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[[Image:Aqua-distillata.jpg|thumb|250px|Bottle for Distilled water in the Real Farmacia in Madrid.]]
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'''Distilled water''' is [[water]] that has virtually all of its [[Impurity|impurities]] removed through [[distillation]]. Distillation involves [[boiling]] the water and re-condensing the [[steam]] into a clean container, leaving most contaminants behind.
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'''''Conatus''''', (''Latin: effort; endeavor; impulse, inclination, tendency; undertaking''), is a term used historically in early philosophies of [[psychology]] and [[metaphysics]] referring to an innate inclination of [[matter]] or [[mind]] to continue to exist and enhance itself {{Harv|Traupman|1966|p=52}}. Over the millenia, however, many differently nuanced definitions and treatments have sprung up from philosophers such as [[Cicero]], [[René Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes]] and perhaps most notably [[Baruch Spinoza]] {{Harv|LeBuffe|2006}}.
==Applications==
The history of the term ''conatus'' is one of a gradual evolution. After its formulation in ancient [[Greece]], each sucessive set of philosophers to adopt the term has put his own personal twist on the subject, tweaking the scope or meaning of the term such that it now has no one concrete definition. The ''conatus'' may refer to the instinctual "will to live" of animals or various metaphysical theories of motion and inertia. Often the concept is associated with [[God]]'s will in a [[pantheist]] view of [[Nature]], as Spinoza used it, though not always {{Harv|LeBuffe|2006}}. The concept may be broken up into separate definitions for the mind and body, or even differentiated when discussing [[centrifugal force]] or [[inertia]] {{Harv|Wolfson|1934|p=202}}{{Harv|Kollerstrom|1999}}.
{{Unreferencedsect|date=July 2007}}
<!--mention modern relevance up here-->
In chemical and biological laboratories, as well as industry, cheaper alternatives such as [[deionized water]] are preferred over distilled water.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, if these alternatives are not sufficiently pure, distilled water is used. Where exceptionally high purity water is required, [[double distilled water]] is used.
Distilled water is also commonly used to top up [[lead acid batteries]] used in cars and trucks. The presence of other ions commonly found in tap water will cause a drastic reduction in its lifespan.
== Classical origins ==
[[Image:CiceroBust.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] (106 BC " 43 BC)]]
Distilled water is preferable to tap water for use in automotive cooling systems. The minerals and ions typically found in tap water can be corrosive to internal engine components, and can cause a more rapid depletion of the anti-corrosion additives found in most [[antifreeze]] formulations.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
The Latin ''conatus'' comes from the verb ''conatur'', which is usually translated into English as, "to endeavor". But the concept of the conatus was first developed in the [[Greek (language)|Greek language]] by the [[Stoicism|Stoics]] and [[Peripatetic]]s. These groups used the word {{polytonic|''ὁρμήν''}} to describe the bestial and human instinct towards self-preservation in a general sense. Cicero and [[Diogenes Laertius]] expanded this principle to include a repulsion from destruction, but continued to limit these assertions only to the motivations of non-human animals: Diogenes Laertius specifically denied the application of the term to plants. Augustine, Telesius and [[Campanella]] extended this primitive notion and applied it to all objects, animate and inanimate. Much later, [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Duns Scotus]] and [[Dante Alighieri]] followed, expressing similar sentiments and using the Latin words ''vult'', ''velle'' or ''appetit'' as synonyms of ''"conatus"''; indeed, all four terms may be used to translate the original Greek {{polytonic|''ὁρμήν''}} {{Harv|Wolfson|1934|pp=196,199,202}}.
Using distilled water in [[steam iron]]s for pressing clothes can help reduce mineral build-up and make the iron last longer. However, many iron manufacturers say that distilled water is no longer necessary in their irons.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Back in ancient Greece, Cicero, Laertius and [[Aristotle]] each alluded to a connection between the ''conatus'' and other emotions: where the former was the impetus for the latter. They posited that humans do not wish to do something because they think it "good", but rather they think it "good" because they want to do it: in other words, the cause for human desire is our ''conatus'', and the natural inclination for a body to augment itself in accordance with its principles {{Harv|Wolfson|1934|p=204}}.
