Peter Drummond-Murray of Mastrick and History of Islam: Difference between pages
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
removed redundant cat |
|||
Line 1:
{{Islam}}'''Muslim history''' began in [[Arabia]] with [[Muhammad]]'s first recitations of the Qur'an in the [[7th century]]. Islam's historical development has affected political, economic, and military trends both inside and outside the [[Islamic world]]. As with [[Christendom]], the concept of an ''Islamic world'' is useful in looking at different periods of human history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ''[[ummah]]'', on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries.
==Background==
Within a century of Muhammad's final recitations of the [[Qur'an]], an Islamic state stretched from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to [[Central Asia]] in the east. This new polity soon broke into a civil war known to Islamic historians as the [[Fitna]], and later affected by a [[Second Fitna]]. Through its history, there would be rival dynasties claiming the [[caliphate]], or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states and empires offered only token obedience to a [[caliph]] unable to unify the Islamic world.
The subsequent empires of the [[Ummayyads]], [[Abbasids]], the [[Mughal]]s, and the [[Seljukids|Seljuk Turk]], [[Safavid]] [[Persia]] and [[Ottoman empire|Ottomans]] were among the largest and most powerful in the world. People in the Islamic world made many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophers]] during the [[Golden Age of Islam]]. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; stress on the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
In the 18th and 19th centuries A.D., Islamic regions fell under the sway of European imperial powers. Following World War I, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European [[protectorates]]. Since then, no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans) remained.
Although affected by various ideologies, such as [[communism]], during much of the twentieth century, Islamic identity and Islam's salience on political questions have arguably increased during the late [[twentieth century]] and early [[twenty-first century]]. Rapid growth, western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and [[globalization]] influenced Islam's importance in shaping the world of the [[twenty-first century]].
==Note on early Islamic historiography==
There are several Muslim versions of [[Historiography of early Islam|early Islamic history]] as written by the [[Sunni]], [[Shi'a]], and [[Ibadi]] sects. Nineteenth century Western scholars tended to privilege the Sunni versions; the Sunni are the largest sect, and their books and scholars were easily available. Over the last hundred years, Western scholars have become much more willing to question the orthodox view and to advance new theories and new narratives.
==Muhammad==
[[Image:ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG|thumb|right|By his death in [[632]], Muhammad had managed to unite the entire Arabian peninsula.]]
{{main|Muhammad}}
Arabia before Muhammad was scantily populated by various [[Arabic]]-speaking people. Some were [[Bedouin]], pastoral [[nomad]]s organized in tribes. Some were agriculturalists, living either in oases in the north, or in the more fertile and thickly settled areas to the south (now [[Yemen]] and [[Oman]]). At that time the majority of Arabs followed [[polytheistic]] [[religion]]s, although a few tribes followed [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] (including [[Nestorianism|Nestorians]]) or [[Zoroastrianism]]. The city [[Mecca]] was a religious center for some of the northern Arabian polytheists, as it contained the sacred well of [[Zamzam]] and a small temple, the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]].
Muhammad was born on the outskirts of Mecca in the [[Islamic calendar#Numbering the years|Year of the Elephant]]. Most Muslims equate this with the Gregorian year [[570]] but a few prefer [[571]]. He was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his uncle [[Abu Talib]]. He became a merchant, married a wealthy widow and could have looked forward to a life of ease and prosperity.
However, when he was some forty years old, he received a revelation while he was meditating in a cave outside Mecca. This would have been in 610 A.D. After an initial period of doubt and fear, he started to preach to his kinfolk and then in public, to all Meccans.
Muhammad claimed that he had been chosen by [[God]], like the [[Table of Prophets of Abrahamic Religions|Abrahamic religions prophets]] (Moses, Elijah, etc.) before him, to preach the absolute oneness of God, repentance, submission to God, and a coming day of judgment. He said he was not preaching a new religion, just reviving the old and pure tradition which the Christians and Jews had debased.
In 615 C.E. a band of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to [[Ethiopia]], which was ruled by a Christian king. In 622 Muhammad and many of his followers fled to the neighboring city of [[Yathrib]], which later became known as [[Medina]]. This migration is called the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]''; it was the first year of Muhammad's reign as a political as well as a religious leader. Following the custom of the time, later historians took that year as the start of the [[Muslim calendar]].
The two cities of Mecca and Medina went to war. Muhammad and his followers won one battle ([[Battle of Badr]]) and managed to stalemate a Meccan attack in the [[Battle of the Trench]]. Through conquest and conversion, Muhammad was able to unite the surrounding tribes behind him and eventually assembled such a large force that Mecca capitulated without a fight. By the time Muhammad died, on [[June 8]], [[632]], he and his followers had united the entire [[Arabian peninsula]] under Islam, and had started to expand into the areas now known as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]].
==Early Caliphs==
{{Main|Caliph|Arab Empire|Islamic Golden Age}}
After Prophet Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. These first Caliphs are popularly known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly-guided" Caliphs. After the [[Rashidun]], a series of [[Caliph]]ates were established. Each [[caliphate]] was a monarchy, developed its own unique laws and adopted a particular sect of Islam as a State religion. Until the ninth century the [[Muslim World]] would remain a single political entity under the leadership of one [[Caliph]]. The early [[Caliphate]] is also known as the [[Arab Empire]] or Islamic Empire.
===Al-Rashidun - The Four "Rightly-Guided" Caliphs===
{{main|Rashidun|Muslim conquests}}
[[Image:Rashidmap.gif|thumb|right|The Rashidun made significant conquests, and brought large areas under the fold of Islam.]]
