Adams-Bashforth multistep method and Mourning dove: Difference between pages

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[[Image:Flacid and erects.jpg|right|A circumcised penis in both flaccid and fully erect states]]

#REDIRECT [[Linear multistep method]]

{{Taxobox

| color = pink

| name = Mourning Dove

| status = LC

| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN2006|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2004|id=48780|title=Zenaida macroura|downloaded=09 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern</ref>

| image = Mourning Dove 2006.jpg

| image_width = 200px

| regnum = [[Animal]]ia

| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]

| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]

| ordo = [[Columbiformes]]

| familia = [[dove|Columbidae]]

| genus = ''[[Zenaida Doves|Zenaida]]''

| species = '''''Z. macroura'''''

| binomial = ''Zenaida macroura''

| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])

| subdivision_ranks = [[Subspecies]]

| subdivision =

See text

| range_map = MourningDoveRange.png

| range_map_width = 200px

| range_map_caption = Winter only (blue), summer only (light green), and year-round (dark green) range

}}

The '''Mourning Dove''' (''Zenaida macroura'') is a member of the [[dove]] [[family (biology)|family]], Columbidae. The bird is also called the '''American Mourning Dove''', and formerly was known as the '''Carolina Pigeon''' or '''Carolina Turtledove'''. It [[range (biology)|ranges]] from [[Central America]] to southern [[Canada]], including offshore islands. Many individuals in northern areas [[bird migration|migrate]] south to winter within the breeding range where January temperatures are greater than minus 12°&nbsp;Celsius (10°&nbsp;F).

Habitats include various open and semi-open environments, including agricultural and urban areas. The species has adapted well to areas altered by humans. The bird is abundant, with an estimated population of 130 million birds. In many areas, the Mourning Dove is hunted as a [[game (food)|game bird]] for both sport and its flesh. Its plaintive ''woo-oo-oo-oo'' [[bird song|call]]<!--A redirect with potential--> is common throughout its range, as is the whistling of its wings as it takes flight. The species is a strong [[bird flight|flier]], capable of speeds up to 88&nbsp;km/h (55&nbsp;mph).

Mourning Doves are light gray and brownish and generally muted in color. Males and females are similar in appearance. The species is generally monogamous, with two squabs (young) per [[offspring|brood]]. Both parents care for the young for a time. The species is a prolific breeder, and pairs will often have several broods per year. In warm areas, one pair may have up to six broods a year. Mourning Doves eat mainly seeds, including those of both native and introduced plants.

==Taxonomy and distribution==

[[Image:Mourningdovesky.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mourning Dove perched on a wire.]]

The Mourning Dove has a large [[range (biology)|range]] of nearly 11&nbsp;million square kilometers (6.8&nbsp;million square miles).<ref name="Birdlife International">{{cite web | url= http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=2554&m=0 | title= Mourning Dove - BirdLife Species Factsheet | author= [[Birdlife International]]| accessdate=2006-10-08}}</ref> The species is resident throughout the [[Greater Antilles]], most of [[Mexico]], the [[Continental United States]],extreme southern [[Canada]] and Eastern [[Canada]] . Much of southern Canada and the extreme northern central United States sees these birds in summer, and Central America sees them in winter.<ref name="NRCS p2">{{cite web | url= http://www.sc.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/Dick%20Yetter%20Information/Tech%20Notes%20for%20Web%20Site/Biology%20Tech%20Note_31_MourningDove.pdf |title=Mourning Dove ''(Zenaida macroura)''|format = PDF | page=2 | publisher=National Resources Conservation Services (NRCS) | work=Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management leaflet '''31''' | year=2006 |month=February |accessdate=2006-10-08}}</ref> The species is a [[Vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] in northern Canada, Alaska,<ref name=Kaufman>{{cite book|title=Lives of North American Birds|author=Kenn Kaufman|year=1996|pages=293|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|id=ISBN 0-395-77017-3}}</ref> and South America.<ref name=AOU>{{cite web|work=A classification of the bird species of South America|author=South American Classification Committee

American Ornithologists' Union|title=Part 3. Columbiformes to Caprimulgiformes|url=http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~remsen/SACCBaseline03.html|accessdate=2006-10-11}}</ref> There are very rare occurrences of this species in western Europe, such as the one report from Great Britain.<ref name="National Geographic">{{cite book|title=National Geographic Complete Birds of North America|pages=303|editor=Jonathan Alderfer||id=ISBN 0-7922-4175-4}}</ref> In 1963, the Mourning Dove was [[introduced species|introduced]] to [[Hawaii]]. As of 1998 there is a small population in [[North Kona, Hawaii|North Kona]].<ref name=Checklist224>{{cite web|url=http://www.aou.org/checklist/pdf/AOUchecklistPter-Apod.pdf|pages=224|title=Check-list of North American Birds|year=1998|publisher=[[American Ornithologists' Union]]|accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref> Since the Socorro Dove was extirpated from [[Socorro Island|that island]], the Mourning Dove has started appearing there since at least 1988.<ref name=Checklist225>{{cite web|url=http://www.aou.org/checklist/pdf/AOUchecklistPter-Apod.pdf|pages=225|title=Check-list of North American Birds|year=1998|publisher=[[American Ornithologists' Union]]|accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>