Some people use distilled water for household [[aquariums]] because it lacks the chemicals found in [[tap water]] supplies. It is important to supplement distilled water when using it for [[fishkeeping]]; it is too pure to sustain proper chemistry to support an aquarium ecosystem.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
There is a traditional connection between ''conatus'' and motion itself. Aquinas and [[Judah Leon Abravanel|Abravanel]] both related the concept directly to that which [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] saw to be the, "natural movements upward and downward or with their being balanced in an intermediate position" described in his ''[[De Civitate Dei]]'', XI, 27. They called this "''amor naturalis''", or "natural love" {{Harv|Wolfson|1934|pp=197,200}}.
==Drinking Descartesdistilled water==
{{Unreferencedsect|date=February 2007}}
[[Image:Descartes.jpg|thumb|150px||[[René Descartes]]]]
Drinking distilled water is quite common.
In the first half of the seventeenth century, [[René Descartes]] extrapolated, describing the concept of ''conatus'', "to be an active power or tendency of bodies to move, expressing the power of God" {{Harv|Pietarinen|2000}}. He spoke specifically of ''conatus a centro'' or ''conatus recedendi''. ''Conatus a centro'', or "effort towards the center", Descartes used as a theory of [[gravity]]; ''conatus recendendi'', or "effort from the center", represented the [[centrifugal force]]s {{Harv|Kollerstrom|1999}}.
Many beverage manufacturers use distilled water to ensure a drink's purity and taste. Bottled distilled water is sold as well, and can usually be found in [[supermarkets]]. [[Water purification]], such as distillation, is especially important in regions where water resources or tap water is not suitable for ingesting without boiling or chemical treatment.
Descartes, developing his First Law of Nature, used many principles in common with the ''conatus se movendi'', or "''conatus'' of self-preservation"{{Harv|Wolfson|1934|p=201}}. This law is very closely related to [[Isaac Newton]]'s First Law, developed fifty years later. By Descartes' version, "Each thing, insofar as in it lies, always perseveres in the same state, and when once moved, always continues to move."{{Harv|Blackwell|1966|p=220}}
Water filtration devices are common in many households. Most of these devices do not distill water, though there continues to be an increase in consumer-oriented [[water distiller]]s and reverse osmosis machines being sold and used. Municipal water supplies often add or have trace impurities at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as [[volatile organic compounds]], [[fluoride]], and an estimated 75,000+ other chemical compounds{{Fact|date=February 2007}} are not removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation does eliminate nearly all of these impurities.
==Hobbes==
[[Image:Thomas Hobbes (portrait).jpg|thumb|150px|[[Thomas Hobbes]]]]
===In the psyche===
[[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588-1679) describes [[emotion]] as the impetus for motion and [[will]] as the sum of all emotions and the final balance of repulsion and attraction; this "will" forms the ''conatus'' of a body {{Harv|Pietarinen|2000}}. The physical manifestation of this ''conatus'' is the perceived will to survive {{Harv|LeBuffe|2006}}. In order that living beings may thrive, Hobbes says, "they seek peace and fight anything that threatens this peace {{Harv|Pietarinen|2000}}. "Hobbes links motions caused by the impact of external objects on our sense organs and the reverberations of 'decaying sense' to the imagination; the imagination can in turn be considered the 'small,' almost indiscernible, beginnings of animal motion, which Hobbes calls "endeavour", or, in Latin, "conatus". Alterations in these small, interior motions produce what we call 'deliberation,' the last motion of which is the will that produces voluntary motion"{{Harv|Schmitter|2006}}.