With the Prophet Muhammad's death in [[632]], there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Medinese [[Ansar]] and the Meccan [[Muhajirun]] as to who would undertake this task, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent [[sahaba|companion]] of Prophet Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]]: Prophet Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator.<ref name="CHI57">Holt (1977a), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [[caliph]], literally "successor", leader of the community of Islam.
Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge the recent defeat by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (also known as the Eastern [[Roman Empire]]) forces, although a more potent threat soon surfaced in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the death of Prophet Muhammad. Some of these tribes refused to pay the [[Zakat]] tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly [[Declaration of war|declared war]] upon, and subdued these tribes, in the period of time known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
Abu Bakr's death in [[634]] resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, and after him, [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], and then [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]. These four are known as the "''khulafa rashidūn''" ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").<ref>Holt (1977a), p.74</ref> Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] empires during the [[Roman-Persian Wars]] had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> Not only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the growing new power, especially their excellent military leaders, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] and [[‘Amr ibn al-‘As]], as well as the Arabs' superior [[horses in warfare|military horsemanship]]. This, coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within [[Byzantium]] and its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions somewhat favorable for the Muslims.
At the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] (636), Muslim armies led by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] won a crushing victory over the [[Byzantines]], thus paving the way for the [[Muslim conquest of Syria|conquest of Roman Syria]] and [[Palestine]] (634—[[640]]) and [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Roman Egypt]] ([[639]]—[[642]]). After a decisive victory over the [[Sassanid Empire]] at the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] in 637, Muslims [[Islamic conquest of Persia|conquered the Persian Empire]], including [[Iraq]]. Five years later, after a revolt during the [[Battle of Nihawānd]], the conquest of Persia was effectively complete.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/><ref>Hart (1978), p. 274</ref> Conquest also included the lands of [[Armenia]] ([[642]]) and even as far as [[Transoxiana]] and [[Xinjiang|Chinese Turkestan]].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> Depopulation and decline caused by the [[Plague of Justinian]] may have contributed to the success of the [[Byzantine-Arab Wars|Arabs]].[http://www.justiniansflea.com/events.htm]
====The First ''Fitna''====
{{main|First Islamic civil war}}
Despite the military successes of the Muslims at this time, the political atmosphere was not without controversy. With Umar assassinated in [[644]], [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with gradually increasing opposition.<ref name="CHI67">Holt (1977a), p.67</ref> He was subsequently accused of [[nepotism]], [[Elitism|favoritism]] and of introducing reprehensible [[Bidah|religious innovation]]s, though in reality the motivations for such charges were economic.<ref name="CHI67"/> Like Umar, Uthman too was then assassinated, in [[656]]. Ali then assumed the position of caliph, although tensions soon escalated into what became the "[[First Fitna]]" (first civil war]] when numerous companions of Muhammad, including Uthman's relative [[Muawiyah]] (who was assigned by Uthman as governor of Syria) and Muhammad's wife [[Aisha]], sought to avenge the slaying of Uthman. Ali's forces defeated the latter at the [[Battle of the Camel]], but the [[Battle of Siffin|encounter with Muawiyah]] proved indecisive, with both sides agreeing to arbitration. Ali retained his position as caliph but had been unable to bring Mu'awiyah's territory under his command.<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.68-72</ref> When Ali was fatally stabbed by a [[Khawarij]]ite dissenter in [[661]], Mu'awiyah was ordained as the caliph, marking the start of the hereditary [[Ummayad caliphate]].<ref>Holt (1977a), p.72</ref>
===Umayyads===
{{Main|Umayyad}}
[[Image:Califate 750.jpg|thumb|260px|The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750]]
The first [[Ummayad caliphate|Ummayad caliph]], [[Muawiya I]], was able to conquer much of [[North Africa]], mainly through the efforts of Muslim general [[Uqba ibn Nafi]].<ref>Holt (1977a), p.79</ref> There was much contention surrounding Mu'awiyah's assignment of his son [[Yazid I|Yazid]] as successor upon the eve of his death in [[680]],<ref>Holt (1977a), p.80</ref> drawing protest from [[Husayn bin Ali]], grandson of Muhammad, and [[Ibn az-Zubayr]], a companion of Muhammad. Both led separate and ultimately unsuccessful revolts, and Ummayad attempts to pacify them became known as the "[[Second Fitna]]". Thereafter, the Ummayad dynasty continued rulership for a further seventy years (with caliph [[Umar II]]'s tenure especially notable<ref>Holt (1977a), p.92</ref>), and were able to conquer the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]] ([[699]]—[[705]]), as well as [[Spain]] and the [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] at a similar date.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>
Under the Ummayads, the Muslim world expanded into [[North Africa]] and [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] in the West, and [[Central Asia]] in the East. According to [[Jonathan Bloom]] and [[Sheila Blair]], "The Muslims, no longer [[Arab]] merchants from the heartland of Arabia, became masters of the economic and cultural heartland of the Near East, and their faith, [[Islam]], was no longer as obscure Arabian cult but the religion of an imperial elite."<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 50</ref>
Much of the population of this new empire was non-Muslim, and aside from a protection tax (''[[jizya]]'') and [[dhimmi|other restrictions]], the conquered people found their religions tolerated. Indeed, Muslim authorities often discouraged conversions. Nevertheless, most of the population eventually converted to Islam, which created tension as greater numbers of non-Arabs (mostly Persians) converted. The tensions increased when [[Shiites]] joined the protest against Ummayad rule.<ref>Nasr (2003), p.119</ref>
Umayyad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the [[Second Fitna]]) in the early 680s, re-established, then ended in 750.
