Gothic language and Lawrence Anthony Earth Organization: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox Language

[[Image:TEO1.jpg|right|]]

|name=Gothic

'''The Earth Organization''' is an independent, international [[non-profit]], [[non-partisan]], conservation and environmental organization, with new solutions, committed to the creative, responsible rehabilitation of planet Earth and the plant and animal kingdoms.

|nativename=''𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺''<ref name="Plane1">These characters reside in [[Unicode]]'s Plane 1, and may not appear on all platforms.</ref> (''Gutisk'')

|pronunciation=[ˈɡuˌtʰisk]

|region=throughout mainland [[Europe]]

|extinct=by [[10th century]]

|familycolor=Indo-European

|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]

|fam3=[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]

|script=[[Gothic alphabet]]

|iso2=got|iso3=got}}

The Earth Organization was founded in 2003 by veteran [[South African]] conservationist [[Lawrence Anthony]].

{{SpecialChars}}

The '''Gothic language''' (''*gutiska razda'', *𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 [Runic: ᚷᚢᛏᛁᛊᚲᚨ ᚱᚨᛉᛞᚨ], *[[Image:Gothic language in Gothic.svg|100x15px|"Gothic language"]]<!--𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰-->) is an [[extinct language|extinct]] [[Germanic language]] that was spoken by the [[Goths]] and specifically by the [[Visigoth]]s. It is known primarily from [[Codex Argenteus]] dating from the [[4th century]], and is the only [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic language]] with a sizeable corpus. All others, including [[Burgundian language|Burgundian]] and [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]], are known, if at all, only from proper names that survived in historical accounts.

The Earth Organization works in association with corporations and other environmental groups around the world in projects of mutual interest.

As a Germanic language, Gothic is a part of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family. It is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation, but it has no modern descendants. The oldest documents in Gothic date back to the [[4th century]]. The language was in decline by the mid-[[6th century]], due in part to the military defeat of the Goths at the hands of the [[Franks]], the elimination of the Goths in Italy, massive conversion to primarily Latin-speaking Roman Catholicism, and geographic isolation. The language survived in the [[Iberian peninsula]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) as late as the [[8th century]], and [[Franks|Frankish]] author [[Walafrid Strabo]] wrote that it was still spoken in the lower [[Danube]] area and in isolated mountain regions in [[Crimea]] in the early [[9th century]] (see [[Crimean Gothic language|Crimean Gothic]]). Gothic-seeming terms found in later (post-9th century) manuscripts may not belong to the same language.

==Purpose==

The existence of such early attested corpora makes it a language of considerable interest in [[comparative linguistics]].

The stated purpose of The Earth Organization is:

#''To create a fundamental change in mankind’s awareness of, and relationship to, his environment and the plant and animal kingdoms, by example and education, thereby reversing the downward spiral of life on Earth.''

The native name for the language is unattested, and the reconstruction ''*gutiska razda'' is based on [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Gothiskandza]]'', read as ''gutisk-andja'', "gothic end (or border)". ''razda'' "speech" is attested, e. g. in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:73 [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/browse/token/?ID=T3635].

#''To bridge the gap between mankind, industry, commerce and the environment through applicable environmentalism, workable tools, accurate data and a business and scientific approach to the field of the environment.''

#''To raise ethical standards within the conservation movement.''

The Earth Organization has a strong scientific orientation and a reputation for bold conservation initiatives, including the rescue of the [[Baghdad zoo]] during the coalition [[invasion of Iraq]] in April 2003, negotiations with the infamous Ugandan [[Lords Resistance Army]], to protect game rangers and raise awareness of endangered species, including the [[Northern White Rhinoceros]], and work with remote rural African communities to rebuild cultural and traditional ties to nature.

''Words in Gothic written in this article are [[transliteration|transliterated]] into the [[Roman alphabet]] using the system described on the [[Gothic alphabet]] page.''

Through the activities of its scientific advisory board, The Earth Organization forwards and supports environmental education, targeting different age and culture groups, with the intention of firmly entrenching environmental education as a part of the syllabus of educational institutions.

==Documents in Gothic==

[[Image:Ambrosianus.jpg|thumb|240px|leaf of the Codex Ambrosianus B]]

The Earth Organization is registered as an independent non-profit organization in South Africa, with branches in the USA, France, Canada, Hungary and Slovakia.

There are only a few surviving documents in Gothic, not enough to completely reconstruct the language.

* The largest body of surviving documentation consists of [[codices]] written and commissioned by the [[Arianism|Arian]] bishop [[Ulfilas]] (also known as ''Wulfila'', [[311]]-[[382]]), who was the leader of a community of [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] [[Christian]]s in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Moesia]] (modern [[Bulgaria]]). He commissioned a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] into the Gothic language, of which roughly three-quarters of the [[New Testament]] and some fragments of the [[Old Testament]] have survived.

:*[[Codex Argenteus]] (and the '''Speyer fragment'''): 188 leaves.

