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''This article is about the writer. For the actor, see [[Graham Greene (actor)]].''
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{{Infobox Writer
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| name = Henry Graham Greene
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| birth_date = {{birth date|1904|10|2}}
| birth_place = [[Berkhamsted]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1991|4|3|1904|10|2}}
| death_place = [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]
| occupation = [[Novelist]], [[Playwright]], [[Short story|Short story writer]]
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]] {{flagicon|UK}}
| period = 1932-1991
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}}
'''Henry Graham Greene''', [[Order of Merit (Commonwealth)|OM]], [[Order of the Companions of Honour|CH]] ([[October 2]], [[1904]] – [[April 3]], [[1991]]) was an [[England|English]] [[playwright]], [[novelist]], [[short story]] writer, travel writer and [[critic]] whose works explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world. Greene combined serious literary acclaim with wide popularity. Although Greene objected strongly to being described as a "Catholic novelist" rather than as a "novelist who happened to be Catholic", [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] religious themes are at the root of many of his novels, including ''[[Brighton Rock (novel)|Brighton Rock]]'', ''[[The Heart of the Matter]]'', ''[[The End of the Affair]]'', ''[[Monsignor Quixote]]'', ''[[A Burnt-Out Case]]'', and his famous work ''[[The Power and the Glory]]''. Works such as ''[[The Quiet American]]'' also show an avid interest in the workings of [[international politics]].
[[Image:Katana_diagram.png|thumb|Diagram showing the parts of a katana]]
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==Life and work==
===Childhood===
Greene was born in [[Berkhamsted]], [[Hertfordshire]], the fourth of six children — his younger brother [[Hugh Greene|Hugh]] became the [[Director-General of the BBC]], and older brother [[Raymond Greene|Raymond]] an eminent doctor and mountaineer. Their parents, Charles Henry Greene and Marion née Raymond, [[cousin couple|were first cousins]] and members of a large and influential family that included the owners of the [[Greene King]] brewery, and various bankers and businessmen. Charles Greene was "second master" at [[Berkhamsted School]], where the [[Head teacher|headmaster]] was Dr [[Thomas Fry]] (who was married to another cousin of Charles).
In 1910 Charles Greene succeeded Dr Fry as headmaster, and Graham attended the school as a pupil. Bullied and profoundly unhappy as a [[boarding school|boarder]], Greene made several attempts at [[suicide]] (some of them, Greene claimed, by playing [[Russian roulette]] — though Michael Shelden's biography of Greene discredits the truth of these incidents), and in 1921 at the age of 17 he underwent six months of [[psychoanalysis]] in London to deal with [[clinical depression|depression]]. After this he returned to the school as a day boy, living with his family. Schoolfriends included [[Claud Cockburn]] and [[Peter Quennell]].
'''Katana''' (刀) is the word for "[[sword]]" in the [[Japanese language]]. It is also used specifically for a type of [[Japan]]ese [[backsword]] or [[longsword]] (大刀 ''daitō'') in use after the 1400s: a curved, single-edged sword traditionally used by the [[samurai]]. Pronounced [kah-tah-nah] in the [[kun'yomi]] (Japanese reading) of the [[kanji]] 刀, the word has been adopted as a [[loan word]] by the [[English language]]; as Japanese does not have separate plural and singular forms, both "katanas" and "katana" are considered acceptable plural forms in English.
While he was an undergraduate at [[Balliol College, Oxford]] his first work, a volume of poetry, was published, but it was not widely praised.
The katana was typically paired with the [[wakizashi]] or shōtō, a similarly made but shorter sword, both worn by the members of the warrior class. It could also be worn with the [[tantō]], an even smaller similarly shaped blade. The two weapons together were called the [[daishō]], and represented the social power and personal honor of the samurai. The long blade was used for open combat, while the shorter blade was considered a [[side arm]], more suited for stabbing, close quarters combat, and [[seppuku]], a form of ritual suicide.
===Early career===
The katana was primarily used for cutting, and intended for use with a two-handed grip. While the practical arts for using the sword for its original purpose are now obsolete, [[kenjutsu]] and [[iaijutsu]] have turned into [[gendai budo|modern martial arts]]. The art of drawing the katana and attacking one's enemies is ''[[iaidō]]''.
After graduation, Greene took up a career in [[journalism]] but he was very unsuccessful, first in [[Nottingham]] (a city which recurs in his novels as an epitome of mean provincial life), and then as a subeditor on ''[[The Times]]''. While in Nottingham he started a correspondence with [[Vivien Greene|Vivien Dayrell-Browning]], a [[Roman Catholic]] (by conversion) who had written to correct him on a point of Catholic doctrine. Greene converted to the faith in 1926 (he described it in ''A Sort of Life''). He was baptised in February the same year <ref>the conversion happened after having argued a couple of times with father Trollope, as Green had been trying to defend atheism. - ''The Power and the Glory'' New York: Viking, 1990. Introduction by John Updike, p. xiv</ref>, and the couple were married in 1927. They had two children, Lucy (born 1933) and Francis (born 1936; died 1987). In 1948 Greene left Vivien for Catherine Walston, but they remained married.
===Novels and other works===
Authentic Japanese swords are fairly uncommon today, although genuine antiques can be acquired at significant expense. Modern katana and wakizashi are only made by the few licenced practitioners that still practice making these crafted weapons today, and even the "type 98 katanas" of World War II are rare.
Greene's first published novel was ''[[The Man Within]]'' in 1929, and its reception emboldened him to give up his job at ''The Times'' and work full-time as a novelist. However, the following two books were not successful (Greene disowned them in later life), and his first real success was ''[[Stamboul Train]]'' in 1932 — as with several of his books, this was also adapted as a film (''Orient Express'', 1934).
