn, 1980, pp. 87-88). The results seem particularly telling because it seems highly likely that environmental conditions were inferior for Black children.<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310 </ref>
|-
|1969||{{flagicon|England}} [[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
| Because the White mother-Black father pairs averaged 1 year more of education than the Black mother-White father pairs, the study is uninterpretable.
|If the Black-White IQ gap is largely hereditary, then children having one Black and one White parent should have the same IQ on average, regardless of which parent is Black. But if one assumes that mothers are particularly important to the intellectual socialization of their children and if the socialization practices of Whites are more favorable to IQ development than those of Black mothers, then children of White mothers and Black fathers should have higher IQs than children of Black mothers and White fathers. This could of course not have a plausible genetic explanation. In fact, it emerges that children of White mothers and Black fathers have IQs 9 points higher than children with Black mothers and White fathers (Willerman, Naylor, & Myrianthopoulos, 1974). This result in itself suggests that most of the Black-White IQ gap is environmental in origin. But because mothers are not the only environmental influence on the child's IQ, the 9-point difference might be regarded as a very conservative estimate of the environmental contribution to the gap. There can be no basis for assuming that 1-year's difference in education on the part of the parents could possibly translate into an expected 9 IQ point difference for the children.<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310 </ref>
|-
!colspan=2|Utility of racial categories
|-
|1970||{{flagicon|England}} [[John Hollins]]
| Some geneticists argue categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or [[biogeographic ancestry]] are both valid and useful.<ref>{{AYref|Risch et al.|2002}}, {{AYref|Bamshad|2005}}.</ref> They emphasize the continental origin of major races: “namely, African, Caucasian (Europe and Middle East), Asian, Pacific Islander”. For other groups "a decision to split or lump smaller populations into racial groups will depend on the focus of a research question."<ref>{{AYref|Rowe|2005}}</ref> They find that these categories correspond with clusters [[Race and multilocus allele clusters|inferred from multilocus genetic data]]..<ref>{{AYref|Harpending and Rogers|2000}}, {{AYref|Bamshad et al.|2003}}, {{AYref|Edwards|2003}}, {{AYref|Bamshad et al.|2004}}, {{AYref|Tang et al.|2005}}, {{AYref|Rosenberg et al.|2005}}: "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".</ref> Moreover, they conclude that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.<ref name="Mountain and Risch">{{AYref|Mountain and Risch|2004}}</ref> In the 1985 survey reported by Leiberman and colleagues, only 16% of biologists reject the concept of race. In response to claims such as "there are no human races," [[Ernst Mayr]], one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists, said "Those who subscribe to this opinion are obviously ignorant of modern biology."<ref>{{AYref|Mayr|2002}}.</ref> Risch and colleagues (2002) argue that "much of this discussion does not derive from an objective scientific perspective."<ref> [[Neil Risch]] argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! . . you can undermine any definitional system. . . In a recent study. . . we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance. . . So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism. And you can talk about age the same way. A person's chronological age does not correspond perfectly with his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? . . . Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility" ({{AYref|Gitschier|2005}}).</ref> In response to claims that race does not exist, geneticst A.W.F. Edwards quotes Fischer: "that the best causes tend to attract to their support the worst arguments, which seems to be equally true in the intellectual and in the moral sense."<ref>{{AYref|Edwards|2003}} cites Fisher RA. Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. 1956.</ref>
| Modern anthropologists use clines as an alternative to "races", with variation occurring gradually across geographic areas, instead of social constructs of "race". "By 1985 anthropology's core concept of "race" had been rejected by 41% of physical anthropologists and 55% of cultural anthropologists [Lieberman 1968; Lieberman, Stevenson, and Reynolds 1989:69]. A similar survey in 1999 reported that the concept of race was rejected by 69% of physical anthropologists and 80% of cultural anthropologists (Lieberman and Kirk n.d.)"<ref name=bigcrania/>
 
"As the 20th century reached its end, a paradox emerged in which, while most anthropologists had come to reject concepts of biological races and racism (Lieberman and Kirk n.d., Lieberman, Stevenson, and Reynolds 1989), a number of psychologists persisted in the “race” idea and the “scientific” racism that had prevailed in the 19th and much of the 20th century (Herrnstein and Murray 1994; Lynn 1977a, b; Rushton 1988b)."<ref name=bigcrania/>
 
"During the last hundred years, the debate over the meaning of race has retained a highly consistent core, despite evolution of the technical details...Each time the technical facade of these racialist arguments is destroyed, the latest jargon and half-truths from the margins of science are used to rebuild them around the same core belief in Black inferiority. No technology—even the awe-inspiring tools now available to DNA science—can overcome the handicap of fundamental conceptual errors. Race is not a concept that emerged from within modern genetics; rather, it was imposed by history, and its meaning is inseparable from that cultural origin."<ref name=cooper/>
 
"Race, a quantitative distinction within a species, has no equivalent defining criterion—that is, genetic variability is not restricted to discrete packages (American Anthropological Association [AAA], 1998). This aversion to distinctions without meaning is what has led most geneticists and anthropologists to the conclusion that race in its common usage has no biological basis (AAA, 1998; Darwin, 1871/1981; Gould, 1996; Graves, 2001; Kittles & Weiss, 2003; Lewontin, 2000; Mayr, 1996; Montagu, 1964; Templeton, 1998)."<ref name=cooper/>
 