===Abbasids===
{{Main|Abbasid}}
The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the [[Abbasid]] dynasty rose to power in [[750]], with the conquest of the [[List of islands in the Mediterranean|Mediterranean islands]] including the [[Balearics]] and [[Sicily]].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> The new [[ruling party]] had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured mainly by the Abbasid revolutionary, [[Abu Muslim]].<ref>Lewis (1993), p.84</ref><ref>Holt (1977a), p.105</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic [[Arabic literature|prose]] and [[Arabic poetry|poetry]], termed by ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' as its "[[Golden Age of Islam|golden age]]."<ref>Holt (1977b), pp.661-663</ref> This was also the case for commerce, industry, the arts and sciences, which prospered especially under the rule of Abbasid caliphs [[al-Mansur]] (ruled [[754]]—[[775]]), [[Harun al-Rashid]] (ruled [[786]]—[[809]]), and [[al-Ma'mun]] (ruled [[809]]—[[813]]).<ref name="B.a-d">"Abbasid Dynasty", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)</ref>
[[Image:Mosque of Córdoba Spain.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Interior of the [[Mezquita]] in [[Córdoba, Spain]], a [[Roman Catholic]] [[cathedral]] which was formerly a mosque, the construction of which began in [[784]] under Abd ar-Rahman I, who fled Damascus during the Abbasid revolution.]]
[[Baghdad]] was made the new capital of the caliphate (moved from the previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in [[Persia]] and Transoxania.<ref name="B.a-d" /> It was at this time, however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and the uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, [[Abd ar-Rahman I]], was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there, in [[756]]. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab [[Aghlabid]]s as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was short lived, as they were deposed by the [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]] dynasty in [[909]]. By around [[960]], the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a new capital there in [[973]] called "''al-Qahirah''" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as [[Cairo]]). Similar was the case in Persia, where the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Ghaznavid]]s managed to snatch power from the Abbasids.<ref name="B-I">"Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)</ref><ref name="AHGC">{{cite web | author=Applied History Research Group | publisher=University of Calagary | url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html | title=The Islamic World to 1600 | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref> Whatever [[temporal power]] of the Abbasids remained had eventually been consumed by the [[Seljuq Turks]] (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia), in [[1055]].<ref name="B.a-d" />
During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful [[Dawah|proselytism]].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> The first stage in the [[Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent|conquest of India]] began just before the year [[1000]]. By some 200 (from [[1193]]—[[1209]]) years later, the area up to the [[Ganges river]] had been conquered. In sub-Saharan [[West Africa]], it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in [[Kanem Region|Kanem]] starting from sometime between [[1081]] to [[1097]], with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of [[Gao]] as early as [[1009]]. The [[Mali Empire|Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali]] reached prominence later, in the 13th century.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>
During the Abbasid reign, [[Baghdad]] became one of the greatest cultural centers of the world.
The [[Abbasids]] were said to be descendents of Abbas the uncle of the Prophet claiming that they were the 'messiha' or saviours of the people under the [[Ummayad]] rule.
Abbasid caliphs [[Harun al-Rashid]] and [[Al-Mamun]] were great patrons of arts and sciences, and enabled these domains to flourish.
Islamic philosophy also developed as the [[Shariah]] was codified, and the four [[Madhabs]] were established. This era also saw the rise of classical [[Sufism]]. The greatest achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of [[Hadith]] of [[Sahih Bukhari]] and others.<ref>Nasr (2003), p.121</ref>
== Regional powers ==
The Abbasids soon became caught within a three-way rivalry of Arabs, Persians and the immigrant Turks.<ref>Nasr (2003), p. 121-122</ref> In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.<ref> Lapidus (1988), p.129</ref> The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The Emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of rival caliphates. Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the [[Buwayhid]] emirs. During this time, great advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy science and mathematics.
===Spain & the Umayyads===
The Arabs first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 710 and created a province under the Caliphate which extended as far as the north of the peninsula.<ref name="Hourani 1"> Hourani, pg.41</ref> After the Abbasids came to power, some Ummayads fled to Muslim [[Al-Andalus|Spain]] and established themselves in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III (912-61) took over the title of caliph, and established with it a caliphate parallel to the one in [[Baghdad]]. A large number of Berbers from Morocco migrated to Andalus, but also large numbers of Jews and Christians lived alongside Muslims.
"Toleration, a common language and a long tradition of separate rule all helped to create a distinctive Andalusian consciousness and society. Its Islamic religious culture developed on rather different lines from those of the eastern countries."<ref name="Hourani 2"> Hourani, pg.43</ref>
During the 11th century, the Umayyad kingdom of al-Andalus broke down into small kingdoms, which in the end built the preconditions for the [[Reconquista|Christian reconquest]].<ref name="Hourani 4"> Hourani, pg.85</ref> The latter re-established Christian rule more and more southwards, ending all Muslim rule in 1492 with the reconquest of the kingdom of Granada.<ref name="Hourani 5"> Hourani, pg.86</ref>
===The Fatimids===
The [[Fatimids]], (Fatimid Caliphate), who are believed to be the descendants of ''[[Fatima]]'', is the [[Ismaili|Shi'a Ismaili]] dynasty that ruled from [[5 January]] [[910]] to [[1171]]. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the [[Ismaili]] branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were also [[Imamah (Shi'a Ismaili doctrine)|Shia Ismaili Imams]], hence, they had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims.