His income from novels was supplemented by freelance journalism, including book and film reviews for ''[[The Spectator (1828)|The Spectator]]'', and co-editing the magazine ''[[Night and Day]]'', which closed down in 1937 shortly after Greene's review of the film ''Wee Willie Winkie'', starring a nine-year-old [[Shirley Temple]], caused the magazine to lose a [[libel]] case. Greene's review claimed that Temple displayed "a certain adroit coquetry which appealed to middle-aged men", and is now seen as one of the first criticisms of the sexualisation of young children by the entertainment industry.
==History of the Japanese sword==
=== Early history ===
His fiction was originally divided into two [[genre]]s: thrillers or mystery/suspense books, such as ''[[Our Man in Havana]]'', that he himself cast as "entertainments" but which often included a notable philosophical edge, and literary works such as ''[[The Power and the Glory]]'', on which his reputation was thought to be based.
One of the oldest known Japanese forms of sword dates from the [[Kofun era]] (3rd and 4th centuries). The style, called '' [[Kashima no Tachi]]'' (鹿島の太刀), was created at the [[Kashima Shrine]] (in [[Ibaraki Prefecture]]). Before 987, examples of Japanese swords are straight ''chokutō'' or ''jōkotō'' and others with unusual shapes. In the [[Heian Period]] (8th to 11th centuries) sword-making developed through techniques brought from Siberia and [[Hokkaidō]], territory of the [[Ainu people]]. The Ainu used ''[[Warabite-tō]]''(蕨手刀) swords and these influenced the katana. According to legend, the Japanese sword was invented by a smith named [[Amakuni]] in [[700 AD]], along with the folded steel process. In reality the folded steel process and single edge swords had been brought over from China through trade. Between 987 – 1597, swords are ''kotō'': these are considered the pinnacle of Japanese swordcraft. Early models had uneven curves with the deepest part of the curve at the hilt. As eras changed the center of the curve tended to move up the blade.
As his career lengthened, however, Greene and his readers both found the "entertainments" to be of nearly as high a value as the literary efforts, and Greene's later efforts such as ''[[The Human Factor]]'', ''[[The Comedians (novel)|The Comedians]]'', ''[[Our Man in Havana]]'' and ''[[The Quiet American]]'', combine these modes into works of remarkable insight and compression. He also penned the 1949 classic [[noir]], [[The Third Man]]
By the [[twelfth century]], civil war erupted, and the vast need for swords together with the ferocity of the fighting caused the highly artistic techniques of the [[Kamakura period]] (known as the Golden Age of Swordmaking) to be abandoned in favor of more utilitarian and disposable weapons. The export of katana reached its height during [[Muromachi period]], when at least 200,000 katana were shipped to the [[Ming dynasty]] in official trade in an attempt to soak up the production of Japanese weapons and make it harder for pirates in the area to arm. The craft decayed as time progressed and [[firearm]]s were introduced as a decisive force on the battlefield.
Greene also wrote many short stories and several [[plays]], which were also, on the whole, well-received, although he was always first and foremost a novelist.
The [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] in the thirteenth century spurred further evolution of the Japanese Sword. Often forced to abandon traditional mounted archery for hand-to-hand combat, many samurai found that their swords were too delicate and prone to damage when used against the thick leather armor of the invaders. In response, Japanese swordsmiths started to adopt thinner and simpler temper lines. Certain Japanese swordsmiths of this period began to make blades with thicker backs and bigger points as a response to the Mongol threat.<ref>{{ cite book | title = The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords | id = ISBN 4-7700-2071-6 | pages = 21 | first = Kokan | last = Nagayama | publisher = Kodansha International | year = 1997 }}</ref>
Greene's long, successful career and very large readership (for a serious literary novelist) led his fans to hope that he would be awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. However, although he was apparently seriously considered in 1974, he never received the prize. His broad popularity may have counted against him among the scholarly elite, while the centrality of religious themes in his work may have alienated some of the judges. Greene's friend and sometime publisher, [[Michael Korda]], wrote in his memoir, ''Another Life'' (1999), that Greene believed he was always one vote short of the prize, withheld by a judge who disliked his Catholicism and left-wing sympathies and "who seemed determined to outlive him".
=== New swords ===
===Writing style and themes===
In times of peace, swordsmiths returned to the making of refined and artistic blades, and the beginning of the [[Momoyama period]] saw the return of high quality creations. As the techniques of the ancient smiths had been lost during the previous period of war, these swords were called ''shintō,'' literally "new swords." These are considered inferior to most kotō, and generally coincide with a degradation in manufacturing skills. As the Edo period progressed, blade quality declined, though ornamentation was refined. The addition of engravings known as ''horimono'' was originally for religious reasons, and these were simple and tasteful. In the more complex work found on many ''shintō,'' form no longer strictly followed function.
Greene had one of the most recognizable writing styles of twentieth-century English authors. His [[novel]]s are written in a lean, realistic style with clear, exciting plots (avoiding [[modernist]] experiments, which might partially account for his popularity) and often utilising a cinematic visual sense in his descriptions. Yet he also concentrated on portraying the internal life of his characters, their mental, emotional and spiritual depths. They are usually deeply troubled by internal struggles, world-weariness and cynicism and living in seedy, sordid or rootless circumstances. Greene tended to set his novels in poor, hot, dusty or tropical backwaters in countries such as [[Mexico]], [[West Africa]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cuba]], [[Haiti]] or [[Argentina]]. This has led to the coining of the expression "Greeneland" to describe such settings.