"This point bears restating: To cluster individual members of a species into groups is not the same as creating a natural biological category. One could cluster humans into an infinite number of fractal units based on size (family, clan, deme, continent, etc.) or on a physical trait (height), and the meaning of those groupings would vary in an infinite number of ways."<ref name=cooper/>
|-
|1971||{{flagicon|England}} [[John Hollins]]
| "This assertion is both counter-intuitive and factually incorrect.... If it were true, it would be impossible to create discrete clusters of humans (that end up corresponding to the major races).... Two Caucasians are more similar to each other genetically than a Caucasian and an Asian."<ref>{{AYref|Risch et al.|2002}}, p. 5</ref>
| "Genetic data ... show that any two individuals within a particular population are as different genetically as any two people selected from any two populations in the world."<ref>Editorial: Census, race and science. Nat Genet 2000, 24:97-98.</ref>
 
"From the hereditarian perspective, why then would IQ not be expected to vary between, say, Sicilians and Swedes as much as between Europeans and Africans?"<ref name=cooper/>
|-
|1972||{{flagicon|England}} [[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
!colspan=2|IQ differences
|-
|- <!-- IQ differences exist world wide -->
|1973||{{flagicon|England}} [[Peter Osgood]]
| Black-White-East Asian differences in culture-fair and reaction-time IQ test scores exist world-wide despite international differences in social, cultural, and economic conditions.<ref>{{AYref|Lynn|2006}}</ref> {{AYref|Lynn|1987}}, among others, argues that higher IQ scores among East Asians (living in East and South Asia) than Whites (living in North American and Europe) is seen as a challenge for primarily environmental theories because standards of living in Asia are lower than or equal to those in North America or Europe. For example, average IQ scores are higher in the [[People's Republic of China]] ({{AYref|Lynn and Vanhanen|2002}}) than for African Americans even though per capita GDP (PPP) is lower in China ($5,000 as of 2003) than per capita African American income ($15,583 as of 2003) ({{AYref|DeNavas-Walt et al.|2004}}).
|-
|The only nationwide IQ tests have been done in a few developed countries, and the attempted aggregations of smaller studies in other nations, most of which do not have any all, have been severely criticized, see ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]''. '''''editor note: make mention of the [[Flynn effect]] on so called "culture-fair" tests as Raven.'''''
|1974||{{flagicon|England}} [[Gary Locke (English footballer)|Gary Locke]]
 
|-
Regarding China and African Americans, there are numerous environmental factors which could differ, such as breastfeeding, diet, environmental toxins like lead, alcohol use, iconographic language, and cultural factors.
|1975||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]
 
|-
Assertions of Black-White-East Asian differences are based on invalid "aggregation" of data.<ref name="bigcrania">[http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf How "Caucasoids" Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank], Lieberman 2001</ref>{{dubious}}
|1976||{{flagicon|England}} [[Ray Wilkins]]
|- <!-- believability of 70 IQ for Sub-Saharan Africans -->
|-
|Sub-Saharan Africans have an average IQ of 70 (Rushton 1996a), supported by data using Raven's Progressive Matrices. {{A(Y)ref|Jensen|1998b}} discusses his observation among California children that very low IQ Blacks are qualitatively normal in social and motor skills, but perform no better than Whites with equally low IQ on cognitive tasks except those that require rote memorization, where "mentally retarded" Blacks do significantly better than Whites. He speculates that 12.5% of cases of IQ <70 are due to organic defects in Blacks, compared to 50% in Whites, giving the impression that low IQ Whites are more handicapped than low IQ Blacks.
|1977||{{flagicon|England}} [[Ray Wilkins]]
|One argument of many against the reliability of the IQ scores in developing nations is that in some such countries a majority of the population would be classified by the IQ scores as mentally retarded. People with a score below 75 will often, but not always, have difficulties with daily living skills, which would include the majority of people in Sub-Saharan Africa, arguably absurd. The most extreme exampke is Equatorial Guinea is one of the few African nations that actually have a study and is classified as having the lowest average IQ in the world, 59, based on study of 48 persons 10-14 years old. A large proportion of the population should also be classified as moderately (<16%) and severely (<2%) mentally retarded. In the U.S., the moderately mentally retarded require moderate supervision and the severely mentally retarded often have other physical disabilities and may thus require constant supervision, be unable to provide for themselves, be unable to speak long sentences, and, in many cases, be unable to do things like getting dressed without help.
|-
|- <!-- stability of black white gap -->
|1978||{{flagicon|England}} [[Micky Droy]]
| The Black-White IQ gap in the US has remained constant at approximately one standard deviation since it was first measured in the early 1900s despite social and economic change during that time, including the [[civil rights movement]] and [[Brown v. Board of Education]].{{dubious}} "A difference [of] at least [12 points] is found in virtually every comparison ever published of reasonable sized [White] and [Black] samples, at every age above 3 years, within every level of education, socioeconomic status, and occupation, in every region of the country, and at every time in history since mental ability tests were invented."<ref>Jensen, Arthur R. (2000) A Fuzzy Boundary of Racial Classification Attenuates IQ Difference, Psycoloquy: 11,#22 Intelligence G Factor (34)</ref> Narrowing of the gaps in skill test scores does not indicate changes in ''g''.
|-
 