::The best preserved Gothic manuscript, the ''[[Codex Argenteus]]'', dates from the [[6th century]] and was preserved and transmitted by northern Italian [[Ostrogoths]]. It contains a large part of the four [[Gospel]]s. Since it is a translation from Greek, the language of the ''Codex Argentus'' is replete with borrowed Greek words and Greek usages. The syntax in particular is often copied directly from the Greek.

:::Website [[Georgetown University]] for [http://epsilon3.georgetown.edu/~ballc/languageid/ Language Identification] using n-gram algoritm recognize the full text of Codex Argentus from Wilhelm Steinberg edition as Czech or Polish (a>0.2), if the text is entered whithout spaces, spaces dividing words are not included in original manuscript. This edition in 60k words has 10k unique words. Ratio 6:1 in such long text is realy unusual if not artificial.

:*[[Codex Ambrosianus]] ([[Milan]]) (and the '''Codex Taurinensis'''): Five parts, totalling 193 leaves.

::The ''Codex Ambrosianus'' contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the [[Gospel]]s and the [[Epistle]]s), of the [[Old Testament]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]), and some commentaries known as ''[[Skeireins]]''. It is therefore likely that the text had been somewhat modified by copyists.

:*[[Codex Gissensis]] ([[Gießen]]): 1 leaf, fragments of Luke 23-24. It was found in Egypt in 1907, but destroyed by water damage in 1945.

:*[[Codex Carolinus]]: ([[Wolfenbüttel]]): 4 leaves, fragments of Romans 11-15.

:*'''Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750''': 3 leaves, pages 57/58, 59/60 and 61/62 of the [[Skeireins]].

* A scattering of old documents: alphabets, calendars, glosses found in a number of manuscripts and a few [[Gothic runic inscriptions|runic inscriptions]] (between 3 and 13) that are known to be or suspected to be Gothic. Some scholars believe that these inscriptions are not at all Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981)

*A few dozen terms compiled by the Fleming [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]], the [[Habsburg]] ambassador to the court of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[Istanbul]] from 1555 to 1562, who was curious to find out about the language and by arrangement met two speakers of [[Crimean Gothic]] and listed the terms in his compilation ''Turkish Letters''. These terms are from nearly a millennium later and are therefore not representative of the language of Ulfilas. See [[Crimean Gothic]].

There have been unsubstantiated reports of the discovery of other parts of Ulfilas' bible. [[Heinrich May]] in [[1968]] claimed to have found in England 12 leaves of a [[palimpsest]] containing parts of the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. The claim was never substantiated.

Only fragments of the Gothic translation of the [[Bible]] have been preserved. The translation was apparently done in the [[Balkans]] region by people in close contact with Greek [[Christianity|Christian]] culture. It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the [[Visigoths]] in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in [[Italy]], the [[Balkans]] and what is now [[Ukraine]]. In exterminating [[Arianism|Arian]]ism, many texts in Gothic were probably expunged and overwritten as [[palimpsest]]s, or collected and burned. Apart from Biblical texts, the only substantial Gothic document which still exists, and the only lengthy text known to have been composed originally in the Gothic language, is the "[[Skeireins]]", a few pages of commentary on the [[Gospel of John]].

There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about [[800]] AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medieval texts that mention the [[Goths]], it must be noted that many writers used the word ''Goths'' to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe (such as the [[Varangians]]), many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even referred to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]-speaking people as Goths.

The relationship between the language of the [[Crimean Gothic|Crimean Goths]] and Ulfilas' Gothic is less clear. The few fragments of their language from the [[16th century]] show significant differences from the language of the Gothic Bible, although some of the glosses, such as ''ada'' for "egg", imply a common heritage.

Generally, the Gothic language refers to the language of [[Ulfilas]], but the attestations themselves are largely from the [[6th century]] - long after Ulfilas had died. The above list is not exhaustive, and a more extensive list is available on the website of the [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/manuscripts/ Wulfilas Project].

==Alphabet==

{{main|Gothic alphabet}}

Ulfilas' Gothic, as well as that of the ''Skeireins'' and various other manuscripts, was written using an alphabet that was most likely invented by Ulfilas himself for his translation. Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the [[Greek alphabet]] only, while others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of [[Runic]] or [[Latin]] origin.

This [[Gothic alphabet]] has nothing to do with [[Blackletter]] (also called ''Gothic script''), which was used to write the [[Roman alphabet]] from the [[12th century|12th]] to [[14th century|14th centuries]] and evolved into the [[Fraktur]] writing later used to write [[German language|German]].

==Sounds==

It is possible to determine more or less exactly how the Gothic of [[Ulfilas]] was pronounced, primarily through comparative phonetic reconstruction. Furthermore, because Ulfilas tried to follow the original Greek text as much as possible in his translation, we know that he used the same writing conventions as those of contemporary Greek. Since the Greek of that period is well documented, it is possible to reconstruct much of Gothic pronunciation from translated texts. In addition, the way in which non-Greek names are transcribed in the Greek Bible and in Ulfilas' Bible is very informative.