Distilled water is also used as drinking water in arid seaside areas which do not have sufficient freshwater, by distilling seawater. It is quite common on ships, especially [[nuclear ship|nuclear powered ships]], which require a large supply of distilled water as coolant. The drinking water is produced in [[desalination plant]]s, although it is very expensive due to the large amount of fuel needed to boil water. Alternative technologies like [[reverse osmosis]] are becoming increasingly important in this regard due to their greatly reduced costs.
===In physics ===
{{cquote|I define [conatus] to be Motion made in less Space and Time then can be given; that is, less then can be determined or assigned by Exposition or Number; that is, Motion made through the length of a Point, and in an Instant or Point of Time {{Harv|Jesseph|2006|p=21}}}}
===Pros and cons===
As it was in his psychological theory, Hobbes's physical ''conatus'' was an infinitessimal unit of motion; it was the ''beginning'' of motion. This ''conatus'' was an inclination towards motion in a specified direction. ''[[Impetus]]'' and other concepts of Hobbes's were defined in terms of this ''conatus''. The ''impetus'', for instance, was, “a measure of the conatus exercised by a moving body over the course of time” {{Harv|Jesseph|2006|p=22}}. [[Friction|Resistance]] was a sum of contrary conatuses; [[force]] was this and “the magnitude of the body” {{Harv|Jesseph|2006|p=35}}.
The drinking of distilled water has been both advocated and discouraged for health reasons. The lack of naturally-occurring minerals in distilled water has raised some concerns.
The Journal of General Internal Medicine<ref>{{Citation
Hobbes also used the word ''conatus'' to refer to the "restorative forces" which act on [[spring]]s, and [[bladder]]s for example. Hobbes percieved some force inherent in these objects that inclined them to return to their previous state. Today, science attributes this action to the phenomenon of [[elasticity]] {{Harv|Osler|2001}}.
| last1=Azoulay | first1=Arik
| last2=Garzon | first2=Philippe
| last3=Eisenberg | first3=Mark
| year=2001
| title=Comparison of the Mineral Content of Tap Water and Bottled Waters
| periodical=Journal of General Internal Medicine
| volume=16
| issue=3
| pages=168-175
| url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2001.04189.x/enhancedabs/
}}</ref> published a study on the mineral contents of different waters available in the US. The study concluded, "drinking water sources available to North Americans may contain high levels of [[Calcium]], [[Magnesium]], and [[Sodium]] and may provide clinically important portions of the recommended dietary intake of these minerals. Physicians should encourage patients to check the mineral content of their drinking water, whether tap or bottled, and choose water most appropriate for their needs." Since distilled water doesn't contain minerals, supplemental mineral intake through diet is needed to maintain proper health.
It is often observed that consumption of "hard" water, or water that has some minerals, may have beneficial cardiovascular effects. As noted in the American Journal of Epidemiology, consumption of hard drinking water is negatively correlated with atherosclerotic [[heart disease]].<ref>{{Citation
==Spinoza==
| last=Voors
{{seealso|Baruch Spinoza}}
| first=A. W.
[[Image:Spinoza.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Baruch Spinoza|Benedictus de Spinoza]]]]
| year=1971
Of all of the different uses of the word "conatus" in philosophy, Baruch Spinoza's were perhaps the most significant, for it was the most developed, and most complete{{Specify|date=March 2007}}. When he adopted the term ''conatus'', he applied it to the human body, psyche and both simultaneously, using a different term for each {{Harv|Wolfson|1934|p=199}}. When referring to psychological manifestation of the concept, he used the term ''voluntas'' (will). When referring to the overarching concept, he used the word ''appetitus'' or (appetite). When referring to the bodily impulse, he used the plain term "''conatus''" {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=126}}. Sometimes he expanded the term and used the whole phrase, "conatus sese conservandi" {{Harv|Duff|1903|loc=chp. VII}}
| title=Mineral in the municipal water and atherosclerotic heart death
| periodical=American Journal of Epidemiology
| volume=93
| issue=4
| pages=259-266
| url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/4/259
}}</ref> Since distilled water is devoid of minerals, it will not have these potential benefits.