Greene's were probably the last literary novels written in English in the twentieth century which had at their centre religious themes (though they had similarities with the [[French literature|French novels]] of [[François Mauriac]]). Catholicism is usually explicitly present. Greene in his [[literary criticism]] attacked most [[modern literature]] for having lost any religious sense or themes, which resulted, he argued, in dull, superficial characters who "wandered about like cardboard symbols through a world that is paper-thin." Only by recovering a religious element, the consciousness of the drama of the struggle within the human soul carrying infinite consequences of [[salvation]] and [[damnation]], and of the ultimate metaphysical realities of good and evil, sin and grace, could the novel recover its drama and power. Suffering and unhappiness are omnipresent in the fallen world Greene depicts, and Catholicism is presented against a background of unvarying human evil, sin and doubt. Indeed, [[V. S. Pritchett]] praised Greene as the first English novelist since [[Henry James]] to present, and grapple with, the reality of evil.<ref name = "Crisis">[http://www.crisismagazine.com/april2005/feature2.htm Crisis Magazine].</ref>
Under the [[isolationism|isolationist]] [[Tokugawa Shogunate]], swordmaking declined along with the use of firearms.<ref>Perrin, Noel. Giving Up the Gun: Japan's Reversion to the Sword, 1543-1879. Boston: David R. Godine, 1979.</ref> The master swordsmith Munetsugu published opinions that the arts and techniques of the shinto swords were inferior to the ''kotō'' blades, and that research should be made by all swordsmiths to rediscover the lost techniques. Munetsugu travelled the land teaching what he knew to all who would listen, and swordsmiths rallied to his cause and ushered in a second renaissance in Japanese sword smithing. With the discarding of the ''shintō'' style, and the re-introduction of old and rediscovered techniques, swords made in the kotō style between 1761 – 1876 are ''shinshintō'', "new revival swords" or literally 'new-new swords.' These are considered superior to most shintō, but worse than true kotō.
Although the novels very often portray powerfully the Christian drama of the struggles of the individual soul, from a Catholic point of view Greene has also been criticised for certain tendencies in an unorthodox direction — sin is so omnipresent in his world that sometimes the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful conduct seems to be portrayed as doomed to failure and, hence, not central to holiness. His friend and fellow Catholic writer [[Evelyn Waugh]] attacked this as a revival of the [[Quietism|Quietist]] heresy. This aspect of his work was also criticised by the leading theologian [[Hans Urs von Balthasar]] as giving sin a "mystique". His characters, although their inner suffering and struggles with doubt reflect a central Christian reality (human fallenness), rarely exhibit other realities of the Christian life, simple, uncomplicated faith and true inner peace and joy. To the latter point, Greene responded that constructing a vision of pure faith and goodness in the novel was beyond his talents. Praise of Greene from an orthodox Catholic point of view by Edward Short can be found in ''Crisis'' magazine:[http://www.crisismagazine.com/april2005/feature2.htm], while a Catholic critique is presented by [[Joseph Pearce]]:[http://www.catholicauthors.com/greene.html].
The arrival of [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]] in 1853 and the subsequent [[Convention of Kanagawa]] forcibly reintroduced Japan to the outside world; the rapid [[modernization]] of the [[Meiji Restoration]] soon followed. The [[Haitorei edict]] in 1876 all but banned carrying swords and guns on streets. Overnight, the market for swords died, many swordsmiths were left without a trade to pursue, and valuable skills were lost. Katana remained in use in some occupations such as the police force. At the same time, [[kendo]] was incorporated into police training so that police officers would have at the training necessary to properly use one.
In his later writings, Catholicism decreased in prominence. The sense of supernatural realities which haunted his earlier works declined and seemed to be replaced with a more [[humanism|humanistic]] viewpoint, a change reflected by his public criticisms of orthodox Catholic teachings. Left-wing political critiques took on a greater importance in his fiction (for example, his attack on [[Vietnam War|American policy in Vietnam]] in ''The Quiet American''), and the tormented believers he portrayed were now more likely to have faith in [[Communism]] than Catholicism. Critics usually agree, however, that his most profound works are the earlier ones in which Catholicism plays a major role.<!-- critics? citations?-->
[[Image:Sabre-seconde-guerre-mondiale-p1000712.jpg|thumb|"Type 95" Non Commissioned Officer's sword of the Second World War; made to resemble a Commissioned Officer's ''shin guntō,'' they were made of standard machine steel, with an embossed and painted metal handle designed to look like a traditional ''tsuka''.]]
Unlike other "Catholic writers" such as [[Evelyn Waugh]] and [[Anthony Burgess]], Greene's politics were always essentially left-leaning, though some biographers believe politics mattered little to him. In his later years he was a strong critic of what he saw as [[American Empire|American imperialism]], and he supported the [[Cuba|Cuban]] leader [[Fidel Castro]], whom he had met.<ref name = "Kirjasto">[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/greene.htm Kirjasto].</ref> For Greene and politics, see also Anthony Burgess ''Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene''<ref>in ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 2, No. 2, (Apr. 1967), pp. 93-99.</ref> In ''Ways of Escape'', reflecting on his trip to Mexico, he complained that Mexico's government was not left-wing enough (e.g compared with Cuba's) <ref>P.xii of John Updike's introduction to ''The Power and the Glory'' New York: Viking, 1990.</ref>. In Greene's opinion, “Conservatism and Catholicism should be... impossible bedfellows.” <ref>As cited on p.xii of John Updike's introduction to ''The Power and the Glory'' New York: Viking, 1990.</ref>.
In time, the need to arm soldiers with swords was perceived again and over the decades at the beginning of the 20th century swordsmiths again found work. These swords, derisively called ''gunto,'' were often oil tempered or simply stamped out of steel and given a serial number rather than a chiseled signature. These often look like Western cavalry sabers rather than katana, although most are just like katana, with many mass-produced and in general slightly shorter than blades of the shintō and shinshintō periods.
{{Quotation|In human relationships, kindness and lies are worth a thousand truths.| Graham Greene}}
Military swords hand made in the traditional way are often termed as ''gendaitō''. The craft of making swords was kept alive through the efforts of a few individuals, notably Gassan Sadakazu and Gassan Sadakatsu who were employed as Imperial artisans. These smiths produced fine works that stand with the best of the older blades for the Emperor and other high ranking officials. The students of Gassan Sadakatsu went on to be designated Intangible Cultural Assets, "Living National Treasures," as they embodied knowledge that was considered to be fundamentally important to the Japanese identity. In 1934 the Japanese government issued a military specification for the ''[[shin gunto]]'' (new army sword), the first version of which was the Type 94 Katana, and many machine- and handcrafted swords used in World War II conformed to this and later shin gunto specifications.