|1979||{{flagicon|England}} [[Tommy Langley]]
Average IQ scores gaps internationally<ref name="IQ_studies_by_race_by_year_graph"> [http://www.isteve.com/IQ_studies_by_race_by_year_graph.htm IQ studies by year from ''IQ and the Wealth of Nations'' by Lynn & Vanhanen]</ref> have been stable since they were first measured in the early and mid 20th century{{dubious}} ({{AYref|Lynn and Vanhanen|2002}}; [[Race and intelligence#Is the gap closing.3F|see above]]).
|-
|Several other studies show that the gap in the US is narrowing. See [[Race and intelligence (test_data)#Is the IQ test score gap closing]].
|1980||{{flagicon|England}} [[Clive Walker]]
 
|-
Moreover, the extent of concrete social and economic change is debatable; for example, [[Jonathan Kozol]], in his 2005 book ''Shame of the Nation'', reported that public schools are more racially segregated today than they were in 1969. '''''editor note: make clear the selective qualifications of comparisons avoid data sets that contradict Jensen'''''
|1981||{{flagicon|Yugoslavia}} [[Petar Borota]]
 
|-
Considering the few studies outside some developing nations, and other problems as described in the article about ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]'', any claim regarding an internationally stable gap is doubtful. The given source, [http://www.isteve.com/IQ_studies_by_race_by_year_graph.htm], a blog site, is highly questionable considering the absence of the Flynn effect in the graph.
|1982||{{flagicon|England}} [[Mike Fillery]]
|- <!-- Flynn effect -->
|One statistical analysis suggests that the Flynn effect is qualitatively different than the Black-White IQ gap ({{AYref|Wicherts et al.|2004}}).
|The [[Flynn effect]] is the finding that IQ scores have been increasing very rapidly worldwide, in particular on "culture-fair" and highly g-loaded tests such as [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]]. Average IQ in the US in 1932 was 80, well below the current black-white gap. Many environmental influences has been suggested as an explanation, and it seems not unlikely that the effect started earlier and may end sooner for Whites in the US compared to Blacks and for developed nations compared to developing nations. This may happen regardless of whether the gaps have been stable or not until now.
 
The Wicherts study refers to "measurement invariance", is not a statement about the role of genetics in the B-W gap, and is a relatively minor statement that not mentioned in the abstract.
|- <!-- U.S. Black IQ compared to other disadvantaged minorities -->
| American Blacks have a lower average IQ than Hispanic and Native American groups, which are more socio-economically deprived. For example, the [[Inuit]], who live in the Arctic, have higher average IQs than North American Blacks ({{AYref|Berry|1966}}; {{AYref|MacArthur|1968}}) despite being extremely poor ({{AYref|Vernon|1965}}; {{AYref|Vernon|1979}}).
| That Blacks are less socioeconomically deprived than Hispanics is incorrect, see [[Household income in the United States]]. The Inuit (Eskimo) cannot be directly compared to the US population, for example they have substantially different nutrition from eating large amounts of fish.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Fish oil supplement to pregnant and lactating mothers has been linked to increased cognitive ability in one study.<ref>Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12509593&dopt=Abstract Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age.] ''Pediatrics''. 2003 Jan;111(1):e39-44.</ref>
|- <!-- U.S. Black IQ compared to other disadvantaged minorities -->
|?
|Results from the US, which inlcude almost all studies and findings, cannot be generalized to the world as whole. Blacks, East Asians, Hispanics, and Whites in the US are not a [[random sample]] of the worldwide popultion. The environment in the US differs from other nations. For example, some studies find that the Black-White gap in the UK is about half that in the US.<ref>[http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/001047.html Gene Expression IQ comments September 23, 2003] Nicholas Mackintosh, IQ and Human Intelligence, OUP, 1998
[A. West, C. Mascie-Taylor, and N. Mackintosh, Cognitive and educational attainment in different ethnic groups, J. Biosocial Science, 1992, 24, 539-554
N Mackintosh and C. Mascie-Taylor, The IQ question (1986), appendix to an official report on ethnic minority education in Britain.</ref>
|-
!colspan=2|g factor
|- <!-- Spearman's hypothesis about BW gap being correlated with g -->
| "The g-based factor hierarchy is the most widely accepted current view of the structure of abilities"<ref name="APA">{{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}</ref> Correlations between an IQ subtest's ''g''-loading, and the magnitude of the Black-White-East Asian score gap for that subtest ({{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}; {{AYref|Jensen|1993}} pp. 47-8; {{AYref|Rushton|1995}} pp. 138-9). For example, the Black-White gap is greater on backward digits span (a test where subjects repeat digits in the reverse order that they are given, and the more ''g''-loaded test) than forward digits span (a test where subjects repeat digits in the same order that they are given, and the less ''g''-loaded test). As predicted by [[Spearman's hypothesis]], the B-W gap is largest on the most ''g''-loaded tests. Narrowing of the B-W gap has been seen mostly on less ''g''-loaded tests, such as literacy tests.<ref name="g-loading"> Murray, C. (2005) "[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/production/files/murray0905.html The Inequality Taboo]". ''Commentary Magazine'', September 2005.</ref> Arthur Jensen argues that there is no independent evidence that the environmental explanations commonly given for the Black-White gap (for example, "past history of slavery", discrimination, "caste status", "peer pressure against 'acting white'", etc) have an effect on ''g'' ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 510).
|The author of multiple factor analysis, L. L. Thurstone (1947), warned "we must guard against the simple, but common, error of merely taking a first centroid factor, a first principal component, or other mean factor, in a test battery and then calling it a general factor". "Spearman's g, then, is a "statistical artifact." (C. Loring Brace, 2001)
 