===Vowels===

{| border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="10"

|-----

| Monophthongs<br />[[Image:Phon_gotique2.png]]

| Diphthongs<br />[[Image:Phon_gotique3.png]]

|}

* {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} can be either long or short. Gothic writing distinguishes between long and short vowels only for {{IPA|/i/}} - writing ''i'' for the short form and ''ei'' for the long (a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] or ''false diphthong''), in imitation of Greek usage (ει = /iː/). Single vowels are sometimes long where a historically present [[nasal consonant]] has been dropped in front of an {{IPA|/h/}} (a case of [[compensatory lengthening]]). Thus, the preterite of the verb ''briggan'' {{IPA|[briŋgan]}} "to bring" (English ''bring'', Dutch ''brengen'', German ''bringen'') becomes ''brahta'' {{IPA|[braːxta]}} (English ''brought'', Dutch ''bracht'', German ''brachte''), from the [[proto-Germanic]] *''braŋk-dē''. In detailed [[transliteration]], where the intent is more [[phonetic transcription]], length is noted by a [[macron]] (or failing that, often a [[circumflex]]): ''brāhta'', ''brâhta''. {{IPA|/aː/}} is found often enough in other contexts: ''brūks'' "useful" (Dutch ''gebruik'', German ''Gebrauch'', Swedish ''bruk'' "usage").

* {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} are long [[close-mid vowel]]s. They are written as ''e'' and ''o'': ''ne{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|[neːʍ]}} "near" (English ''nigh'', Dutch ''nader'', German ''nah''); ''fodjan'' {{IPA|[foːdjan]}} "to feed".

* {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} are short [[open-mid vowel]]s. They are noted using the digraphs ''ai'' and ''au'': ''taihun'' {{IPA|[tɛhun]}} "ten" (Dutch ''tien'', German ''zehn''), ''dauhtar'' {{IPA|[dɔxtar]}} "daughter" (Dutch ''dochter'', German ''Tochter''). In transliterating Gothic, accents are placed on the second vowel of these digraphs ''aí'' and ''aú'' to distinguish them from the original diphthongs ''ái'' and ''áu'': ''taíhun'', ''daúhtar''. In most cases short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i, u/}} before {{IPA|/r, h, ʍ/}}. Furthermore, the reduplication syllable of the reduplicating preterites has ''ai'' as well, which is probably pronounced as a short {{IPA|[ɛ]}}. Finally, short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} occur in loan words from Greek and Latin (''aípiskaúpus'' {{IPA|[ɛpiskɔpus]}} = {{Polytonic|ἐπίσκοπος}} "bishop", ''laíktjo'' {{IPA|[lɛktjoː]}} = ''lectio'' "lection", ''Paúntius'' {{IPA|[pɔntius]}} = ''Pontius'').

* The Germanic [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'' appear as ''ai'' and ''au'' in Gothic (normally written with an accent on the first vowel to distinguish them from ''ai, au'' < Germanic ''i/e, u''). Some researchers suppose that they were still pronounced as diphthongs in Gothic, i.e. {{IPA|/ai/}} and {{IPA|/au/}}, whereas others think that they have become long [[open-mid vowel]]s, i.e. {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}}: ''ains'' {{IPA|[ains] / [ɛːns]}} "one" (German ''eins''), ''augo'' {{IPA|[auɣoː] / [ɔːɣoː]}} "eye" (German ''Auge''). In Latin sources Gothic names with Germanic ''au'' are rendered with ''au'' until the 4th century and ''o'' later on (''Austrogoti'' > ''Ostrogoti''). Long {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}} occur as allophones of {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/uː, oː/}} respectively before a following vowel: ''waian'' {{IPA|[wɛːan]}} "to blow" (Dutch ''waaien'', German ''wehen''), ''bauan'' {{IPA|[bɔːan]}} "to build" (Dutch ''bouwen'', German "bauen", Swedish ''bo'' "live"), also in Greek words ''Trauada'' "Troad" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Τρῳάς}}).

* {{IPA|/y/}} (pronounced like German ''ü'' and French ''u'' is a Greek sound used only in borrowed words. It is transliterated as ''w'' in vowel positions: ''azwmus'' {{IPA|[azymus]}} "unleavened bread" (< Gk. {{polytonic|ἄζυμος}}). It represents an υ (y) or the diphthong οι (oi) in Greek, both of which were pronounced {{IPA|[y]}} in period Greek. Since the sound was foreign to Gothic, it was most perhaps pronounced {{IPA|[i]}}.

* {{IPA|/iu/}} is a descending [[diphthong]], i.e. {{IPA|[iu̯]}} and not {{IPA|[i̯u]}}: ''diups'' {{IPA|[diu̯ps]}} "deep" (Dutch ''diep'', German ''tief'', Swedish ''djup'').