===Travel===
=== Recent history and modern use ===
Throughout his life, Greene was obsessed with travelling far from his native [[England]], to what he called the "wild and remote" places of the world. His travels provided him with opportunities to engage in [[espionage]] on behalf of the [[United Kingdom]] (in [[Sierra Leone]] during the [[Second World War]], for example). Greene had been recruited to [[MI6]] by the notorious [[double agent]] [[Kim Philby]]. He reworked the colourful and exciting characters and places he encountered into the fabric of his novels.
Despite his love of travel he left [[Europe]] for the first time relatively late in life, when he was 31 in 1935, in a trip to [[Liberia]] which resulted in the non-fiction [[travel literature|travel book]] ''[[Journey Without Maps]]''. A 1938 trip to [[Mexico]] to see the effects of a campaign of forced [[anti-Catholicism|anti-Catholic]] [[secularisation]] was funded by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. This resulted in the factual ''The Lawless Roads'' (published in America as ''Another Mexico''), and the fictional ''[[The Power and the Glory]]''. The novel was censored by a [[Roman Curia|Vatican]] office in 1953, though in a later private audience with Greene, [[Pope Paul VI]] told him to forget about the troubles. Greene would later travel to the [[Haiti]] of [[François Duvalier]], better known as Papa Doc, which became the scene of his 1966 novel ''[[The Comedians]]''. The owner of the [[Hotel Oloffson]] in [[Port-au-Prince]], where Greene was a frequent guest, later named a room after him.
Under the United States occupation at the end of [[World War II]] all armed forces in [[Occupied Japan]] were disbanded and production of katana with edges was banned except under police or government permit. The ban was overturned through a personal appeal by Dr. Homma Junji. During a meeting with [[General Douglas MacArthur]], Dr. Homma produced blades from the various periods of Japanese history and MacArthur was able to identify very quickly what blades held artistic merit and which could be considered purely weapons. As a result of this meeting, the ban was amended so that ''guntō'' weapons would be destroyed while swords of artistic merit could be owned and preserved. Even so, many katana were sold to American soldiers at a bargain price; as of 1958 there were more Japanese swords in America than in Japan. The vast majority of these 1,000,000 or more swords were ''guntō,'' but there were still a sizable number of older swords.
{{Quotation|There is so much weariness and disappointment in travel that people have to open up — in railway trains, over a fire, on the decks of steamers, and in the palm courts of hotels on a rainy day. They have to pass the time somehow, and they can pass it only with themselves. Like the characters in [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]] they have no reserves — you learn the most intimate secrets. You get an impression of a world peopled by eccentrics, of odd professions, almost incredible stupidities, and, to balance them, amazing endurances.|Graham Greene|The Lawless Roads (1939)}}
Swordsmiths had been increasingly turning to producing civilian goods after the Edo period but this disarmament and subsequent regulations almost put an end to the production of katana. A few smiths did continue their trade, and Dr. Homma went on to be a founding figure of the ''Nihon Bijitsu Hozon Token Kai,'' the Society for the Preservation of Art Swords, who made it their mission to preserve the old techniques and blades. With the efforts of other like-minded individuals, the katana avoided disappearing and many swordsmiths have continued the work begun by Munetsugu, re-discovering old swordmaking techniques in the process.
Many of his books have been filmed, most notably [[Brighton Rock (film)|''Brighton Rock'' (1947)]], and he also wrote several original [[screenplay]]s, most famously for the film ''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949). [[Michael Caine]] starred in both ''[[The Honorary Consul]]'' (1983) and the 2002 remake of ''[[The Quiet American]]'', while ''[[The End of the Affair]]'' (1999) starred [[Ralph Fiennes]] and was directed by [[Neil Jordan]].
Modern katana manufactured according to traditional methods are usually known as ''[[shinsakutō]]'' (newly made swords). Alternately, they can be termed [[shinken]] when they are designed for combat as opposed to [[iaito]] training swords. Some replica katana have been used in modern-day armed robberies.<ref>{{ cite web | title = Sword Robbers Strike Third Shop | publisher = IC Coventry | url = http://iccoventry.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100localnews/tm_objectid=16532854&method=full&siteid=50003&headline=sword-robbers-strike-third-shop-name_page.html }}</ref>
===Final years===
== Classification of Japanese swords ==
Greene moved to [[Antibes]] in 1966, to be close to Yvonne Cloetta, whom he had known for several years, and this relationship endured until his death. In 1981 he was awarded the [[Jerusalem Prize]], given to writers concerned with 'the freedom of the individual in society'. One of his final works, ''J'Accuse — The Dark Side of Nice'' (1982), concerns a legal matter embroiling him and his extended family in nearby [[Nice]]. In the pamphlet, he declared that [[organized crime]] flourished in Nice and that the upper levels of civic government had protected judicial and police corruption in the city. This led to a libel case, which he lost [http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/02/20/specials/greene-riviera.html]. He was vindicated after his death, however, when in 1994 the former mayor of Nice, [[Jacques Médecin]], was convicted of several counts of corruption and associated crimes and sentenced to prison.
[[Image:Katana blades.jpg|thumb|Several katana and wakizashi blades, illustrating the variations in length and curvature. The ''nakago'' are well visible.]]
In the last years of his life, Greene lived in the small resort city of [[Vevey]], on [[Lake Geneva]] in [[Switzerland]]. His book ''Dr. Fischer of Geneva or the Bomb Party'' of 1989 bases its themes on a combination of philosophy and geographic influence. He had ceased attending [[Mass]] and going to [[Confession]] some time in the 1950s, but in his last years it seems he sometimes received the [[sacraments]] from a Spanish priest who became a friend, Fr. Leopaldo Duran. On his death at the age of 86 in 1991, he was interred in the nearby cemetery in [[Corsier-sur-Vevey]].