{{AYref|Dolan and Hamaker|2001}} have reanalyzed the data from several previous studies ({{AYref|Jensen and Reynolds|1982}}; {{AYref|Naglieri and Jensen|1987}}) that used the statistical method invented by Jensen (the method of correlated vectors), in turn used for many studies regarding g, with a more recent and improved method (multigroup confirmatory factor analysis). "On the basis of the present, as well as other results (Dolan, 2000), we are convinced that the Spearman correlation cannot be used to demonstrate the importance of g in b-w differences with any confidence." and "It is possible that the analysis of all available data sets (perhaps using an appropriate meta-analytic procedure) will demonstrate that a model incorporating the weak version of Spearman's hypothesis provides the best description of the data. However, until this work is undertaken, we cannot accept Spearman's hypothesis as an "empirically established fact"<ref name="papers">[http://users.fmg.uva.nl/cdolan/index.html#_Papers_relating_to Papers relating to group difference in IQ test scores & Spearman's hypothesis].</ref> This leaves the validity of Spearman's hypothesis, considered a central justification for the genetic explanation, an unresolved question.
|- <!-- g is the heritable component of IQ -->
| Correlations between an IQ subtest's heritability or inbreeding depression and the magnitude of the Black-White-East Asian score gap for that subtest ({{AYref|Rushton|1989a}}). Environmental theories would predict the opposite.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}}</ref>
| What subtest are most heritable and how to measure this is debated.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Racialist hereditarians make assertions regarding the heritability of traits such as intelligence, to imply that a) group differences are genetic and b) intelligence is a fixed ability.{{dubious}} As per Nature Reviews Neuroscience:
"The issue of race is not unique to biological investigations of intelligence, but it is more visceral in a biological context (in part because heritability can be misunderstood to imply both that group differences must be genetic and that intelligence is a fixed rather than a context-sensitive ability — both of these interpretations are incorrect)."<ref>[http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/IQ/NRN2004_IQ.html Nature Reviews Neuroscience]</ref> "The view that a trait is independently heritable (or heritable at all) simply because it can be separately defined and analyzed has been rendered largely obsolete by modern developments in biology" [Thorogood 1997; Lovejoy, Cohn, and White 1999:13247)
|- <!-- culture load wrt g -->
|Theories holding that Blacks score lower than Whites because of test bias would predict the Black-White gap would be smaller on culture-reduced tests than on culture-loaded tests. Yet the reverse is true ({{AYref|Murray and Herrnstein|1994}}).
|There are many other possible explanations beside test bias.
|-
|1983||{{flagicon|Wales}} [[Joey Jones]]
!colspan=2|Brain size differences
|-
|- <!-- existence of brain size difference -->
|1984||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Pat Nevin]]
|Black-White-East Asian differences in IQ, reaction time, brain size and other physiological variables (such as skull structure, and degree of convolution of the brain) in the United States and a few other developed countries (e.g. UK, Japan). Larger brain size and higher IQ of East Asians than Whites is seen as a challenge for the primarily environmental theory. '''''-----''''' Race correlates with cranial measurements (Rushton, 1990:786). '''''-----''''' Skull sizes of different races have been compared since the 1800s (Morton, 1849), showing differential sizes which are assumed related to IQ (Rushton, 1996).
|-
|In principle, assuming brain size and IQ are related, then all environmental factors that can affect IQ can also affect brain size. Better nutrition can affect brain growth, as can cognitive stimulation. A larger brain is not by itself evidence for genetics any more than IQ scores are. See the article regarding the [[Flynn effect]] for studies showing that brain and skull size has been increasing.
|1985||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[David Speedie]]
|-
|1986||{{flagicon|Wales}} [[Eddie Niedzwiecki]]
|-
|1987||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Pat Nevin]]
|}
 
|width="1"|&nbsp;
The IQ scores and larger brain size of East Asians have numerous possible explanations, e.g. many East Asian nations have a very high consumption of [[fish]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} One study has shown larger head size at birth and higher IQ scores at 4 years of age when the mothers took fish oil supplement during pregnancy and lactation. '''''-----''''' The study cited by Rushton (Beals, Smith, and Dodd 1984) actually finds that climate variables are strongly correlated with cranial variation, where as "race" had low correlations. '''''-----''''' The views of Morton and Rushton have been invalidated "by a century of anthropological research" (Gossett 1965, Cravens, 1978), and themselves are inconsistent with each other (Morton putting "Caucasoids" as the group with the largest brains, and Rushton putting "Mongoloids" as the group with the largest brains).
|valign="top"|
 
{| class="wikitable"
The only study looking at race differences using MRI is a study primarily looking at a small sample of subjects with serious mental disease ({{AYref|Harvey et al.|1994}}).
!Year
|- <!-- relation of brain size to intelligence -->
!Winner
| In a meta-analysis of 37 studies, {{AYref|McDaniel|2005}} concluded that total brain size correlates with intelligence. Among adults of the same sex, the average correlation is approximately 0.4. The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study reported no such family-related connection (Schoenemann et al. 2000). The volume of specific brain structures also correlates with IQ. Genetics are known to influence brain structure ({{AYref|Thompson et al.|2001}}) and some aspects of cognition ({{AYref|Berman and Noble|1995}}). In one study, the correlation between [[gray matter]] volume and ''g'' is reported to be mediated entirely by genetic factors ({{AYref|Posthuma et al.|2002}}). A review in [[Nature Reviews Neuroscience]] noted "Correlations between intelligence and total brain volume or grey matter volume have been replicated in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies, to the extent that intelligence is now commonly used as a confounding variable in morphometric studies of disease."<ref>http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/PDF/nrn0604-GrayThompson.pdf</ref> '''''editor note: correlation of brain size to intelligence may be necessary for the racialist-hereditarian view, but is not proof of its validity'''''
|-
|A correlation of 0.4 is fairly small.
|1988||{{flagicon|England}} [[Tony Dorigo]]
 