The [[Fatimids]] established sovereignty over [[Egypt]], North Africa, [[Sicily]] and [[Syria]]. Under the Fatimids, the city of [[Cairo]] was established and built into an imperial military and cultural center.
The Fatimid territories of Syria and Palestine fell to the invading [[Seljuks]] in the late eleventh century. They would, however, continue to rule in Egypt until its conquest by [[Saladin]] in the late twelfth century.
===The Seljuks===
A series of new invasions swept over the Islamic world. The newly converted [[Seljuk Turks]] swept across and conquered most of Islamic Asia, Syria and Palestine. The Seljuks made religion an instrument of the state, while giving the clergy significant say over the affairs of the government. They also put an end to Caliphal institutions. These policies would be carried out by successive governments of [[Nur al-Din]], [[Saladin]] and [[Mamluks]].
Shortly after, they won a decisive victory over the Eastern Romans, or Byzantines, at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], paving the way for further conquest of Christian Roman [[Anatolia]].
===The Crusaders===
Beginning in the 8th century the [[Christian]] kingdoms of [[Spain in the Middle Ages|Spain]] had begun the [[Reconquista]] aimed at retaking [[Al-Andalus]] from the [[Moors]]. In [[1095]], [[Pope Urban II]], inspired by the perceived holy wars in Spain and implored by the [[Alexios I Komnenos|eastern Roman emperor]] to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the [[First Crusade]] from Western Europe which captured Edessa, [[Antioch]], [[Tripoli]] and [[Jerusalem]]. The Christian [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] emerged and for a time controlled many [[Holy Land#Islam|holy sites of Islam]]. [[Saladin]], however, restored unity, defeated the Fatimids and put an end to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in [[1187]].
Other crusades were launched with at least the nominal intent to recapture the holy city and other holy lands, but hardly more was ever accomplished than the errant looting and occupation of Christian [[Constantinople]], leaving the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire severely weakened and ripe for later conquest. However, the crusaders did manage to weaken Muslim territories preventing them from further expansion into Christendom.
===The Mamluks===
In 1250, the short-lived [[Ayyubid]] dynasty (established by [[Saladin]]) was overthrown by slave regiments, and a new dynasty - the [[Mamluks]] - was born. The Mamluks soon expanded into Palestine, expelled the remaining Crusader states and repelled the Mongols from invading Syria. Thus they united [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] for the longest period of time between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250-1517).<ref name="Hourani"> Hourani, pg.85</ref>
==Islam in Africa==
{{Main|Islam in Africa}}
The first continent outside of Arabia to have an Islamic history was [[Africa]] beginning with the hijirah to [[Ethiopia]]. Islam in Ethiopia can be dated back to the founding of the religion; in 615, when a band of Muslims were counseled by the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia, which was ruled by, in the Prophet Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king. Moreover, Islamic tradition states that Bilal, one of the foremost companions of the Prophet Muhammad, was from Ethiopia.
===Islam in Maghreb===
The '''Maghreb''' meaning "place of [[sunset]]" or "[[west]]ern" in Arabic, is the region of [[Africa]] north of the [[Sahara]] Desert and west of the [[Nile]] — specifically, coinciding with the [[Atlas Mountains]]. Geopolitically, the area includes [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Libya]], [[Western Sahara]], and sometimes [[Mauritania]], which is often placed in [[West Africa]] instead. This part of Islamic territory has independent governments during most part of history of Islam. There were some great governments.
'''[[Idrisid dynasty]]''' The '''Idrisids''' were the first Arab dynasty in the western [[Maghreb]], ruling from [[788]] to [[985]]. The dynasty is named after its first [[sultan]] [[Idris I]].
'''[[Almoravid dynasty]]''' was a [[Berber people|Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] that flourished over a wide area of [[North Africa|North-Western Africa]] and the [[Iberian peninsula]] during the [[11th century]]. Under this dynasty the [[Moorish]] empire was extended over present-day [[Morocco]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Tlemcen]] (in [[Algeria]]) and a great part of what is now [[Senegal]] and [[Mali]] in the south, and [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] in the north.
'''[[Almohad Dynasty]]''' or "the Unitarians," were a [[Berber people|Berber]] Muslim [[religion|religious]] power which founded the fifth [[Moorish]] [[dynasty]] in the [[12th century]], and conquered all northern [[Africa]] as far as [[Egypt]], together with [[Al-Andalus]].
===Islam in East Africa===
There were Islamic governments in [[Tanzania]].
===Islam in West Africa===
[[Usman dan Fodio]] after the [[Fulani War]], found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the [[Fulani Empire]]. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government, one grounded in Islamic law. Already aged at the beginning of the war, dan Fodio retired in [[1815]] passing the title of [[Sokoto Caliphate|Sultan of Sokoto]] to his son [[Muhammed Bello]].
{{sect-stub}}
==Islam in Asia==
{{main|Islam in Asia}}
===Indian Subcontinent===
{{main|Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent}}
:''See also: [[Islam in India]], [[Islam in Pakistan]]''<br>
Islamic rule came to the region in the 8th century, when [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered [[Sindh]], ([[Pakistan]]). Muslim conquests were expanded under [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] and the [[Ghaznavids]] until the late twelfth century, when the [[Ghurids]] overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in northern India. [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]], conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]s.
In the fourteenth century, [[Alauddin Khilji]] extended Muslim rule south to [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Deccan]]. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the [[Qutb Shahi]] and the [[Bahmani]], but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the [[Mughal Empire]] at its peak.