What generally differentiates the different swords is their length. Japanese swords are measured in units of ''[[shaku]]'', a shaku being around 30cm or one foot). A blade shorter than 1 shaku is considered a ''[[tantō]]'' (knife). A blade longer than 1 shaku but less than 2 is considered a ''shōtō'' (short sword). The wakizashi and ''[[kodachi]]'' are in this category.
October 2004 saw the publication of the third and final volume of ''The Life of Graham Greene'' by [[Norman Sherry]], Greene's official biographer. The writing of this biography created a story in itself in that Sherry followed in Greene's footsteps, even coming down with diseases that Greene had come down with in the same place. Sherry's work reveals that Greene continued to submit reports to British intelligence until the end of his life. This has led scholars and Greene's reading public to entertain the provocative question, "Was Greene a novelist who was also a spy, or was his lifelong literary career the perfect cover?"
A blade longer than 2 shaku is considered a ''[[daitō]],'' or long sword. Before 1500 most swords were worn suspended from cords on a belt, blade-down. This style is called ''jindachi-zukuri'', and daitō worn in this fashion are called ''[[tachi]]'' (average blade length of 75 cm). From 1500 – 1867, almost all swords were worn through an [[obi (sash)|obi]], paired with a smaller blade. Both blades were blade-up. This style is called ''buke-zukuri'', and all daitō worn in this fashion are ''katana'', averaging 65 cm in blade length.
===Trivia===
A ''[[chiisakatana]]'' is simply a shorter katana. It is longer than the wakizashi, lying between one and two shaku in length. The most common reference to a chiisakatana is a shorter katana that does not have a companion blade. They were most commonly made in the ''buke-zukuri'' mounting.
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
{{Cleanup-section|May 2007}}
Greene greatly enjoyed parody. In 1949, when the ''[[New Statesman]]'' publication held a contest for parodies of Greene's distinctive writing style, he submitted an entry under a pseudonym and won second prize. (The first prize, he was surprised to learn, was awarded to an entry by his younger brother [[Hugh Greene|Hugh]].) The resulting work, ''The Stranger's Hand'', was later finished by another writer and brought to the screen by Italian film director [[Mario Soldati]]. In 1965, Greene entered a similar ''New Statesman'' parody contest, again under a pseudonym, and won an honourable mention.
The novel ''[[Brighton Rock (novel)|Brighton Rock]]'' is a particularly rich source of cultural allusions. It is quoted in "[[The West Wing]]" Season 2 finale episode "[[Two Cathedrals]]". President Bartlett quotes Greene saying, "You can't conceive, nor can I, the appalling strangeness of the mercy of God." He then goes on to say, "I don't know whose ass he was kissing because I think you're [God] just vindictive."<sub>6</sub> On [[Julian Cope]]'s first solo album, ''World Shut Your Mout'', one track is called "Kolly Kibber's Birthday", after the character in ''Brighton Rock''. The [[Morrissey]] song "NOW MY HEART IS FULL" lists four more of its characters:"Tell all of my friends/(I don't have too many/Just some rain-coated lovers' puny brothers)/Dallow, Spicer, Pinkie, Cubitt."
Abnormally long blades (longer than 3 shaku), usually carried across the back, are called ''[[ōdachi]]'' or ''[[nodachi]].'' The word ''ōdachi'' is also sometimes used as a synonym for katana.
Greene's short story "[[The Destructors]]" was featured in the movie ''[[Donnie Darko]]'', where a character confused him with ''[[Bonanza]]'''s [[Lorne Greene]].
Since 1867, restrictions and/or the deconstruction of the samurai class meant that most blades have been worn ''jindachi-zukuri'' style, like Western navy officers. Recently (since 1953) there has been a resurgence in the ''buke-zukuri'' style, permitted only for demonstration purposes. Swords designed specifically to be tachi are generally kotō rather than shintō, so they are generally better manufactured and more elaborately decorated. However, these are still katana if worn in modern ''buke-zukuri'' style.
Greene features in a song by [[The Volvos]] entitled 'Get Yourself a Good Wife' from the 1991 album ''Making it Up''.
Japanese swords can be traced back to one of five provinces, each of which had its own school, traditions and 'trademarks' - e.g., the swords from Mino province were "from the start famous for their sharpness". These schools are known as Gokaden (The Five Traditions).<ref>{{cite book | title = The Connoisseur's Book of Japanese Swords | id = ISBN 4-7700-2071-6 | year = 1997 | publisher = Kodansha International | first = Kokan | last = Nagayama | pages = 217 }}</ref> These traditions and provinces are as follows:
* [[Sagami Province|Sōshū]] School, known for mokume hada and midareba hamon in nei deki
* [[Yamato Province|Yamato]] School, known for masame hada and suguha hamon in nei deki
* [[Bizen Province|Bizen]] School, known for mokume hada and midareba hamon in noi deki
* [[Yamashiro Province|Yamashiro]] School, known for mokume hada and suguha hamon in nei deki
* [[Mino Province|Mino]] School, known for hard mokume hada and midareba mixed with togari-ba
Greene appears as character and narrator in the [[Doctor Who]] novel ''The Turing Test'', which gives a fictional account of Greene's time as spymaster in Sierra Leone and World War II Paris.
In the Koto era there were several other schools that did not fit within the Gokaden or were known to mix elements of each Gokaden, and they were called wakimono (small school). There were 19 commonly referenced wakimono.
Graham Greene makes acameo appearence in François Truffaut movie "La Nuit Americaine" (1973) as an English Insurance Broker.