The Mourning Dove occupies most possible habitats, including urban areas, farms, prairie, grassland, and lightly wooded areas. It avoids [[swamp]]s and thick [[forest]].<ref name="Kaufman"/>

Most Mourning Doves [[bird migration|migrate]] along [[flyway]]s that are mainly over land. [[Spring (season)|Spring]] migration north runs late [[March (month)|March]] to May. [[Fall]] migration south runs from late August to November.<ref name="NRCS p2"/> Migration is usually during the day in flocks.<ref name=Kaufman/> Birds in Canada migrate the farthest, probably wintering in Mexico or further south. Those that spend the summer further south are more sedentary, with much shorter migrations. At the southern part of their range, Mourning Doves are present year-round.<ref name="National Geographic"/>

The Mourning Dove is closely related to the [[Eared Dove]] (''Zenaida auriculata'') and the [[Socorro Dove]] (''Zenaida graysoni''). Some authorities describe them as forming a superspecies and these three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genus ''Zenaidura'',<ref name="AOU"/> but the current classification has them among the other species in the genus ''[[Zenaida]]''. In addition, the Socorro Dove has at times been considered conspecific with the Mourning Dove, although several differences in behavior, call, and appearance justify separation as two different species.<ref name=Checklist225/> While the three species do form a subgroup of ''Zenaida'', using a separate genus would interfere with the [[monophyly]] of ''Zenaida'' by making it [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]].<ref name="AOU"/>

There are five [[subspecies]] of Mourning Dove:

*Eastern ''Z. m. carolinensis'' (Linnaeus, 1766)

*Clarion Island ''Z. m. clarionensis'' (C.H.Townsend, 1890)

*West Indian ''Z. m. macroura'' (Linnaeus, 1758)

*Western ''Z. m. marginella'' (Woodhouse, 1852)

*Panama ''Z. m. turturilla'' Wetmore, 1956

The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap a little, with three in the United States or Canada.<ref name="National Geographic"/> The West Indian subspecies is found throughout the [[Greater Antilles]].<ref name="NRCS p3">NRCS p3</ref> It has recently invaded the [[Florida Keys]].<ref name="National Geographic"/> The Eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America, as well as [[Bermuda]] and the [[Bahamas]]. The Western subspecies is found in western North America and parts of Mexico. Most [[Canada|Canadian]] birds are also of the Western subspecies. The Panamanian subspecies is located in [[Central America]]. The Clarion Island subspecies is found only on [[Clarion Island]], just off the Pacific coast of Mexico.<ref name="NRCS p3"/>

The Mourning Dove is sometimes called the '''American Mourning Dove''' to distinguish it from the distantly related [[African Mourning Dove]] (''Streptopelia decipiens'').<ref name="AOU"/> It was also formerly known as the '''Carolina Turtledove''' or '''Carolina Pigeon'''.<ref name="Birds of America">{{cite book|title=[[Birds of America]]|author=[[John James Audubon]]|chapter=Plate CCLXXXVVI|url=http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/VolV/00506.html|accessdate=2006-10-18}}</ref> The species' scientific name was bestowed in 1838 by French zoologist Charles L. Bonaparte in honor of his wife, Princess Zénaide.<ref>"100 Birds and How They Got Their Names, by Diana Wells (Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2002) p.193)</ref> The "mourning" part of its [[common name]] comes from its call.<ref name=Encyclopedia>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pigeon|encyclopedia=Encarta Online|publisher=Microsoft|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569160/Pigeon.html|accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref>

==Description==

[[Image:Zenaida macroura1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A Mourning Dove standing on a tree stump]]

The Mourning Dove is a medium-sized, slender dove approximately 31&nbsp;[[centimeter|cm]] (12&nbsp;[[inch|in]]) in length. The [[bird flight|elliptical wings]] are broad, and the head is rounded. Its tail is long and tapered. Mourning Doves have [[perching]] feet, with three toes forward and one reversed. The legs are short and reddish colored. The [[beak]] is short and darkish.<ref name="National Geographic"/>

[[Image:Zenaida_macroura_and_rule.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Z. macroura'' composited with centimeter rule]]

The [[plumage]] is generally light gray-brown and lighter and pinkish below. The wings have black spotting, and the outer tail [[feather]]s are white, contrasting with the black inners. Below the eye is a distinctive crescent-shaped area of dark feathers. The eyes are dark, with bluish skin surrounding them.<ref name="National Geographic"/> The adult male has bright purple-pink patches on the neck sides, with light pink coloring reaching the breast. Females are similar in appearance, but with more gray coloring. Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance, and are generally darker.<ref name="National Geographic"/>