===China===
{{main|Islam in China}}
During the lifetime of Muhammad, Arab merchants reached China via the [[Silk Road]] and introduced Islam. Then, in 650, the third [[Caliph]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], sent an official delegation to the [[Tang dynasty]]. The Chinese emperor ordered the establishment of the first Chinese [[mosque]] in the city of [[Chang'an]], and this event is considered to be the birth of Islam in China. By the early ninth century Islam had reached as far south as [[Hangzhou]].
The Mongol invasions of China and [[Persia]], brought the two regions under a single political entity. This led to increased contacts and cultural exchange between China and the [[Muslim world]]. Following the Mongols, the succeeding [[Ming dynasty]] was also tolerant of Muslims. During its reign, many Muslim attained high posts. These policies were, however, reversed by the [[Qing dynasty]], when it came to power.<ref>Nasr (2003), p. 147</ref>
===Southeast Asia===
{{main|Pasai|Demak Sultanate|Malacca Sultanate}}
:''See also: [[The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)]]''<br>
Islam reached the islands of [[Southeast Asia]] through [[Islam in India|Indian Muslim]] traders near the end of the 13th century.<ref name="AHGC"/> Soon, many [[Sufi]] missionaries translated classical [[Sufi literature]] from Arabic and Persian into [[Malay language|Malay]]. Coupled with the composing of original [[Islamic literature]] in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.<ref>Nasr (2003), p. 143</ref> By 1292, when [[Marco Polo]] visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The [[Sultanate of Malacca]] was founded by [[Parameswara]], a Srivijayan Prince in the Malay peninsula. Through trade and commerce, Islam spread to [[Borneo]] and [[Java, Indonesia]]. By late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the [[Philippines]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
As Islam spread, three main Muslim political powers emerged. [[Aceh]], the most important Muslim power, was based firmly in Northern Sumatra. It controlled much of the area between Southeast Asia and India. The Sultunate also attracted [[Sufi]] poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. The Sultanate of [[Demak]] was the third power emerged in [[Java (island)|Java]], where the Muslim emerging forces defeated the local [[Majapahit]] kingdom in the early 16th century.<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 226-230</ref> Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.<ref name="AHGC"/>
[[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]] forces captured Malacca in [[1511]] under the naval general [[Afonso de Albuquerque]]. With Malacca subdued, [[Aceh Sultanate]] and Brunei established themself as the centre of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei sultanate remains intact even to this day.<ref name="AHGC"/>
==Mongol Invasions==
The wave of [[Mongol invasions]], which had initially commenced in the early [[13th century]] under the leadership of [[Genghis Khan]], marked a violent end to the Abbasid era. The [[Mongol Empire]] had spread rapidly throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of [[Isfahan]] had fallen to them by [[1237]]. With the election of Khan [[Mongke]] in [[1251]], sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, [[Hulegu]], was made the head of the [[Mongol Army]] assigned with the task of subduing Baghdad. This was achieved at the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)]], which saw the Abbasids overrun by the superior Mongol army. The last Abbasid caliph, [[al-Musta'sim]], was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and subsequently destroyed. The cities of Damascus and [[Aleppo]] fell shortly afterwards, in [[1260]]. Any prospective conquest of Egypt was temporarily delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.<ref name="AHGC"/>
With Mongol conquest in the east, the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] ruling over Egypt had been surpassed by the slave-soldier [[Mamluk]]s in [[1250]]. This had been done through the marriage between [[Shajar al-Durr]], the widow of Ayyubid caliph [[al-Salih Ayyub]], with Mamluk general [[Aybak]]. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of Aybak, and the succession of [[Qutuz]] in [[1259]], the Mamluks challenged and decisively routed the Mongols at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in late 1260. This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of [[Homs]] a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.<ref name="AHGC" /> With this, the Mamluks were also able to conquer the last of the crusader territories.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
== Three Muslim empires==
In the [[15th century]] and [[16th century|16th centuries]] three major Muslim empires were created: the aforementioned [[Ottoman Empire]] in much of the [[Middle East]], [[Balkans]] and [[Northern Africa]]; the [[Safavid Empire]] in [[Greater Iran]]; and the [[Mughul Empire]] in [[Greater India]]. These new imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of [[gunpowder]], and more efficient administration.<ref>Armstrong (2000) p. 116</ref> By the end of the [[19th century]], all three had declined significantly, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.
=== Mughal Empire ===
{{main|Mughal Empire}}
The Mughal Empire was a product of various [[Central Asia]]n invasions into the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It was founded by the [[Timurid]] prince [[Babur]] in 1526 with the destruction of the [[Delhi sultanate]], with its capital in [[Agra]]. Babur's death some years later, and the indecisive rule of his son, [[Humayun]], brought a degree of instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the [[Afghani]] [[Sher Shah]], through which a string of defeats had been dealt to Humayun, significantly weakened the Mughals. Just a year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old [[Akbar the Great|Akbar]] (later known as ''Akbar the Great''), in [[1556]]. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms.<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 211-219</ref><ref name="AHGC"/>
The empire ruled most of present-day [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan]] for several centuries, before it declined in the early 18th century, which led to India being divided into smaller kingdoms and princely states. The Mughal dynasty was eventually dissolved by the [[British Empire]] after the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]].<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 211-219</ref><ref name="AHGC"/> It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Amongst the famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: [[Taj Mahal]], [[Red Fort]], [[Badshahi Mosque]], [[Lahore Fort]], [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] and [[Agra Fort]]. During the empire's reign of power, Muslim communities flourished all over India, particularly in [[Gujarat]], [[Bengal]] and [[Hyderabad district (India)|Hyderabad]]. Various Sufi orders from [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]] were very active throughout the region. Consequently, more than a quarter of the population converted to [[Islam]].<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 211-219</ref>
===Safavid Empire===
{{main|Safavids}}
The '''Safavids''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: صفویان) were an [[Iran]]ian dynasty from [[Iranian Azarbaijan]] that ruled from [[1501]] to [[1736]], and which established [[Shi'a]] [[Islam]] as Iran's official religion and united its provinces under a single Iranian sovereignty, thereby reigniting the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] identity.