It has been suggested that -- because distilled water lacks [[fluoride]] ions that are added by many governments (e.g. municipalities in the United States) at water treatment plants using [[fluoridation]] for its supposed effect on the inhibition of [[caries|cavity]] formation -- the drinking of distilled water may increase the risk of tooth decay due to a lack of this element.<ref>[http://www.medpagetoday.com/PrimaryCare/DentalHealth/tb/1756 ''Bottled Water Cited as Contributing to Cavity Comeback'' at MedPage Today]</ref>
Spinoza asserts the existence of this general "conatus" in attempting to explain the "self-evident" truth that "nothing can be destroyed except by an external cause" (Prop. IV). He states in his proof of this proposition that "the definition of anything affirms, and does not negate, the thing's essence" {{Harv|Spinoza|1677|p=66}}. This resistance to self-destruction is formulated by Spinoza to equal an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] endeavoring to continue to exist: and ''conatus'' is the word he most often uses to describe this force {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=124}}.
A purported effect of drinking water in its pure form is a 'more powerful solvent' that helps cleanse toxins from the body{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
In Spinoza's world-view, this principle is applicable to all things, and furthermore it constitutes the very essence of objects, including Man, for these are but finite [[mode]]s of God {{Harv|Lin|2004|p=4}}. Thus, as is stated in IIIP8, this ''conatus'' is of "indefinite time"; it lasts as long as the object does {{Harv|Spinoza|1677|pp=66-7}}. Spinoza uses ''conatus'' to describe an inclination for things to increase in character; more than just cause to continue statically, to strive towards perfection {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=126}}. Even further, all existing things do something [[if and only if]] it maintains or augments its existence {{Harv|Lin|2004|p=4}}. Spinoza, extending the concepts of his precedessors, used the term ''conatus'' to refer to rudimentary concepts of [[inertia]], as Descartes had before even him {{Harv|LeBuffe|2006}}. It follows that as a thing cannot self-destruct without the action of external forces, motion and rest, too, exist indefinitely until disturbed. {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=125}}.
The cost of distilling water (about 0.04 to 0.10 Euro or USD per litre in 2005) prohibits its use by most households worldwide.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
===Psychological manifestation===
The concept of the ''conatus'' when used in [[Baruch Spinoza]]'s [[philosophy]] on [[psychology]] was derived from sources both ancient and medieval. Spinoza reformulates the principles that the Stoics, Cicero, Laertius and especially Hobbes and Descartes developed {{Harv|Morgan|2006|p=ix}}.
==Myths==
Specifically, Spinoza, with his [[determinism]], believed that man and nature may be unified under a consistent set of laws; [[God]] and [[nature]] are one, and there is no [[free-will]]: [[mankind]] is thus an integral part of nature {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=125}}. Spinoza explained seemingly irregular human behaviour as really "natural" and rational and motivated by this principle of the ''conatus'' {{Harv|Dutton|2006|loc= chp. 5}}; he replaced the notion of free will with the ''conatus'', a principle that could be applied to all of nature and not just man {{Harv|Allison|1975|p=125}}.
A popular myth about distilled water is that it has the dangerous property of being more easily heated above its normal [[boiling point]] without actually boiling (as seen in "Mythbusters") in a process known as [[superheating]]. When superheated water is disturbed or has impurities added to it, a nucleation center for bubbles form. These bubbles are then new nucleation centers, and a sudden, explosive boiling can occur, possibly causing serious injury to those nearby. However, distilled water and tap water do not differ in their ease of or danger in being superheated. The dissolved impurities in motionless tap water do not present enough disturbance to inhibit superheating.