In modern humans, intraspecific correlation between brain size and various measures of "intelligence" is nonexistent (Henneberg 1998). "What we do know is that within human families, brain size does not predict general cognitive ability; nongenetic events play a significant role in brain volume and cognitive ability associations (Schoenemann et al. 2000)." (Fatimah Jackson 2001)
|-
!colspan=2|Correlates of IQ
|-
|1989||{{flagicon|England}} [[Graham Roberts (footballer)|Graham Roberts]]
| The three-way differences in the IQ and SAT scores of children persists even after controlling for parental income or education, which seems to counter arguments that the gap is due to socioeconomic conditions.<ref name="Hu">[http://www.arthurhu.com/index/sat.htm Arthur Hu's Index of Diversity, Scholastic Aptitude Test].</ref> In addition, some researchers have argued from studies in siblings that IQ affects socioeconomic status, rather than the other way around ({{AYref|Murray|1998}}). Studies which simultaneously control for dozens of social and economic conditions are uninformative because they assume that such differences are the cause rather than the consequence of IQ differences ({{AYref|Murray and Hernstein|1994}}; {{AYref|Murray|2000}}). SAT scores correlate with IQ as well as scores from one IQ test correlate with another ({{AYref|Frey and Detterman|2004}}. Neisser et al. concluded "it is clear that no model in which 'SES' directly determines 'IQ' will do."<ref name="APA"/>
| Adjustments for socioeconomic conditions almost completely eliminate differences in IQ scores between black and white children. The remaining difference is statistically insignificant.<ref name="BWgap">"[http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-IQgapgenetic.htm Myth: The black/white IQ gap is largely genetically caused].</ref> SAT scores are not the same as IQ scores.
|- <!-- higher SES - large BW gap -->
| According to Arthur Jensen, environment-only explanations would predict a decreasing Black-White gap with increasing socioeconomic status of parents. Yet the opposite is true ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 469).
| Affirmative action legislation could cause this.
|-
|1990||{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Kenneth Monkou|Ken Monkou]]
| Three-way differences in reaction times have been demonstrated ({{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Whang|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Holmshaw|1990}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Shigehasa|1991}}), and it is difficult to explain differences in reaction time through lack of motivation or cultural differences on the part of the subjects. Reaction times correlate with ''g'' ({{AYref|Grudnick and Kranzler|2001}}).
| Differences in reaction time or brain volume may be caused by environmental factors. As noted, there have been large changes in cranial vault size and shape during the last century in the US for both Black and Whites, far beyond what can be explained genetically. In addition, reaction time and brain size have only a low correlation with IQ test scores and are not shown to have any real-world significance.
|-
|1991||{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Andy Townsend]]
!colspan=2|Causes of individual differences in IQ
|-
|1992||{{flagicon|England}} [[Paul Elliott (footballer)|Paul Elliott]]
| Rising heritability of IQ with age, and decreasing shared-family effects (e.g., socioeconomic factors) on IQ after adolescence. An environmental cause of the IQ gap is seen as necessarily being a shared family effect.
| High within-group heritability does not logically exclude the all environmental interpretation. Racialist hereditarians make assertions regarding the heritability of traits such as intelligence, to imply that a) group differences are genetic and b) intelligence is a fixed ability. As per Nature Reviews Neuroscience:
"The issue of race is not unique to biological investigations of intelligence, but it is more visceral in a biological context (in part because heritability can be misunderstood to imply both that group differences must be genetic and that intelligence is a fixed rather than a context-sensitive ability — both of these interpretations are incorrect)."<ref>[http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/IQ/NRN2004_IQ.html Nature Reviews Neuroscience]</ref> "The view that a trait is independently heritable (or heritable at all) simply because it can be separately defined and analyzed has been rendered largely obsolete by modern developments in biology" [Thorogood 1997; Lovejoy, Cohn, and White 1999:13247)
|-
|1993||{{flagicon|Jamaica}} [[Frank Sinclair]]
|Studies using [[structural equation modeling]] find results consistent with the partially-genetic explanation ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, pp. 464-467). Studies suggesting that IQ heritability and gene-environment interactions within races are the same for Blacks and Whites. That is, no race-specific statistical factors, such as an effect of White racism, have been identified in such analyses. The IQ gap exists even among middle- and upper-class Black and White families where within-race heritabilities are high and shared family effects are near zero.