<br clear="left">
Although claiming to be the descendants of [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], the Safavids were originally [[Sunni]] (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called ''Safavi''). Their origins go back to [[Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah]], an Iranian local dignitary from Iran's north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized [[Shiism]] as the State religion, thus giving [[Iran]] a separate identity from its [[Sunni]] neighbours.
In 1524, [[Tahmasp]] acceded to the throne, initiating reviving arts in the region. Carpet making became a major industry, gaining new importance in [[Iran]]'s cities. But the finest of all artistic revivals was the commissioning of the ''Shahnama''. The ''Shahnama'' was meant to glorify the reign of the ''Shah'' through artistic means. The two-volume copy contained 258 large paintings to illustrate the works of [[Firdawsi]], a Persian poet. The Shah also prohibited the drinking of wine, forbade the use of [[hashish]] and ordered the removal of gambling casinos, taverns and brothels.
[[Tahmasp]]'s grandson, [[Shah Abbas I]], also managed to increase the glory of the empire. Abbas restored the shrine of [[Imam Reza]] at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at [[Ardabil]]. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas also moved the empire's capital to [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], revived old ports, and established thriving trade with the Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of ''[[Naqsh-i Jahan]]'' ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered twenty acres, thus dwarfing [[Piazza San Marco]] and [[St. Peter's Square]].<ref>Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 199-204</ref>
===Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Ottoman Empire}}
The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century, especially after the Mongol invasions in Anatolia.<ref>Holt (1977a), p.263</ref> This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as [[beylik]]s. [[Osman I]], the founder of the [[Ottoman dynasty]], assumed leadership of one of these principalities ([[Söğüt]]) in [[1281]], succeeding his father [[Ertuğrul]]. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in [[1299]], Osman I led it to a series of consecutive victories over the Byzantine Empire.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} By [[1331]], the Ottomans had captured [[Nicaea (city)|Nicaea]], the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, [[Orhan I]].<ref>Koprulu (1992), p.109</ref> Victory at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] against the [[Serb]]s in [[1389]] then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were firmly established in the [[Balkans]] and Anatolia by the time [[Bayezid I]] ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a swiftly growing empire.<ref>Koprulu (1992), p.111</ref>
Further growth was brought to a sudden halt, as Bayezid I had been captured by Mongol warlord [[Timur]] (also known as "''Tamerlane''") in the [[Battle of Ankara]] in [[1402]], upon which a turbulent period known as the [[Ottoman Interregnum]] ensued. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] authority. When a number of the territories recently conquered by the Ottomans regained independent status, potential ruin for the Ottoman Empire became apparent. However, the empire quickly recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, [[Mehmed I]], waged offensive campaigns against his other ruling brothers, thereby reuniting [[Asia Minor]] and declaring himself the new Ottoman sultan in [[1413]].<ref name="AHGC">{{cite web | author=Applied History Research Group | publisher=University of Calagary | url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html | title=The Islamic World to 1600 | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>
[[Image:Suleiman Mosque.jpg|thumb|275px|The [[Suleiman Mosque]] (Süleymaniye Camii) in [[Istanbul]] was built on the order of sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] by the great [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architect [[Sinan]] in [[1557]]]]
At around this time the [[Navy|naval]] fleet of the Ottomans developed considerably, such that they were able to challenge [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], traditionally a naval power. Focus was also directed towards reconquering the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, [[Mehmed II]] (ruled [[1444]]—[[1446]]; [[1451]]—[[1481]]), the Ottomans felt strong enough to lay siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of Byzantium. A decisive factor in this siege was the use of [[Musket|firearm]]s and large [[cannon]]s introduced by the Ottomans (adapted from Europe and improved upon), against which the Byzantines were unable to compete. The Byzantine fortress finally [[Fall of Constantinople|succumbed to the Ottoman invasion]] in [[1453]], 54 days into the siege. Mehmed II, entering the city victorious, renamed it to ''[[Istanbul]]''. With its capital conceded to the Ottomans, the rest of the Byzantine Empire quickly disintegrated.<ref name="AHGC"/> The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend heavily upon the exploitation of [[gunpowder]].<ref>Armstrong (2000), p.116</ref>
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite [[Safavid dynasty]] assumed control in Persia under the leadership of [[Shah]] [[Ismail I]], upon the defeat of the ruling [[Turcoman]] federation [[Aq Qoyunlu]] (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in [[1501]]. The Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] quickly sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] in [[1514]]. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories into the Ottoman Empire in [[1517]]. [[Suleiman I]] (also known as ''Suleiman the Magnificent''), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus against the [[Uzbek]]s on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had previously fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, with their empire rivalling the Ottomans'. Suleiman I also advanced deep into [[Hungary]] following the [[Battle of Mohács]] in [[1526]] — [[Siege of Vienna|reaching as far as the gates of Vienna]] thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with [[Francis I of France]] against [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule ([[1520]]—[[1566]]) signified the height of the Ottoman Empire, after which it fell into gradual decline.<ref name="AHGC"/>
==Wahhabism==
{{main|Wahhabism}}
During the [[18th century]], [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]] ([[1703]]–[[1792]]) led a religious movement ([[Wahhabism]]) in [[Najd]] (central Arabia) that sought to purify Islam. Wahhab wanted to return Islam to what he thought were its original principles as taught by the ''as-salaf as-saliheen'' (the earliest converts to Islam) and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by [[bid‘ah]] (religious innovation) and [[Shirk (polytheism)]]. He allied himself with the [[House of Saud]], which eventually triumphed over the [[Rashidi]]s to control Central Arabia, and led several revolts against the Ottoman empire. Initial success (the conquest of Mecca and Medina) was followed by ignominious defeat, then a resurgence which culminated in the creation of [[Saudi Arabia]].