====Emotions==References==
<references/>
Spinoza also argues that all of the human [[affects]] arise from the ''conatus'' and the perpetual drive toward perfection. He states in Proposition IIXX of Part IV of his ''Ethics'' that [[happiness]] specifically, "consists in the human capacity to preserve itself." This endeavor is also named by Spinoza to be the "foundation of [[virtue]]". {{Harv|Damasio|2003|p=170}}. Inversely, a person is saddened by anything that opposes his ''conatus'' {{Harv|Damasio|2003|pp=138-9}}
===Counter-arguments===
It has been noted that, despite Spinoza's extensive argument for the existence of a universal conatus principle, many counter-examples may be innumerated. Martin Lin, professor at the [[University of Toronto]] lists [[Homage to New York]], lit [[candles]], [[time bombs]] and [[suicidal person]]s. Counter-counter arguments may be, “lit candles do not light themselves”, or “Tongley's sculpture or a time bomb involve parts that never succeed in constituting genuinely integrated wholes”{{Harv|Lin|2004|p=30}}.
==Leibniz==
{{Quote_box|
width=30%
|align=right
|quote="[Conatus] is to motion as a point is to space, or as one to infinity, for it is the beginning and end of motion"
|source= {{Harv|Arthur|1998}}
}}
[[Gottfried Leibniz]] (1646 – 1716) was a student of [[Erhard Weigel]] and learned of the ''conatus'' princple from him and from Hobbes, though Weigel used the word '''''tendentia''''' (Latin: tendency) {{Harv|Arthur|1998|}}. Specifically, Leibniz used the word "''conatus''" in his ''Exposition and Defence of the New System'' in 1695 to describe similar notions to previous ones, but here, he differentiated between the ''conatus'' of the body and soul, the first of which may only travel in a straight like by its own power, and the latter of which may "remember" more complicated motion {{Harv|Leibniz|1695|p=135}}. Leibniz also defined the term '''monadic conatus''', as the "state of change" through which his [[monad]]s go perpetually advance {{Harv|Arthur|1994|loc=sec. 3}}.
Leibniz did do much to develop the concept of a ''conatus'', incorporating it into his newly developed [[integral calculus]]. Leibniz made some significant contributions to the early science of physical [[dynamics]], using the adopted term "''conatus''" as a mathematical analog of Newton's "[[force]]" {{Harv|Gillespie|1971|p=161}}. The ''[[impetus]]'' was the result of a continuous summation of the ''conatus'' of a body, as the ''[[vis viva]]'' was the sum of the inactive ''[[vis mortua]]'' {{Harv|Duchesneau|1998}}. Based on the work of Kepler and possibly Descartes, Leibniz developed a model of planetary motion based on the ''conatus'' principle he developed with the idea of a [[harmonic vortex]]. This theory is expounded in the work ''Tentamen de motuum coelestium causis'' {{Harv|Gillespie|1971|p=161}}.
==In post-Kantian philosophy==
===Schopenhauer===
[[Arthur Schopenhauer]]'s philosophy, not necessarily derived from Spinoza, nevertheless contains a principle notably similar to that of Spinoza's ''conatus''. This principle, ''Wille zum Leben'', or [[Will to Live]], described the specific phenomenon of an organism's instict to live {{Harv|Rabenort|1911|p=16}}.
===Nietzsche===
[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], developed a separate principle which echoed Spinoza's original: this was Nietzsche's [[Will to Power]], or ''Wille zur Macht'' in German.
===Freudian===
[[Sigmund Freud]], among others, greatly depended on Spinoza's formulation of the ''conatus'' principle as a system of self preservation, though he never cited him in any of his published works {{Harv|Damasio|2003|p=260}}.
==Other notable definitions==
*[[Giambattista Vico]] (1668 – 1744) defined ''conatus'' as the essence of human [[society]] {{Harv|Goulding|2005|p=22040}}.
*[[Henri Bergson]], (1859 – 1941) developed the principle of the [[élan vital]], or "vital impulse", which was thought to aid in the [[evolution]] of [[organism]]s. This concept which implies a fundamental driving force behind all life, is reminiscient of the ''conatus'' principle of Spinoza and others {{Harv|Schrift|2006|p=13}}.