|| Many factors that can affect IQ differ between Blacks and whites, for example [[breastfeeding]], blood [[lead]] levels, or poverty. Black mother breastfeed both less frequently and for a shorter duration and this occurs for most socioeconomic groups studied.<ref>(See [[Health and intelligence]]) [http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5512a3.htm Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Breastfeeding --- United States, 2004] CDC</ref> Black children have much higher lead levels than white children.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5420a5.htm Blood Lead Levels --- United States, 1999--2002] CDC.</ref> Many older studies have only studied middle class families but SES has recently been shown to be relatively more important in poorer families.<ref>[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x?cookieSet=1 Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of iq in young children] Eric Turkheimer, Andreana Haley, Mary Waldron, Brian D'Onofrio, Irving I. Gottesman. Psychological Science 14 (6), 623–628. 2003</ref>
|-
| The finding that when Black and White children are matched for IQ, their siblings tend to have IQs that [[regression toward the mean|regress]] towards different means (85 for Blacks and 100 for Whites). For example, among Black and White children matched with an IQ of 120, the siblings of the Black children have an average IQ of 100 whereas the siblings of the White children have an average IQ of 110. This is a stronger test of the party-genetic hypothesis than regression from parents to offspring because siblings share a similar environment ({{AYref|Jensen|1973}}). This is a novel prediction of the partly genetic hypothesis.
|| Regression towards the mean only shows that mean IQ scores are different which is not a new finding. That is not evidence that the cause of this difference is genetic.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
|-
| The three-way difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children and before the start of schooling. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education ({{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}). {{AYref|Lynn|1996}} reported that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. {{A(Y)ref|Broman et al.|1987}} reported that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.
| A recent, large, and nationally representative data set find only very small (0.06 SD between whites and blacks) racial differences on measures for mental function for children aged eight to twelve months. These differences disappear when controlling for a limited set of factors such as differences in SES. "These findings pose a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function." "To the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."<ref>[http://post.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/papers/fryer_levitt_ecls_babies.pdf]</ref> Environmental factors can affect very young children, for example nutrition by the mother during pregnancy and breastfeeding. More breastfeeding gives IQ gains and the duration of this is known to differ between White and Black mothers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Two studies in Chile shows that nutritional status affects IQ, scholastic achievement, and brain volume.<ref name="BJN">D.M. Ivanovic et al., "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11895316&dopt=Citation Nutritional status, brain development and scholastic achievement of Chilean high-school graduates from high and low intellectual quotient and socio-economic status]," ''British Journal of Nutrition'' 87, no. 1 (January 2002): 81&ndash;92; D.M. Ivanovic et al., "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15093150&dopt=Citation Head size and intelligence, learning, nutritional status and brain development. Head, IQ, learning, nutrition and brain]," ''Neuropsychologia'' 42, no. 8 (2004): 1118&ndash;31.</ref>
|-
!colspan=2|High achieving minorities
|-
|1994||{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Steve Clarke]]
| Theories holding that Blacks score lower than Whites because of test bias would predict that Asians would also score lower than Whites. However, the reverse is true.
| Assuming that test bias must negatively affect scores of any minority group is unsupportable. Asians and Blacks do not share the same environmental or cultural influences.
|-
|1995||{{flagicon|Norway}} [[Erland Johnsen]]
| [[Ashkenazi]] Jews have often been persecuted and discriminated against, but they still display the highest average IQ of any ethnic group, as well as SAT scores higher than those of non-Jewish Caucasians. {{AYref|Rowe|2005}}, pp. 67-68 argues that this counters arguments that depressed IQ scores of African Americans are due to discrimination or prejudice. Similarly, {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 510, points to the examples of Chinese, Japanese, Jews, and East Indians, stating that they have been minorities, discriminated against, or even persecuted, yet do not do poorly on ''g''-loaded tests. {{AYref|Murray and Herrnstein|1994}} make similar arguments.
|-
|Jews and East Asians have been discriminated against in the past, but arguably far less now, compared to African Americans.
|1996||{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Gullit]]
|-
|1997||{{flagicon|Wales}} [[Mark Hughes]]
|-
|1998||{{flagicon|England}} [[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|1999||{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2000||{{flagicon|England}} [[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|2001||{{flagicon|England}} [[John Terry]]
|-
|2002||{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Carlo Cudicini]]
|-
|2003||{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2004||{{flagicon|England}} [[Frank Lampard]]
|-
|2005||{{flagicon|England}} [[Frank Lampard]]
|-
|2006||{{flagicon|England}} [[John Terry]]
|-
|2007||{{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Michael Essien]]
|}
 