== Manufacturing ==
<references/>
{{main|katana construction}}
6. as cited from http://www.whysanity.net/monos/westwing3.html
[[Image:Lame-renard-p1000662.jpg|thumb|Blacksmith Munechika (end of the 10th century), helped by a fox spirit, forging the blade ''ko-kitsune-maru'' ("Little fox"). The ''kami'' is represented by a woman surrounded by foxes. Engraving by Ogata Gekko (1859-1920), 1873.]]
==List of major works==
Katana and wakizashi were often forged with different profiles, different blade thicknesses, and varying amounts of [[grind]]. Wakizashi were not simply scaled-down katana; they were often forged in ''hira-zukuri'' or other such forms which were very rare on katana.
See [[List of books by Graham Greene]] for all works.
*''[[Brighton Rock]]'' (1938)
The daishō was not always forged together. If a samurai was able to afford a daishō, it was often composed of whichever two swords could be conveniently acquired, sometimes by different smiths and in different styles. Even when a daishō contained a pair of blades by the same smith, they were not always forged as a pair or mounted as one. Daishō made as a pair, mounted as a pair, and owned/worn as a pair, are therefore uncommon and considered highly valuable, especially if they still retain their original mountings (as opposed to later mountings, even if the later mounts are made as a pair).
*''[[The Power and the Glory]]'' (1940)
*''[[The Heart of the Matter]]'' (1948)
*''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949) (novella, as a basis for the screenplay}
*''[[The End of the Affair]]'' (1951)
*''[[Ways of Escape]]'' (1980) (autobiography)
===Further Forging =reading==
* [[Paul O'Prey]], A Reader's Guide to Graham Greene, Thames and Hudson, 1988
* [[Richard Michael Kelly|Kelly, Richard Michael]], ''Graham Greene'', Ungar, 1984
*[[Richard Michael Kelly|Kelly, Richard Michael]], ''Graham Greene: A Study of the Short Fiction''. Twayne, 1992.
* [[Leopoldo Duran|Duran, Leopoldo]] , ''Graham Greene: Friend and Brother'', translated by Euan Cameron, HarperCollins
* [[Michael Shelden|Shelden, Michael]] , ''Graham Greene: The Enemy Within'', (pub. William Heinemann, 1994), Random House ed. 1995: ISBN 0-679-42883-6
* [[Norman Sherry|Sherry, Norman]] (1989-2004), ''The Life of Graham Greene: vol. 1 1904-1939'', (pub. Random House UK, 1989, ISBN 0-224-02654-2), Viking ed. 1989: ISBN 0-670-81376-1, Penguin reprint 2004: ISBN 0-14-200420-0
* [[Norman Sherry|Sherry, Norman]], ''The Life of Graham Greene: vol. 2 1939-1955'', (pub. Viking 1994: ISBN 0-670-86056-5), Penguin reprint 2004: ISBN 0-14-200421-9
* [[Norman Sherry|Sherry, Norman]], ''The Life of Graham Greene: vol. 3 1955-1991'', (pub. Viking 2004, ISBN 0-670-03142-9)
* ''The Graham Greene Film Reader''
==External links==
[[Image:Scene-de-forge-edo-p1000665.jpg|thumb|Engraving of the Edo era depicting forge scenes.]]
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://members.tripod.com/~greeneland/ Greeneland: the world of Graham Greene]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/journal/ggbtps/GGBT_SiteMap.htm The Graham Greene Birthplace Trust]
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=1864 Graham Greene Writeup in the Literary Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/greene.htm Biography at Authors' Calendar website]
*[http://www.hirohurl.net/lawlessroads.html A Review of Graham Greene's "Lawless Roads"]
*[http://www.wiredforbooks.org/normansherry/ 1989 audio interview of Norman Sherry, biographer of Graham Greene, RealAudio]
*[http://theparisreview.org/viewinterview.php/prmMID/5180 The Paris Review Interview]
*[http://www.catholicauthors.com/greene.html CatholicAuthors] Biography by Joseph Pearce
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5204 Find-A-Grave profile for Graham Greene]
[[Category:1904 births|Greene, Graham]]
The forging of a Japanese blade typically took hours or days, and was considered a sacred art.<ref>Irvine, Gregory. The Japanese Sword: The Soul of the Samurai. London: V&A Publications, 2000.</ref> As with many complex endeavors, rather than a single craftsman, several artists were involved. There was a smith to forge the rough shape, often a second smith (apprentice) to fold the metal, a specialist polisher, and even a specialist for the edge itself. Often, there were sheath, hilt, and tsuba specialists as well.
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[[Category:Roman Catholic writers|Greene, Graham]]
[[Category:World War II spies|Greene, Graham]]
[[bn:গ্রাহাম গ্রীন]]
The most famous part of the manufacturing process was the folding of the steel. Japanese swords and other edged weapons are manufactured by the Chinese method of repeatedly heating, folding and hammering the metal. This practice became popular due to the use of highly impure metals, stemming from the low temperature yielded in the [[smelting]] at that time and place. The folding did several things:
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* It eliminated any bubbles in the metal.
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* It homogenized the metal, spreading the elements (such as carbon) evenly throughout - increasing the effective strength by decreasing the number of potential weak points.
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* It burned off many impurities, helping to overcome the poor quality of the raw Japanese steel.
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* It created layers, by continuously [[decarburization|decarburizing]] the surface and bringing it into the blade's interior, which gives the swords their grain (for comparison see [[pattern welding]]); however, the belief that the layered structure provides enhanced mechanical properties of the steel is false, as layers act as weld points which can only serve to weaken the integrity of the blade.