* Greek diphthongs: In [[Ulfilas]]' era, all the diphthongs of classical Greek had become simple vowels in speech (''[[monophthong]]ization''), except for αυ (au) and ευ (eu), which were probably still pronounced as {{IPA|[aβ]}} and {{IPA|[ɛβ]}}. (They evolved into {{IPA|[av/af]}} and {{IPA|[ev/ef]}} in modern Greek.) Ulfilas notes them, in words borrowed from Greek, as ''aw'' and ''aiw'', probably pronounced {{IPA|[au, ɛu]}}: ''Pawlus'' {{IPA|[paulus]}} "Paul" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Παῦλος}}), ''aíwaggelista'' {{IPA|[ɛwaŋgeːlista]}} "evangelist" (Gk. {{Polytonic|εὐαγγελιστής}}, via the Latin ''evangelista'').

* Simple vowels and diphthongs (original and spurious ones) can be followed by a {{IPA|[w]}}, which was likely pronounced as the second element of a diphthong with roughly the sound of {{IPA|[u]}}. It seems likely that this is more of an instance of [[phonetic coalescence]] than of phonological diphthongs (such as, for example, the sound {{IPA|/aj/}} in the French word ''paille'' ("straw"), which is not the diphthong {{IPA|/ai/}} but rather a vowel followed by an [[approximant]]): ''alew'' {{IPA|[aleːw]}} "olive oil" (< Latin ''oleum''), ''snáiws'' {{IPA|[snɛːws] }} ("snow"), ''lasiws'' {{IPA|[lasiws]}} "tired" (English ''lazy'').

===Consonants===

{| border="2" cellpadding="5" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;"

!&nbsp;

!colspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labials]]

!colspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dentals]]

!colspan=2|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolars]]

!colspan=2|[[Palatal consonant|Palatals]]

!colspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velars]]

!colspan=2|[[Labiovelar consonant|Labiovelars]]

![[Laryngeal consonant|Laryngeals]]

|-

![[Plosive]]s

| ''p'' {{IPA|/p/}}

| ''b'' {{IPA|/b/}}

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

| ''t'' {{IPA|/t/}}

| ''d'' {{IPA|/d/}}

|&nbsp;

| ''?ddj'' {{IPA|/ɟː/}}

| ''k'' {{IPA|/k/}}

| ''g'' {{IPA|/g/}}

| ''q'' {{IPA|/kʷ/}}

| ''gw'' {{IPA|/gʷ/}}

|&nbsp;

|-

![[Fricative]]s

| ''f'' {{IPA|/ɸ, f/}}

| ''b'' {{IPA|[β]}}

| ''þ'' {{IPA|/θ/}}

| ''d'' {{IPA|[ð]}}

| ''s'' {{IPA|/s/}}

| ''z'' {{IPA|/z/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

| ''g, h'' {{IPA|[x]}}

| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}}

| ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|/ʍ/}}

|&nbsp;

| ''h'' {{IPA|/h/}}

|-

![[Approximant]]s

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''j'' {{IPA|/j/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''w'' {{IPA|/w/}}

|&nbsp;

|-

![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]s

|&nbsp;

| ''m'' {{IPA|/m/}}

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''n'' {{IPA|/n/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''g, n'' {{IPA|/ŋ/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|&nbsp;

|-

![[Lateral approximant|Laterals]]

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''l'' {{IPA|/l/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|&nbsp;

|-

![[Trill]]s

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2| &nbsp;

|&nbsp;

| ''r'' {{IPA|/r/}}

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|colspan=2|&nbsp;

|&nbsp;

|}

In general, Gothic consonants are [[Final devoicing|devoiced]] at the ends of words. Gothic is rich in fricative consonants (although many of them may have been [[approximant]]s, it's hard to separate the two) derived by the processes described in [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] and characteristic of [[Germanic languages]]. Gothic is unusual among Germanic languages in having a {{IPA|/z/}} phoneme which has not become {{IPA|/r/}} through [[R-colored vowel|rhotacization]]. Furthermore, the doubling of written consonants between vowels suggests that Gothic made distinctions between long and short, or [[Gemination|geminated]] consonants: ''atta'' {{IPA|[atːa]}} "dad", ''kunnan'' {{IPA|[kunːan]}} "to know" (Dutch ''kunnen'', German ''können'' "to be able", Swedish: ''kunna'').

====Stops====

* The voiceless stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are regularly noted by ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'' respectively: ''paska'' {{IPA|[paska]}} ("Easter", from the Greek {{Polytonic|πάσχα}}), ''tuggo'' {{IPA|[tuŋgoː]}} ("tongue"), ''kalbo'' {{IPA|[kalboː]}} ("calf"). The stops probably had (non-phonemic) aspiration like in most modern Germanic languages: {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}. Thus, the [[High German consonant shift]] seems to presuppose aspiration.