This species' [[bird song|call]] is a distinctive, plaintive ''cooOOoo-coo-coo-coo''. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound.<ref name="National Geographic"/>

All five subspecies of the Mourning Dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable.<ref name="National Geographic"/> The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings, and is darker and more buff-colored than the "average" Mourning Dove. ''Z. m. carolinensis'' has longer wings and toes, a shorter beak, and is darker in color. The Western subspecies has longer wings, a longer beak, shorter toes, and is more muted and lighter in color. The Panama Mourning Dove has shorter wings and legs, a longer beak, and is grayer in color. The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet, a larger beak, and is darker brown in color.<ref name="NRCS p3"/>

==Reproduction==

[[Image:Mourning_dove_mating.jpg|thumb|Mourning Doves mating]]

[[Courtship#Courtship in the animal kingdom|Courtship]] begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will often [[preening|preen]] each other's feathers.<ref name=Kaufman/>

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give it to the female, who then builds it into the nest.<ref name=Cornell>{{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Mourning_Dove_dtl.html|title=Mourning Dove|publisher=[[Cornell University|Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology|accessdate=2006-10-18}}</ref> The nest is constructed of twigs, [[Pinophyta#Foliage|conifer needle]]s, or [[Poaceae#Structure_and_growth|grass blades]], and is of very flimsy construction.<ref name="NRCS p3"/> These birds will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other Mourning Doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals like [[squirrel]]s.<ref name="NRCS p4">NRCS p. 4</ref>

Most nests are in [[trees]], both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found in [[shrub]]s, [[vine]]s, or on artificial constructs like [[buildings]],<ref name="NRCS p3"/> or hanging flower pots.<ref name=Cornell/> When there is no suitable elevated object, Mourning Doves will nest on the ground.<ref name="NRCS p3"/>

The clutch size is almost always two [[egg (biology)|eggs]].<ref name=Cornell/> Sometimes, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair.<ref name="NRCS p1">NRCS p. 1</ref> The eggs are small and white-colored. Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female at night and the rest of the day. Mourning Doves are devoted parents; nests are very rarely left unattended by their parents.<ref name=Cornell/>

<center>

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! colspan=4| Hatching and growth

|-

|[[Image:DSC00448-2.JPG|150px|thumb|An egg in a nest|center]]

|[[Image:Mourning_Dove_Nesting_20060630.JPG|thumb|150px|Nesting in progress|center]]

|[[Image:Mourning_Dove_Chicks_20060701.JPG|thumb|150px|Squabs|center]]

|[[Image:Zenaida_macroura2.jpg|150px|thumb|A juvenile|center]]

|}

</center>

[[Avian incubation|Incubation]] takes approximately two weeks. Mourning Doves are strongly [[altricial]], with the young, called squabs, being helpless at hatching and covered with [[down feathers|down]].<ref name="Cornell"/> Both parents feed the squabs [[crop milk|pigeon's milk]] (dove's milk) for the first few days of life. The crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds and adult foods. [[Fledging]] takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food.<ref name="NRCS p4"/> They will stay nearby to be fed for up to a few weeks after fledging.<ref name=Kaufman/>

Mourning Doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season.<ref name="Kaufman"/> This fast breeding is essential for the survival of the species as mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.<ref name="NRCS p1"/>

The Mourning Dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds.<ref name="NRCS p1"/> Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season, or sometimes may remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.

==Ecology and behaviour==

[[Image:Mourning Dove-27527.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A Mourning Dove perched on a tree branch.]]

Mourning Doves eat almost exclusively [[seed]]s, which make up more than 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat [[snail]]s or [[insect]]s. Mourning Doves generally eat enough to fill their [[crop (anatomy)|crops]] and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as fine [[gravel]] or [[sand]] to assist with [[digestion]]. The species usually forages on the ground, including at [[bird feeder]]s.<ref name="Kaufman"/> At bird feeders, Mourning Doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference for corn, [[millet]], [[safflower]], and [[sunflower]] seeds. Mourning Doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, instead eating what is readily visible.<ref name="NRCS p3"/> They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.<ref name=Kaufman/>

Mourning Doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others include [[pine]] nuts, [[sweetgum]] seeds, and the seeds of [[pokeberry]], [[amaranth]], [[canary grass]], [[maize|corn]], [[sesame seed|sesame]], and [[wheat]].<ref name="NRCS p3"/> When their favorite foods are absent, Mourning Doves will eats the seeds of other plants, including [[buckwheat]], [[rye]], [[goosegrass]] and [[smartweed]].<ref name="NRCS p3"/>