== The 20th century ==
The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to the many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change.
=== Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Seealso|Ottoman Caliphate|Turkish War of Independence}}
By the end of the [[19th century]], the Ottoman empire had declined due to internal conflict and was later destroyed by Western cultural influence and military ambitions. Following [[World War I]], its remnants were parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}} Ottoman successor states include today's [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Montenegro]], [[Romania]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Serbia]], [[Syria]], [[Transjordan]], [[Turkey]], other Balkan states, [[North Africa]] and the north shore of Black sea.<ref>''Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History'', vol.4, p.1402</ref>
Many Muslim countries sought to imitate European political organization and [[nationalism]] began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]] organized their governments with definable policies and sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like [[Iraq]], were not as successful due to a lack of unity.
Some Muslim countries, such as [[Turkey]] and [[Egypt]], sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], the new government brought out new religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as [[Wahhabism]] which found its way into the [[Saudi royal family]].
===Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan===
{{main|Partition of India}}
The ''partition of India'' refers to the creation in August 1947 of two sovereign states of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The two nations were formed out of the former [[British Raj]], including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see [[Undivided India]]). In particular, the term refers to the partition of [[Bengal]] and [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], the two main provinces of the would be Pakistan.
In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic Country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-WWII state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh.
Today, Pakistan is still the second largest Islamic country in the world. Pakistan is presently the only nuclear power of the Muslim world and is one of the more developed nations among the Muslim countries.
Indonesia is the largest Muslim country in the world, by population. India has the third largest Muslim population, followed by [[Bangladesh]].
===Arab-Israeli conflict===
{{main|Arab-Israeli conflict}}
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]] as a [[Jew]]ish [[Nation-state|nation state]], the consequent [[Palestinian exodus|displacement]] of the [[Palestinians|Palestinian people]], as well as the adverse relationship between the [[Arab]] nations and the state of Israel (see related [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]). Despite initially involving the Arab states, animosity has developed between other [[Muslim world|Muslim nations]] and Israel. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with [[Islam]], [[Arab culture]], [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]], [[Jewish culture]] or for ideological, [[human rights]], or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider [[clash of civilizations]] between the [[Western World]] and the Arab or [[Muslim world]],<ref>[http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue4/jv7n4a6.html Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective] by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal. Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003</ref><ref>[http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict-2.asp#Clash Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion] (Israel Science and Technology)</ref> others oppose this view.<ref>[http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1050 Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century]</ref> Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.
===Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East===
Between [[1953]] and [[1964]], King Saud re-organized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's new ministries included Communication (1953) Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put his Talal, one of his many younger brothers (by 29 years his younger) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud simply forwarded the proposal to the [[Ulema|ulama]] asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea seems to have died in committee, so to speak. It would be revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
Meantime, the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] came into existence in [[1960]]. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was ineffectual in terms of increasing revenue for member nations. But it would have its day. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a final showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. It was Saud who blinked, abdicating and leaving for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.
The 1967 war had other effects. It effectively closed the [[Suez canal]], it may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]] in power, and it led in [[May 1970]] to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through [[Syria]] to [[Lebanon]]. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of the petroleum in [[Libya]], which is a conveniently short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.
In 1970, it was [[Occidental Petroleum]] which constituted the first crack in the wall of oil company solidarity in dealing with the oil producing nations; specifically, in this case, with the demands for price increases of the new Qaddafi government.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the [[Yom Kippur War]], got underway just as oil company executives were heading to [[Vienna, Austria]], site of a planned meeting with [[OPEC]] leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands anyway, and the war strengthened the unity of their new demands.
The Arab defeats in the [[Six Day War|Six Day]] and [[1973 Arab-Israeli war]]s triggered the [[1973 oil crisis]]. In response to the emergency re-supply effort by the [[West]] that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states," those that bordered Israel, in their struggle.
The centrality of petroleum, the [[Arab-Israeli Conflict]] and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
===Two Iranian revolutions===
The [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution]] took place between [[1905]] and [[1911]]. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's [[feudalistic]] society and led to the establishment of a parliament in [[Persia]] and restriction of the power of [[Shah]] (king). The first constitution of Iran was approved. But after the final victory of revolutionaries over Shah, the modernist and conservative blocks began to fight with each other. Then [[World War I]] took place and all of the combatants invaded Iran and weakened the government and threated the independence of Iran. Finally the system of constitutional monarchy created by the decree of [[Mozzafar al-Din Shah]] that was established in [[Persia]] as a result of the Revolution ultimately came to an end in [[1925]] with the dissolution of the [[Qajar]] dynasty and the accenssion of [[Reza Shah Pahlavi]] to the throne.