|}
Persecution and discrimination is not always applied in identical ways with identical effects. Conflating the terms "discrimination" and "prejudice" as having both the same meaning as well as effect is a logical fallacy. Neither do persecution and discrimination encompass the entirety of culture or environmental effects.
 
==Notable managers==
Rowe is particularly criticized for "misuse of broad scientific concepts and incorrect or biased misinterpretation of specific scientific data."<ref>[http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/amp60171.pdf Race and IQ: Molecular Genetics as Deus ex Machina], Richard S. Cooper <blockquote>''The technical errors contained in Rowe’s (2005) article include both misuse of broad scientific concepts and incorrect or biased misinterpretation of specific scientific data. The author’s broad argument assumes that a quantity definable as “intelligence” exists (in contradistinction to the view that multiple types of cognitive functioning can be identified that are valued and manifested differently, conditional on the setting and the observer), that intelligence can be measured with “IQ tests,” that demographic groups known as “continental races” divide humans into discrete categories on the basis of important concordant variation in genetically determined traits, that molecular genetics can (or will) make it possible to define the architecture of complex traits in terms of “genes for X or Y” (i.e., “genes for intelligence”), and that significant variation in polymorphisms in those genes overlap with the traditional demographic categories, such as those promulgated by the U.S. government. ''</blockquote></ref>
{{Details|List of Chelsea F.C. managers}}
|-
The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge of Chelsea:
| {{AYref|Lynn|1987}} argues that environmental explanations cannot explain why East Asians score higher on tests of spatial reasoning than verbal reasoning.
{| class="wikitable"
| Dichotomy in intelligence is entirely compatible with an all environmental explanation but may not be with the ''g'' theory. East Asians may have higher spatial ability for example due to their knowledge of iconographic languages. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
!Name
!Period
!Trophies
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Ted Drake]]
| A similar dichotomy in spatial/nonspatial intelligence test scores is present in both East Asians and several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[Inuit]] populations ({{AYref|Connelly|1983}}; {{AYref|Diessner and Walker|1986}}; {{AYref|Tempest|1987}}; {{AYref|Zarske and Moore|1982}}; {{AYref|McShane and Plas|1982}} {{AYref|McShane and Plas|1984}}).<ref name="Education_1">Abstracts from the ''[http://jaie.asu.edu/abstracts/abs1987.htm Journal of American Indian Education]'' 1987; Rhett Diessner and Jacqueline L. Walker, "[http://jaie.asu.edu/v25/V25S2cog.html A Cognitive Pattern of the Yakima Indian Students]," ''Journal of American Indian Education'' 25, no. 2 (January 1986); "[http://www.lagriffedulion.f2s.com/sft2.htm Smart Fraction Theory II: Why Asians Lag]," ''La Griffe du Lion'' 6, no. 2 (May 2004).</ref>
|1952–1961
| Again, there are numerous possible environmental explanations, like greater emphasis on spatial ability rather than verbal ability among hunter-gatherers.
|[[Football League First Division|First Division Championship]], [[FA Community Shield|Charity Shield]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Tommy Docherty]]
!colspan=2|Significance and evolution of races
|1962–1967
|[[Football League Cup|League Cup]]
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Dave Sexton]]
| A relationship between times of evolutionary emergence and brain sizes for East Asians, Whites, and Blacks. ({{AYref|Rushton|1996}})
|1967–1974
| Does not hold for the original inhabitants of the Americas.
|[[FA Cup]], [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]
|-
| Racial differences in biological characteristics such as [[myopia]] that correlate with ''g''. Myopia is more common in Asians and Jews than in Whites, and more common in Whites than in Blacks. Myopia is about twice as common in Jews than in Gentiles. Myopia is likely [[pleiotropism|pleiotropic]] with ''g'' (i.e., myopia and ''g'' are caused by the same genes). Arthur Jensen argues that this supports the partially-genetic explanation. ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 487-489)
| IQ and myopia may be related without a genetic component, for example by reading more.
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} [[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]]
| Partly-genetic theory is predicated on a model that the IQ gap has (the genetic) part of its origin in human evolution. Thus, it predicts that the Black-White-East Asian differences in average IQ, reaction-time, and brain size should be accompanied by a similar pattern of differences in other inherited traits. Proponents cite three-way average differences such as personality, maturation, and reproductive traits as support of this prediction; {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}}, p. 273, cite a "matrix of 60 life-history traits". Research on racial differences in twining and testis size was the subject of a review by author and scientist [[Jared Diamond]] (1986) in the journal ''Nature'', in which he investigated correlations between possible racial variations in testicular size and hormone levels and reported on one study suggesting that dead Danish men on autopsy have larger testicles than dead Chinese men. Some studies also suggested lower hormone levels and frequency of twins among Asians than Africans. {{A(Y)ref|Rushton|1995}} has additionally pointed to the Black-White-East Asian gradient in average hip size, arguing that nothing can explain this phenomenon except the need to give birth to children with different brain sizes.
|1981–1985
| Differences may have environmental causes and may be unrelated to one another. Many of these claims of differences have been shown to be false, for example references to scientific literature with respects to racial differences in sexual characteristics turned out to be references to a nonscientific semipornographic book and to an article in the Penthouse Forum.<ref name="reply_1">Zack Cernovsky, "[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/People/Rushton/rushton-black-reply.html On the similarities of American blacks and whites: A reply to J.P. Rushton]," ''Journal of Black Studies'' 25 (July 1995): 672.</ref> Regarding Jared's study, he notes that smaller testicle size among Koreans was not associated with a lower frequency of sexual intercourse, which directly contradicts Rushton rK-theory. There is only an insignificant difference in frequency of twins between Whites and Blacks in the U.S (34.8 vs 34.7), also contradicting the theory.<ref name="Twinning">[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/pdf/nvsr52_10t50.pdf Table 50] National Vital Statistics Reports Vol. 52, No. 10, December 17, 2003. CDC.</ref> Higher frequency of twins in certain African populations can be explained by large scale consumption of [[yam (vegetable)|Yam]] which in rats produces such results.<ref name="Yam">"[http://info.med.yale.edu/external/pubs/ym_su99/scope/scope1.htm What's in a yam? Clues to fertility, a student discovers]," ''Yale Medicin'' Summer 99</ref>
|[[Football League Second Division|Second Division Championship]]
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Bobby Campbell (footballer born 1937)|Bobby Campbell]]
| Other statistical racial differences have been reported to exist. '''''this is a repeat of the last entry - merge'''''
|1988–1991
| Other statistical racial differences have been reported to be artifacts of poor controls. David and Collins (1997) studied birth weight and race correlations between black and white Americans. Although the correlations still held when controlled for socioeconomic variables, when they considered African immigrants to the United States, the racial pattern vanished (African-born immigrants clustered with American whites, not American blacks). "The low-birth-weight phenomenon appears to be not an endowment of the black gene pool but a consequence of the experience of growing up black in America" (Jonathan Marks, 2001)
|[[Football League Second Division|Second Division Championship]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Gullit]]
| Rushton asserts a "principle of aggregation" which derives his conclusions from a vast array of historical data.
|1996–1998
| The poor quality of data cited by racialist-hereditarians is strongly criticized, and all of their citations of persistent patterns are seen as unsupportable once proper controls are added and obviously invalid data is filtered out.<ref name="bigcrania">[http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf How "Caucasoids" Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank], Lieberman 2001</ref>
|[[FA Cup]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Vialli]]
|1998–2000
|[[FA Cup]], [[Football League Cup|League Cup]], [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]], [[FA Community Shield|Charity Shield]], [[European Super Cup]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[José Mourinho]]
|2004—present
|2 [[Premier League|Premier Leagues]], 2 [[Football League Cup|League Cups]], [[FA Cup]], [[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]]
|-
| "Mongoloids" have superior, larger brains because in their evolution they had to "adapt to a cognitively demanding but predictable cold Pleistocene climate (Rushton, 1997) '''''editor note: the last entry in the table covers evolutionary explanations'''''
| "the mode of subsistence of all human populations was essentially the same over the past 200,000 years. This was conditioned by adaptation to the selective pressure engendered by the cultural ecological niche. For these reasons, then, cognitive capabilities should . . . be the same in all the living populations of the world" (Brace 1998:112).
|}
 