*[[Louis Dumont (anthropologist)|Louis Dumont]] defined a '''cultural conatus''' built directly upon Spinoza's seminal definition in PIII of his ''Ethics''. The principle behind this derivative concept states that any given culture, "tends to persevere in its being, whether by dominating other cultures or by struggling against their domination" {{Harv|Polt|1996}}.
==Modern scientific interpretations==
===Physical===
With the advent of Newtonian physics, the concept of a ''conatus'' of all physical bodies was largely superseded by the principle of [[inertia]] and the later the principle of [[conservation of momentum]]. Also, ''conatus recendendi'' became the centrifugal force and [[gravity]] is used where ''conatus a centro'' was before {{Harv|Kollerstrom|1999}}.
===Biological===
The archaic concept of ''conatus'' is today reconciled with modern biology<!--psychology and philosophy-->; but the perceived ''conatus'' of today is explained in terms of chemistry and neurology where, before, it was a matter of metaphysics and [[theurgy]] {{Harv|Damasio|2003|p=37}}. This concept similar to ''conatus'' is may be "constructed so as to maintain the coherence of a living [[organism]]'s structures and functions against numerous life-threatening odds", as put by Damasio (36). This ''conatus'' is similar to modern notions of the [[libido]] in the [[Carl Jung|Jungian]] sense, and the animal directive of [[self preservation]].
==See also==
* [[Deionized water]]
===Terms===
* [[Atmospheric water generator]] ''(Make distilled water from air)''
*[[Conation]]
*'' [[ImpetusHeavy water]]''
* [[Double distilled water]]
===Other===
*[[Conatus (book)]]
*[[Platycephalus conatus]]
== Bibliography ==
{{Sisterlinks}}
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| ___location = Cambridge, Massachusetts
| isbn = 0-674-66595-3
| title = The Philosophy of Spinoza
}}
</div>
== Further reading ==
<div class="references-small">
* {{Citation
| last = Caird
| first = Edward
| title = Essays on Literature and Philosophy: Glasgow
| publisher = J. Maclehose and sons
| year = 1892
| url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00855919&id=7a8K-nSGe7QC
| access-date = 2007-3-20
}}
* {{Citation
| title = New Essays Concerning Human Understanding
| last1 = Leibniz
| first1 = Gottfried Wilhelm
| last2 = Gerhardt
| first2 = K.
| last3 = Langley
| first3 = Alfred Gideon
| editor-last = Langley
| editor-first = Alfred Gideon
| year = 1896
| publisher = Macmillan & Co., ltd.
| url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01343217&id=UDmKMY08pcEC&printsec=toc&as_brr=1
| access-date = 2007-03-19
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Lyon
| first = Georges
| title = La philosophie de Hobbes
| publisher = F. Alean
| year = 1893
| url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=0C7GtxQ97ZS0guMU9k&id=6r0YAAAAMAAJ&as_brr=1
| access-date = 2007-03-19
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Montag
| first = Warren
| title = Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and his Contemporaries
| ___location = New York
| publisher = Verso
| year = 1999
| isbn = 1-85984-701-3
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Rabouin
| first = David
| title = Entre Deleuze et Foucault : Le jeu du désir et du pouvoir
| year = 2000
| journal = Critique
| date = June/July 2000
| pages = 637-638
}}
</div>
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Liquid water]]
[[fr:Conatus]]
[[Category:Distillation]]
[[Category:Drinking water]]
[[de:Destilliertes Wasser]]
{{Template:Foreign philosophy terms}}
[[es:Agua destilada]]
[[gl:Auga destilada]]
[[it:Acqua distillata]]
[[he:מים מזוקקים]]
[[nl:Gedestilleerd water]]
[[pl:Woda destylowana]]
[[pt:Água destilada]]
[[ru:Дистиллированная вода]]
[[sl:Destilirana voda]]
[[sv:Destillerat vatten]]
[[zh:蒸馏水]]
| 