Mourning Doves can be afflicted with several different [[parasite]]s and [[animal diseases|diseases]], including [[tapeworm]]s, [[nematode]]s, [[mite]]s, and [[bird louse|lice]]. The mouth-dwelling parasite ''[[Trichomonas gallinae]]'' is particularly severe. While a Mourning Dove will sometimes host it without symptoms, it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually [[starvation|starve]] the host to death. [[Avian pox]] is a common, insect-[[vector (biology)|vectored]] disease.<ref name="NRCS p6">NRCS p. 6</ref>

The primary predators of this species are diurnal [[bird of prey|birds of prey]], such as [[falcon]]s and [[hawk]]s. During nesting, [[corvid]]s, [[grackle]]s, [[housecat]]s, or [[rat snake]]s will prey on their eggs.<ref name="NRCS p1"/> [[Cowbird]]s rarely [[brood parasitism|parasitize]] Mourning Dove nests. Mourning Doves reject slightly under a third of Cowbird eggs in such nests, and the Mourning Dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds.<ref name="Peer and Bollinger">{{cite web | url= http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v115n04/p1057-p1062.pdf | title= Rejection of Cowbird eggs by Mourning Doves: A manifestation of nest usurpation? | format=PDF | work=[[The Auk]] | date= October 1998 | author= Brian Peer | coauthors= Eric Bollinger | accessdate=2006-10-27}}</ref>

==Conservation status==

The number of individual Mourning Doves is estimated by [[Birdlife International]] to be around 130 million. The large population, as well as its vast range, are the reasons why the Mourning Dove is considered to be of [[least concern]], meaning that the species is not at immediate risk.<ref name="Birdlife International"/> As a [[game (food)|gamebird]], the Mourning Dove is well-managed, with roughly 45 million shot by hunters each year.<ref name="National Geographic"/> There is some evidence of a decline in western areas of its range.<ref name=Cornell/>

The species does very well in areas altered by humans. As settlers and immigrants cleared the forests that once blanketed much of North America and started growing crops, new habitats for the Mourning Dove opened up.<ref name="Kaufman"/> It is one of the most common birds in North America.

==As a symbol and in the arts==

The Eastern Mourning Dove (''Z. m. carolinensis'') is [[Wisconsin]]'s official [[symbol]] of peace.<ref name="Wisconsin">{{cite web|author=Government of Wisconsin|url=http://www.wisconsin.gov/state/core/wisconsin_state_symbols.html|title=State Symbols|accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref> However, it is ironically also legal to hunt the Mourning Dove in Wisconsin.<ref name="Hunt">{{cite web|author=Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources|url=http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/wildlife/hunt/dove/index.htm|title=Mourning Dove|accessdate=2007-07-11}}</ref> The bird is also [[Michigan]]'s state bird of peace.<ref name="USA Today">{{cite news | title= Dove hunting finds place on Mich. ballot | author= Tamara Audi |url= http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-10-16-dove-hunting_x.htm | publisher= [[USA Today]] | accessdate=2006-10-25|date=2006-10-16}}</ref>

[[Image:Audubon carolina pigeon.jpg|thumb|Audubon's Carolina pigeon]]

The Mourning Dove appears, as the Carolina Turtle-Dove, on plate 286 of [[John James Audubon|Audubon]]'s ''[[Birds of America]]''.<ref name="Birds of America"/> A painting of the Mourning Dove is part of the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]'s [[Wildlife Portrait Series]].

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

*{{ITIS|ID=177125|taxon=Zenaida macroura|year=2006|date=February 9}}

==External links==

{{commons|Zenaida macroura}}

{{Wikispecies|Zenaida macroura|Mourning Dove}}

{{featured article}}

*[http://www.dlia.org/atbi/species/Animalia/Chordata/Aves/Columbiformes/Columbidae/Zenaida_macroura.shtml More detailed information about breeding/nesting habits]

*[http://www.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=1829 Mourning Doves on the Internet Bird Collection]

*[http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i3160id.html USGS page]

*[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/BOW/MOUDOV/ Information from Cornell Lab of Ornithology]

*[http://www.sdakotabirds.com/species/mourning_dove_info.htm South Dakota Birds page]

[[Category:Zenaida]]

[[Category:Game birds]]

[[Category:Birds of North America|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Central America|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of the Bahamas|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of the Cayman Islands|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Cuba|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of the Dominican Republic|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Haiti|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Jamaica|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of the Greater Antilles|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of the Turks and Caicos Islands|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Birds of Colombia|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Fauna of the United States|Dove, Mourning]]

[[Category:Introduced birds|Dove, Mourning]]

[[de:Carolinataube]]

[[es:Zenaida macroura]]

[[fr:Tourterelle triste]]

[[nah:Huilōtl]]

[[ja:ナゲキバト]]

[[sv:Spetsstjärtad duva]]