* The letter ''q'' is probably a voiceless [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|/kʷ/}} ({{IPA|[kʷʰ]}}), comparable to the Latin ''qu'': ''qiman'' {{IPA|[kʷiman]}} "to come". In the later Germanic languages this phoneme has become either a voiceless [[velar stop]] + a [[labio-velar approximant]] (English ''qu'') or a simple voiceless [[velar stop]] (English ''c, k'')

* The voiced stops {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} are noted by the letters ''b'', ''d'' and ''g''. To judge from the other Germanic languages, they were probably restricted to a word-initial position and the position after a nasal; in other positions they had affricative allophones. In the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant, they were most likely also devoiced: ''blinds'' {{IPA|[blints]}} "blind", ''lamb'' {{IPA|[lamp]}} "lamb".

* There was probably also a voiced [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|/gʷ/}}, which was written with the digraph ''gw''. It occurred after a nasal, e.g. ''saggws'' {{IPA|[saŋgʷs]}} "song", or long as a regular outcome of Germanic *''ww'', e.g. ''triggws'' {{IPA|[trigʷːs]}} "faithful" (English ''true'', German ''treu'', Swedish ''trygg'').

* Similarly the letters ''ddj'', which is the regular outcome of Germanic *''jj'', may represent a voiced palatal stop, {{IPA|/ɟː/}}: ''waddjus'' {{IPA|[twaɟːe]}} "wall" (Swedish ''vägg''), ''twaddje'' {{IPA|[waɟːeː]}} " two (genitive)" (older Swedish ''tvägge'').

====Fricatives====

* {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} are usually written ''s'' and ''z''. The latter corresponds to Germanic *''z'' (which has become ''r'' or silent in the other Germanic languages); at the end of a word, it is regularly devoiced to ''s''. E.g. ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs]}} "six", ''máiza'' {{IPA|[mɛːza]}} "greater" (English ''more'', Dutch ''meer'', German ''mehr'') ~ ''máis'' {{IPA|[mɛːs]}} "more, rather".

* {{IPA|/ɸ/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}}, written ''f'' and ''þ'', are voiceless bilabial and voiceless dental fricatives respectively. It is likely that the relatively unstable sound {{IPA|/ɸ/}} became {{IPA|/f/}}. ''f'' and ''þ'' are also derived from ''b'' and ''d'' at the ends of words, when they are devoiced and become approximants: ''gif'' {{IPA|[giɸ]}} "give (imperative)" (infinitive ''giban'': German ''geben''), ''miþ'' {{IPA|[miθ]}} "with" ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''mid'', Dutch ''met'', German ''mit'').

* {{IPA|/h/}} is written as ''h'': ''haban'' "to have". It was probably pronounced {{IPA|[h]}} in word-final position and before a consonant as well (not {{IPA|[x]}}, since {{IPA|/g/}} > {{IPA|[h]}} is written ''g'', not ''h''): ''jah'' {{IPA|[jah]}} "and" (Dutch,German, Scandinavian ''ja'' "yes").

* {{IPA|[x]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/g/}} at the end of a word or before a voiceless consonant; it is always written ''g'': ''dags'' {{IPA|[daxs]}} "day" (German ''Tag''). In some borrowed Greek words, we find the special letter ''x'', which represents the Greek letter χ (''ch''): ''Xristus'' {{IPA|[xristus]}} "Christ" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Χριστός}}). It may also have signified a {{IPA|/k/}}.

* {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ]}} are voiced fricatives only found between vowels. They are [[allophones]] of {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} and are not distinguished from them in writing. {{IPA|[β]}} may have become {{IPA|/v/}}, a more stable labiodental form (a case of [[articulatory strengthening]]). In the study of Germanic languages, these phonemes are usually transcribed as ''{{Unicode|ƀ}}'', ''{{Unicode|đ}}'' and ''{{Unicode|ǥ}}'' respectively: ''haban'' {{IPA|[haβan]}} "to have", ''þiuda'' {{IPA|[θiu̯ða]}} "people" (Old Norse ''þióð'', Dutch ''Diets'', German ''Deutsch'' > English ''Dutch''), ''áugo'' {{IPA|[auɣoː]}} "eye" (English ''eye'', Dutch ''oog'', German ''Auge'').

* ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' (also transcribed ''hw'') is a [[Labiovelar consonant|labiovelar variant]] of {{IPA|/x/}} (derived from the proto-Indo-European {{Unicode|kʷ}}). It probably was pronounced as {{IPA|/ʍ/}} (a voiceless {{IPA|/w/}}) as it is in certain dialects of English and is predominant in Scots, where it is always written as ''wh'': ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}an'' {{IPA|/ʍan/}} "when", ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}ar'' {{IPA|/ʍar/}} "where", ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}eits'' {{IPA|[ʍiːts]}} "white".