==See alsoHonours==
 
*[[Biological determinism]]
===Domestic===
*[[Cultural determinism]]
====League====
*[[Genetic determinism]]
 
*[[Nature versus nurture]]
*{{sport honours|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]/[[Premier League]]<ref>Until 1992, when the Premier League was formed, the top tier of [[Football in England|English football]] was known as the First Division</ref>|3|1954-55, [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]], [[Premier League 2005-06|2005-06]]}}
*[[Social determinism]]
*{{sport honours|[[Football League Second Division|Second Division]]/[[Football League Championship|Championship]]|2|1983-84, 1988-89}}
*[[Twin study]]
 
*[[Norms of reaction]]
====Cups====
*{{sport honours|[[FA Cup]]|4|[[FA Cup Final 1970|1970]], [[FA Cup Final 1997|1997]], [[FA Cup Final 2000|2000]], [[FA Cup Final 2007|2007]]}}
*{{sport honours|[[Football League Cup|League Cup]]|4|[[Football League Cup Final 1965|1965]], [[Football League Cup Final 1998|1998]], [[Football League Cup Final 2005|2005]], [[Football League Cup Final 2007|2007]]}}
*{{sport honours|FA Charity Shield/[[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]]<ref>The trophy was known as the Charity Shield until 2002, and as the Community Shield ever since.</ref>|3|1955, 2000, 2005}}
*{{sport honours|[[Full Members Cup]]|2|1986, 1990}}
 
===European===
*{{sport honours|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]|2|1971, [[1998 Cup Winners' Cup Final|1998]]}}
*{{sport honours|[[European Super Cup]]|1|1998}}
 
== Notes Footnotes==
<div style="height: 220px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA; reflist4" >
{{Reflist}}
<references/>
</div>
 
== References ==
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=Kings of the King's Road: The Great Chelsea Team of the 60s and 70s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2004| id=ISBN 0-9546428-1-3}}
{{main|Race and intelligence (References)}}
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=A Serious Case of the Blues: Chelsea in the 80s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2005| id=ISBN 1-905326-02-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Glanvill, Rick | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography - The Definitive Story of the First 100 Years| publisher=Headline Book Publishing Ltd| year=2006| id=ISBN 0-7553-1466-2}}
*{{cite book | author=Hadgraft, Rob | title=Chelsea: Champions of England 1954-55| publisher=Desert Island Books Limited| year=2004| id=ISBN 1-874287-77-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Harris, Harry | title=Chelsea's Century| publisher=Blake Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 1-84454-110-X}}
*{{cite book | author=Ingledew, John | title=And Now Are You Going to Believe Us: Twenty-five Years Behind the Scenes at Chelsea FC| publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd| year=2006| id=ISBN 1-84454-247-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Matthews, Tony | title=Who's Who of Chelsea | publisher=Mainstream Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 1-84596-010-6}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: A 100-year History | publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2004| id=ISBN 1-84018-823-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: Football Under the Blue Flag| publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2002| id=ISBN 1-84018-658-5}}
 
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Chelsea_FC.ogg|2007-04-07}}
===Significantly genetic view===
{{commons2|Chelsea F.C.}}
* [http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/235-2.html Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability] J. Philippe Rushton & Arthur R. Jensen
<!--Please explain your reasoning on the talk page before adding fansites etc.-->
* [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-04/cdri-bai042505.php Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal]
*[http://www.chelseafc.com Official Club site]
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=c/chelsea}}
*[http://www.premierleague.com/chelsea-fc.html Chelsea FC - Premier League site]
*[http://www.football-lineups.com/games/?t=Chelsea%20in%20FA%20Premier%20League%202006/2007&campaign=12.8 Chelsea Formations]
*[http://www.footballteamnews.co.uk/chelsea/ Chelsea FC News]
*[http://www.carling.com/football/chelsea-fc.html Chelsea FC Team News from Carling]
*[http://www.theleftback.co.uk/ChelseaBadges.html History of Chelsea badges]
 
{{fb start}}
===Significantly environmental view===
{{Chelsea F.C.}}
* [http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html Heredity, Environment, and Race Differences in IQ] Richard E. Nisbett
{{FA Premier League}}
* [http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/amp60171.pdf Race and IQ: Molecular Genetics as Deus ex Machina] Richard S. Cooper
{{Champions League 2007-08}}
{{fb end}}
{{featured article}}
 
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