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Contrary to popular belief, continued folding will not create a "super-strong" blade; once impurities are burnt off and the carbon content homogenized, further folding offers little benefit and will gradually burn out the carbon, leading eventually to a softer steel less able to hold an edge. More than about a dozen folds are uncommon and swords never have more than two dozen folds. A blade folded 12 times will have more than 4,000 'layers' underneath the initial blade to begin with. Even before this point, more layers does not equal a better sword; an even and clean composition is obtained early in the folding process, and control of carbon content has a much greater effect on the blade's functionality. Thus, the best results were usually obtained at 8-10 folds.{{cn}}
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One of the core philosophies of the Japanese sword is that it has a single edge. This means that the rear of the sword can be used to reinforce the edge, and the Japanese took full advantage of this. When finished, the steel is not [[quenching|quenched]] or tempered in the conventional European fashion. Steel’s exact flex and strength vary dramatically with heat variation. If steel cools quickly, from a hot temperature, it becomes [[martensite]], which is very hard but brittle. Slower, from a lower temperature, and it becomes [[pearlite]], which has significantly more flex but does not hold an edge. To control the cooling, the sword is heated and painted with layers of sticky clay. A thin layer on the edge of the sword ensures quick cooling for a hard edge, with a thicker layer of mud on the rest of the blade causing slower cooling and softer, more flexible steel to give the blade the required flex. When the application is finished, the sword is quenched and hardens correctly. This process also makes the edge of the blade contract less than the back when cooling down, something that aids the smith in establishing the curvature of the blade.
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=== Decoration ===
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Almost all blades are decorated, although not all blades are decorated on the visible part of the blade. Once the blade is cool, and the mud is scraped off, the blade has designs and grooves cut into it. One of the most important markings on the sword is performed here: the file markings. These are cut into the tang, or the hilt-section of the blade, where they will be covered by a hilt later. The tang is never supposed to be cleaned: doing this can cut the value of the sword in half or more. The purpose is to show how well the blade steel ages.
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Some other marks on the blade are aesthetic: signatures and dedications written in kanji and engravings depicting gods, dragons, or other acceptable beings, called ''horimono''. Some are more practical. The presence of a so-called "blood groove" or [[fuller (weapon)|fuller]] does not in actuality allow blood to flow more freely from cuts made with the sword. It leads to no demonstrable difference in ease withdrawing a blade nor reduce the sucking sound that many people believe was the reason for including such a feature in commando knives in World War II. The grooves are analogous in structure to an [[I beam]], lessening the weight of the sword yet keeping structural integrity and strength. Furthermore the grooves (always done on both sides of the blade) make a whistling sound when the sword is swung (the ''tachikaze''). If the swordsman hears one whistle when swinging a grooved katana then that means that just one groove is making the whistle. Two whistles means that both the edge of the blade and a groove are making a whistle, and three whistles together (the blade edge and both grooves) would tell the swordsman that his blade is perfectly angled with the direction of the cut.
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In Japanese, the scabbard for a katana is referred to as a ''saya'', and the handguard piece, often intricately designed as an individual work of art — especially in later years of the [[Edo period]] — was called the ''[[tsuba]]''. Other aspects of the mountings (''koshirae''), such as the ''menuki'' (decorative grip swells), ''[[habaki]]'' (blade collar and scabbard wedge), ''fuchi'' and ''kashira'' (handle collar and cap), ''kozuka'' (small utility knife handle), ''kogai'' (decorative skewer-like implement), ''saya'' lacquer, and ''tsuka-ito'' (professional handle wrap, also named ''emaki''), received similar levels of artistry.
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== Use ==
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The ''tachi'' became the primary weapon on the battlefield during Kamakura period, used by cavalry mounted samurai. The sword was mostly considered as a secondary weapon until then, used in the battlefield only after the bow and spear were no longer feasible. During the Edo period samurai went about on foot unarmored, and with much less combat being fought on horseback in open battlefields the need for an effective close quarter weapon resulted in samurai being armed with daisho.
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Testing of swords, called [[tameshigiri]], was practiced on a variety of materials to test the sword's sharpness and practice cutting technique. This included prisoners.{{cn}}
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[[Kenjutsu]] is the use of the Japanese sword in combat. The katana was primarily a cutting weapon, or more specifically, a slicing one. However, the katana's moderate curve allows for effective thrusting as well. The hilt of the katana was usually held with two hands, though a fair amount of one-handed techniques exist. The placement of the right hand was dictated by both the length of the tsuka and the length of the wielder's arm.
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For cutting, there was a specific technique called 'ten uchi.' Ten uchi refers to an organized motion made by arms and wrist, during a descending strike. As the sword is swung downwards, the elbow joint drastically extends at the last instant, popping the sword into place. This motion causes the swordsman's grip to twist slightly and if done correctly, is said to feel like wringing a towel. This motion itself caused the katana's blade to impact its target with sharp force, and is used to break initial resistance. From there, fluidly continuing along the motion wrought by 'ten uchi,' the arms would follow through with the stroke, dragging the sword through its target. Because the katana slices rather than chops, it is this 'dragging' which allows it to do maximum damage, and is thusly incorporated into the cutting technique. At full speed, the swing will appear to be full stroke, the katana passing through the targeted object. The segments of the swing are hardly visible, if at all. Assuming that the target is, for example, a human torso -- ten uchi will break the initial resistance supplied by shoulder muscles and the clavical. The follow through would continue the slicing motion, through whatever else it would encounter, until the blade inherently exited the body, due a combination of the motion and its curved shape.
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Nearly all styles of kenjutsu share the same five basic guard stances. They are as follows; chudan no kamae (middle guard), jodan no kamae (high guard), gedan no kamae (low guard) hasso (side guard), and waki no gamae (rear guard).
The katana's razor-edge was so hard that upon hitting an equally hard or harder object, such as another sword's edge, chipping became a definite risk. As such, blocking an oncoming blow blade-to-blade was generally avoided. In fact, evasive body maneuvers were preferred over blade contact by most, but, if such was not done, the side or the back of the blade was used for defense in many styles, rather than the precious edge. A popular method for defeating descending slashes was to simply beat the sword aside. In some instances, an ''umbrella block'' — positioning the blade overhead, diagonally (point towards the ground, pommel towards the sky) - would create an effective shield against a descending strike. If the angle of the block was drastic enough, the curve of the katana's spine would cause the attacker's blade to slide along its counter and off to the side.<ref>Irvine, Gregory. The Japanese Sword: The Soul of the Samurai. London: V&A Publications, 2000.</ref>
== Comparisons with swords of other cultures ==
The Japanese sword has been praised widely for its sharpness and effect on the battlefield, but its reputation as a superior weapon has led to the exaggeration of its actual capabilities in popular culture.