====Nasals and approximants and other phonemes ====

Gothic has three nasal consonants, of which one is an allophone of the others, found only in [[complementary distribution]] with them. Nasals in Gothic, like most languages, are pronounced at the same [[point of articulation]] as either the consonant that follows them ( [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]). Therefore, clusters like {{IPA|[md]}} and {{IPA|[nb]}} are not possible.

* {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} are freely distributed - they can be found in any position in a syllable and form [[minimal pair]]s except in certain contexts where they are neutralized: {{IPA|/n/}} before a [[bilabial consonant]] becomes {{IPA|[m]}}, while{{IPA|/m/}} preceding a [[Dental consonant|dental stop]] becomes {{IPA|[n]}}, as per the principle of assimilation described in the previous paragraph. In front of a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]], they both become {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} are transcribed as ''n'' and ''m'', and in writing neutralisation is marked: ''sniumundo'' {{IPA|/sniu̯mundoː/}} ("quickly").

* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is not a phoneme and cannot appear freely in Gothic. It is present where a nasal consonant is neutralised before a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]] and is in a complementary distribution with {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}}. Following Greek conventions, it is normally written as ''g'' (sometimes ''n''): ''þagkjan'' {{IPA|[θaŋkjan]}} "to think", ''sigqan'' {{IPA|[siŋkʷan]}} "to sink" ~ ''þankeiþ'' {{IPA|[θaŋkiːθ]}} "thinks''. The cluster ''ggw'' denotes now {{IPA|[ŋgʷ]}}, now {{IPA|[gʷː]}} (see above).

* {{IPA|/w/}} is transliterated as ''w'' before a vowel: ''weis'' {{IPA|[wiːs]}} ("we"), ''twái'' {{IPA|[twɛː]}} "two" (German ''zwei'').

* {{IPA|/j/}} is written as ''j'': ''jer'' {{IPA|[jeːr]}} "year", ''sakjo'' {{IPA|[sakjoː]}} "strife".

* {{IPA|/l/}} is used much as in English and other European languages: ''laggs'' {{IPA|[laŋks]}} "long", ''mel'' {{IPA|[meːl]}} "hour" (English ''meal'',Dutch ''maal'', German ''Mahl'').

* {{IPA|/r/}} is a [[Trill consonant|trilled]] {{IPA|/r/}} (eventually a [[Flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}}): ''raíhts'' {{IPA|[rɛxts]}} "right", ''afar'' {{IPA|[afar]}} "after".

* The [[sonorant]]s {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/r/}} act as the nucleus of a [[syllable]] ("vowels") after the final consonant of a word or between two consonants. This is also the case in modern English: for example, "bottle" is pronounced {{IPA|[bɒtl̩]}} in many dialects. Some Gothic examples: ''tagl'' {{IPA|[taɣl̩]}} "hair" (English ''tail'', Swedish ''tagel''), ''máiþms'' {{IPA|[mɛːθm̩s]}} "gift", ''táikns'' {{IPA|[tɛːkn̩s]}} "sign" (English ''token'',Dutch ''teken'', German ''Zeichen'', Swedish ''tecken'') and ''tagr'' {{IPA|[taɣr̩]}} "tear (as in crying)".

===Accentuation and Intonation===

Accentuation in Gothic can be reconstructed through phonetic comparison, [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]]. Gothic used a [[stress accent]] rather than the [[pitch accent]] of [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]]. It is indicated by the fact that long vowels {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} were shortened and the short vowels {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} were lost in unstressed syllables.

Just like other [[Germanic languages]], the free moving Indo-European accent was fixed on the first syllable of simple words. (For example, in modern English, nearly all words that do not have accents on the first syllable are borrowed from other languages.) Accents do not shift when words are [[inflexion|inflected]]. In most compound words, the ___location of the stress depends on its placement in the second part:

* In compounds where the second word is a ''noun'', the accent is on the first syllable of the first word of the compound.

* In compounds where the second word is a ''verb'', the accent falls on the first syllable of the verbal component. Elements prefixed to verbs are otherwise unstressed, except in the context of separable words (words that can be broken in two parts and separated in regular usage, for example, [[separable verb]]s in German and Dutch) - in those cases, the prefix is stressed.

Examples: (with comparable words from modern Germanic languages)

* Non-compound words: ''marka'' {{IPA|['marka]}} "border, borderlands" (English "march" as in the [[Marches|Spanish Marches]]); ''aftra'' {{IPA|['aftra]}} "after"; ''bidjan'' {{IPA|['bidjan]}} "pray" (Dutch, ''bidden'', German ''beten'', Swedish ''bedja'').

* Compound words:

** Noun second element: ''guda-láus'' {{IPA|['guðalaus]}} "godless".

** Verb second element: ''ga-láubjan'' {{IPA|[ga'lauβjan]}} "believe" (Dutch ''geloven'', German ''glauben'' < [[Old High German]] ''g(i)louben'' by [[syncope]] of the atonic ''i'').