In [[1979]] the [[Iranian Revolution]] (also called "The Islamic Revolution" ) transformed [[Iran]] from a [[Iranian monarchy|constitutional monarchy]], under [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], to a [[populist]] [[theocracy|theocratic]] [[Islamic republic]] under the rule of [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], a [[Shi'a|Shi`i]] [[Islam|Muslim]] [[clergy|cleric]] and ''[[marja]]''. Following the Revolution, an Iranian referendum established the [[Islamic republic]] as a new government, and a new constitution was approved, electing Ruhollah Khomeini [[Supreme Leader]] of Iran. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought with each other, and ultimately Islamics captured power. At the same time, the [[U.S.]], [[USSR]], and most of the Arab governments of the [[Middle East]] feared that their dominance in the region was challenged by the new Islamic ideology, so they encouraged and supported [[Saddam Hussein]] to invade Iran, which resulted in the [[Iran-Iraq war]].
== The 21st century==
[[Image:Islam by country.svg|250px|thumb|left|Islam in the world.(Green: [[Sunni]], Red: [[Shia]], Blue:[[Ibadi]]]]
<br clear="all">
===Islam in Turkey===
{{main|Islam in Turkey|Secularism in Turkey}}
Since the establishment of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of [[secularism in Turkey]] established by [[Atatürk's Reforms]]. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to [[Islam in Turkey]]; the state, which was established with the [[Kemalist ideology]] has no [[official religion]] nor promotes any and it actively monitors the area between the religions using the [[Presidency of Religious Affairs]]. The [[Republic Protests]] were a series of peaceful mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the [[Secularism in Turkey|Turkish secularist state]] <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6554851.stm "Secular rally targets Turkish PM"], BBC News, April 14, 2007.</ref>
=== European Islam ===
:''Main article: [[European Islam]].''
Certain academics, such as [[Jorgen Nielsen (academic)|Jorgen Nielsen]] (''Towards a European Islam'', London: Macmillan Press, 1999), suggest that there is currently emerging a new brand of Islam in Europe, which is often termed ''European Islam''. While this new kind of Islam is not exactly defined, it could be described as combining on the one hand the religion's basic duties and on the other European culture, values and traditions (such as secularism, democracy, gender equality as perceived by the west, the European system of law, etc.).
:''See also: [[Islam in Europe]], [[Muslims in Western Europe]].
{{sect-stub}}
==Chronology==
{{see|Timeline of Islamic history}}
==Dynasties of Muslim Rulers==
There are [[List of Muslim dynasties|Muslim Dynsties]] which the can be found in [[list of dynasties of Muslim Rulers]]
==See also==
* [[
* [[
* [[Al-Andalus]]
* [[History of the Balkans]]
* [[Muslim conquests]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Islam by country]] - a list
* [[List of wars in the Islamic world]]
* [[List of the Muslim Empires]]
* [[Muslim World]]
* [[Timeline of Islamic history]]
* [[Disputes over Islamic historical dates]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References and further reading==
'''Books and journals'''
*{{cite book | last=Armstrong | first=Karen | authorlink=Karen Armstrong | title=Islam: A Short History | publisher=Modern Library | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-0679640400}}
* {{cite book|last=Bloom and Blair|title=Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power|year=2000}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}}
* {{cite book|last=Hart|first=Michael|title=The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history| publisher = Carol Publishing Group | ___location=New York |year=1978|id = ISBN 0-8065-1057-9 }}
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=[[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}}
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, [[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}}
*{{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=[[Malise Ruthven|Ruthven, Malise]] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}}
*{{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors= Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}}
* {{cite book | last = Lapidus | first = Ira M. | title = A History of Islamic societes | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0-521-22552-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Lewis | first = B. | title = The Arabs in History | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-19-285258-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rahman | first = F. | title = Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1982 | id = ISBN 0-226-70284-7 }}
* {{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=Islam:Religion, History and Civilization| publisher = HarperCollins Publishers | ___location=New York |year=2003| id = ISBN 0-06-050714-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Sonn | first = Tamara | title = A Brief History of Islam | publisher = Blackwell Publishing Ltd | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 1-4051-0900-9 }}
*Hourani, Albert, ''A History of the Arab Peoples'', Faber & Faber, 2002, ISBN 0-571-21591-2
'''Encyclopedias'''
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia Britannica | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ BBC Islamic History Special]
* [http://www.classicalislam.com/pages/history/chronological.htm Chronological history of Islam and Muslims up to current time]
* [http://friesian.com/islam.htm Islam: 662AD - Present]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html Internet Islamic History Sourcebook]
* [http://www.sunnah.org/history/islamamr.htm A history of Islam in America]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/ Brief history of Islam]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm Chronological history of Islam]
* [http://www.muslimheritage.com/ A history of Islamic culture]
* [http://www.cyberistan.org/ Islamic Civilization]
[[Category:Judeo-Islamic topics]]
[[Category:Muslim history| ]]
{{Link FA|zh}}
[[ar:تاريخ إسلامي]]
[[bs:Historija Islama]]
[[ca:Història de l'Islam]]
[[da:Islams historie]]
[[de:Geschichte des Islam]]
[[dv:އިސްލާމީ ތާރީޚު]]
[[es:Historia del Islam]]
[[fa:تاریخ اسلام]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Islam]]
[[hr:Povijest islama]]
[[id:Sejarah Islam]]
[[it:Storia dell'Islam]]
[[ms:Sejarah Islam]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de islam]]
[[no:islams historie]]
[[ja:イスラム帝国]]
[[pt:História do Islão]]
[[ru:История ислама]]
[[simple:Muslim history]]
[[sh:Historija islama]]
[[tr:İslam tarihi]]
[[zh:阿拉伯帝国]]
| |||