Traditional Japanese steel is called tamahagane, and as it is never fully melted during production it is relatively heterogeneous but more labor-intensive to work than European steel. Weapons such as swords from [[Toledo, Spain]] could be produced in large quantities at a low cost with a moderate sacrifice in quality because of the greater availability of iron in Europe. Because Japan was an iron-poor society, making a sword was an inherently expensive undertaking, and so the majority of swords made were of high quality.
The differences between the katana and other swords are due less to the limitations of their makers than to the requirements of their use. Katana are capable of damaging Japanese armor to varying degrees: Older Koto era swords were designed when armor was prevalent and were generally thicker and more curved; consequently they had relatively good armor penetration, although weapons such as the [[yari]] were favored for armored opponents because sword attacks sometimes did not penetrate deeply enough to be fatal. As sword making moved onto the Shinto period the blades tended to become thinner and slightly less curved for use against unarmored opponents. It is worth noting that European swords of a similar length and weight to the katana were virtually useless against European [[plate armour]] and [[chainmail]]. In European swordsmanship the correct technique against mail was to thrust through it, and against plate, to [[Half-sword|take the sword by the blade in the left hand]], and thrust at the gaps in the armor, often after [[grappling]] the opponent to an unfavourable position. See [[Fiore dei Liberi]]'s ''[[Flos Duellatorum]].'' A similar technique exists in many iaido and kenjutsu ryu-ha.
Many sword types from the very beginning of the history of the sword, through the medieval period and the renaissance to the 20th century, were designed for the same combat modes as Japanese ones, fighting against lightly-armored or unarmored men on foot. Styles that relied on a single longsword for both offense and defense were well known outside of Japan as well, as documented in numerous fencing treatises such as Joachim Meyer's ''Fechtbuch'',<ref>http://www.schielhau.org/Meyer.title.html</ref> and disparities in weight have been greatly exaggerated; both katanas and other longswords weighed between 1.0 and 1.5 kg (2-3 pounds).
The majority of the swords of other cultures were of a moderate hardness throughout the blade as opposed to the variable hardness of the katana. A harder edge generally stays sharp longer and will cut a harder target, but is more prone to chipping, while a softer edge loses its sharpness and becomes gouged more easily, but is more resistant to fractures.
== See also ==
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* [[List of Wazamono]]
* [[tanka (sword)|Tanka]]
* [[Ninjatō]]
* [[Uchigatana]]
* [[Wodao]](倭刀)
* [[Zatoichi]]
* [[Zanpakutō]]
* [[Tsurugi]]
* [[Zanbatō]]
* [[Shinai]]
=== Some famous katana smiths ===
* [[Amakuni]]
* [[Masamune]]
* [[Muramasa]]
* [[Nagasone Kotetsu]]
* [[Shintogo Kunimitsu]]
* Magoroku Kanemoto
=== Famous historic katana users ===
* [[Ashikaga Yoshiteru]]
* [[Tsukahara Bokuden]]
* [[Iizasa Ienao]]
* [[Miyamoto Musashi]]
* [[Sasaki Kojiro]]
* [[Okita Soji]]
* [[Saito Hajime]]
* [[Hattori Hanzo]]
* [[Minamoto Yoshitsune]]
* [[Kawakami Gensai]]
== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>
== Further reading ==
* Irvine, Gregory. ''The Japanese Sword: The Soul of the Samurai.'' London: V&A Publications, 2000.
* Kapp, Leon. ''The Craft of the Japanese Sword.'' Kodansha Intl. Ltd., 1987.
* Perrin, Noel. ''Giving Up the Gun: Japan's Reversion to the Sword,'' 1543-1879. Boston: David R. Godine, 1979.
* Robinson, H. Russell. ''Japanese Arms and Armor.'' New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1969.
* Sinclaire, Clive. ''Samurai: The Weapons and Spirit of the Japanese Warrior''
* Yumoto, John M. ''The Samurai Sword: A Handbook.'' Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 1958.
== External links ==
{{Commonscat|katana}}
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~steinrl/nihonto.htm Japanese Sword Index and Visual Glossary]
* [http://www.ksky.ne.jp/~sumie99/styles.html Diagrams of different ''katana'' and ''wakizashi'' blade shapes]
* [http://www.aoi-art.com/ Japanese Sword and Fitting Aoi-Art.com]
* [http://www.japanese-swords.com/pages/terms.htm Sword Terminology]
* [http://www.hi-net.zaq.ne.jp/osaru/e_index.htm Japanese sword schools]
* [http://members.shaw.ca/nihontonut/glossary.html Japanese Sword Glossary]
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Tsuka-p1000660.jpg|Handle of a katana of the 19th century given to an ambassador.
Image:Soie-wakisashi-p1000658.jpg|''Nakago'' of a wakizashi blade.
Image:Tachi-p1000626.jpg|''Kissaki'' of a ''tachi'' blade, Bizen school, signed Kuni Osafune Yoshigake; ''Nambokucho'' era (14th century).
Image:Tanka-tsuba-p1010068.jpg|The ''[[habaki]]'' which locks the blade is visible just under the ''[[tsuba]]'' (guard).
Image:Edo period Wakizashi.jpg|An Edo era wakizashi. The ''tsukamaki'' (handle lacing) is off, showing the shark skin. Note the decoration of the ''saya''.
Image:Tsuba_2.jpg|Elaborated ''[[tsuba]]'' of the ''Edo'' era.
Image:Saya-bois.jpg|Wooden scabbard, ''[[shirasaya]],'' used to protect the blade when not worn for some time.
</gallery>
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