==Morphology==

===Nouns===

Gothic preserves many archaic Indo-European features that are not always present in modern Germanic languages, in particular the rich Indo-European [[declension]] system. Gothic had [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]] and [[dative]] cases, as well as vestiges of a [[vocative case]] that was sometimes identical to the nominative and sometimes to the accusative. The three [[grammatical gender|genders]] of Indo-European were all present, including the neuter gender of modern German and Icelandic and to some extent modern Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, in opposition to the "common gender" (''genus commune'') which applies to both masculine and feminine nouns. Nouns and adjectives were inflected according to one of two [[grammatical number]]s: the singular and the plural.

One of the most striking characteristics of the [[Germanic languages]] is the division of nouns between those with ''weak declensions'' (generally those where the [[root (linguistics)|root word]] ends in an ''n'') and those with ''strong declensions'' (those whose roots end in a vowel or an inflexional suffix indicative of a pronoun). This separation is particularly important in Gothic. While a noun can only belong to one class of declensions, depending on the end of the root word, some adjectives can be either strongly or weakly declined, depending on their meaning. An adjective employed with a particular meaning and accompanied by a [[deixis|deictic]] article, like the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s ''sa'', ''þata'', or ''so'' which act as definite articles, took a weak declension, while adjectives used with indefinite articles had a strong declension.

This process is still sometimes found in German, where adjectives are declined:

* weak declension: ''d'''er''' gut'''e''' Wein'' ("the good wine") ;

* strong declension: ''gut'''er''' Wein'' ("good wine"), ''ein gut'''er''' Wein'' ("a good wine")

Descriptive adjectives in Gothic (as well as superlatives ending in ''-ist'' and ''-ost'') and the [[past participle]] may take either declension. Some pronouns only take the weak declension; for example: ''sama'' (English "same"), adjectives like ''unƕeila'' ("constantly", from the root ''ƕeila'', "time"; compare to the English "while"), comparative adjectives, and [[present participle]]s. Others, such as ''áins'' ("some"), take only the strong declension.

The table below displays the declension of the Gothic adjective ''blind'' (English: "blind") with a weak noun (''guma'' - "man") and a strong one (''dags'' - "day"):

{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="4"

|-----

! Case

! colspan="5" | Weak declension

! colspan="5" | Strong declension

|-----

! rowspan="2" | Singular

! rowspan="2" | Noun

! colspan="4" | Adjective

! rowspan="2" | Noun

! colspan="4" | Adjective

|-----

! height="58" | root

! M.

! N.

! F.

! root

! M.

! N.

! F.

|-----

| ''Nom.'' || guma

| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-

| -a || -o || -o || dags

| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-

| -s || -ø || -a

|-----

| ''Acc.'' || guman || -an || -o || -on

| dag || -ana || -ø || -a

|-----

| ''Gen.'' || gumins || colspan="2" align="center" | -ins

| -ons || dagis

| colspan="2" align="center" | -is || -áizos

|-----

| ''Dat.'' || gumin || colspan="2" align="center" | -in

| -on || daga

| colspan="2" align="center" | -amma || ái

|-----

! Plural

| colspan="5" | &nbsp; || colspan="5" | &nbsp;

|-----

| ''Nom.'' || gumans

| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-

| -ans || -ona || -ons || dagos

| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-

| -ái || -a || -os

|-----

| ''Acc.'' || gumans || -ans || -ona || -ons

| dagans || -ans || -a || -os

|-----

| ''Gen.'' || gumane || colspan="2" align="center" | -ane

| -ono || dage

| colspan="2" align="center" | -áize || -áizo

|-----

| ''Dat.'' || gumam || colspan="2" align="center" | -am

| -om || dagam || colspan="3" align="center" | -áim

|}

This table is, of course, not exhaustive. (There are secondary inflexions, particularly for the strong neuter singular and irregular nouns among other contexts, which are not described here.) An exhaustive table of only the ''types'' of endings Gothic took is presented below.

* '''strong declension''' :

** roots ending in ''-a'', ''-ja'', ''-wa'' (masculine and neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin second declension in ''‑us'' / ''‑i'' and ‑ος / ‑ου;

** roots ending in ''-o'', ''-jo'' and ''-wo'' (feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin first declension in ''‑a'' / ''‑æ'' and ‑α / ‑ας (‑η / ‑ης);

** roots ending in ''-i'' (masculine and feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''‑is'' (acc. ''‑im'') and ‑ις / ‑εως;

** roots ending in ''-u'' (all three genders) : equivalent to the Latin fourth declension in ''‑us'' / ''‑us'' and the Greek third declension in ‑υς / ‑εως;

* '''weak declension''' (all roots ending in ''-n''), equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''‑o'' / ''‑onis'' and ‑ων / ‑ονος or ‑ην / ‑ενος:

** roots ending in ''-an'', ''-jan'', ''-wan'' (masculine);

** roots ending in ''-on'' and ''-ein'' (feminine);

** roots ending in ''-n'' (neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''‑men'' / ''‑minis'' and ‑μα / ‑ματος;

* '''minor declensions''' : roots ending in ''-r'', en ''-nd'' and vestigial endings in other consonants, equivalent to other third declensions in Greek and Latin.

Gothic adjectives follow noun declensions closely - they take same types of inflexion.

===Pronouns===

Gothic inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: [[personal pronoun]]s (including [[reflexive pronoun]]s for each of the three [[grammatical person]]s), [[possessive pronoun]]s, both simple and compound [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstratives]], [[relative pronoun]]s, [[interrogative pronoun|interrogatives]] and [[indefinite pronoun]]s. Each follows a particular pattern of inflexion (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. One particularly noteworthy characteristic is the preservation of the [[dual grammatical number|dual number]], referring to two people or things while the plural was only used for quantities greater than two. Thus, "the two of us" and "we" for numbers greater than two were expressed as ''wit'' and ''weis'' respectively. While [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] used the dual for all grammatical categories that took a number (as did classical [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]]), Gothic is unusual among Indo-European languages in only preserving it for pronouns.

The simple demonstrative pronoun ''sa'' (neuter: ''þata'', feminine: ''so'', from the Indo-European root ''*so'', ''*seh₂'', ''*tod''; cognate to the [[Greek language|Greek]] article ὁ, τό, ἡ and the [[Latin]] ''is'''tud''''') can be used as an article, allowing constructions of the type ''definite article + weak adjective + noun''.

The interrogative pronouns are also noteworthy for all beginning in ''ƕ-'', which derives from the proto-Indo-European consonant ''*k^{<small>w</small>}'' that was present at the beginning of all interrogratives in proto-Indo-European. This is cognate to the ''wh-'' at the beginning of many English interrogatives which, as in Gothic, are pronounced with [ʍ] in some dialects. This same etymology is present in the interrogratives of many other Indo-European languages" ''w-'' [v] in [[German language|German]], ''v-'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the [[Latin]] ''qu-'' (which persists in modern [[Romance languages]]), the [[Greek language|Greek]] τ or π (a derivation of ''*k^{<small>w</small>}'' that is unique to Greek), and the [[Sanskrit]] ''k-'' as well as many others.

===Verbs===

The bulk of Gothic verbs follow the type of Indo-European conjugation called [[Athematic|"thematic"]] because they insert a vowel derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European phonemes ''*e'' or ''*o'' between roots and inflexional suffixes. This pattern is also present in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]]:

*Latin - ''leg-i-mus'' ("we read"): root ''leg-'' + thematic vowel ''-i-'' (from ''*e'') + suffix ''-mus''.

*Greek - λυ-ό-μεν ("we untie"): root λυ- + thematic vowel -ο- + suffix -μεν.

*Gothic - ''nim-a-m'' ("we take"): root ''nim-'' + thematic vowel ''-a-'' (from ''*o'') + suffix ''-m''.

The other conjugation, called [[Athematic|"athematic"]], where suffixes are added directly to roots, exists only in unproductive vestigial forms in Gothic, just as it does in Greek and Latin. The most important such instance is [[Indo-European copula|the verb "to be"]], which is athematic in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and many other Indo-European languages.

Gothic verbs are, like nouns and adjectives, divided into strong verbs and weak verbs. Weak verbs are characterised by [[preterite]]s formed by appending the suffixes ''-da'' or ''-ta'', parallel to past participles formed with ''-þ'' / ''-t''. Strong verbs form preterites by alternating vowels in their root forms or by doubling the first consonant in the root, but without adding a suffix in either case. This parallels the Greek and Sanskit [[perfect tense]]s. This dichotomy is still present in modern Germanic languages:

* weak verbs ("to have") :

** Gothic: ''haban'', preterite ''habái'''da''''', past participle ''habái'''þ'''s'' ;

** English: ''(to) have'', preterite ''ha'''d''''', past participle ''ha'''d''''' ;

** German: ''haben'', preterite ''hat'''te''''', past participle ''(ge)hab'''t''''' ;

** Icelandic: ''hafa'', preterite ''haf'''ði''''', past participle ''haf'''t''''' ;

** Dutch: ''hebben'', preterite ''ha'''d''''', past participle ''(ge)ha'''d''''' ;

* strong verbs ("to give") :

** Gothic: infinitive ''g'''i'''ban'', preterite ''g'''a'''f'' ;

** English: infinitive ''(to) g'''i'''ve'', preterite ''g'''a'''ve'' ;

** German: infinitive ''g'''e'''ben'', preterite ''g'''a'''b'' ;

** Icelandic: infinitive ''g'''e'''fa'', preterite ''g'''a'''f''.

** Dutch: infinitive ''g'''e'''ven'', preterite ''g'''a'''f'' ;

Verbal inflexions in Gothic have two [[grammatical voice]]s: the active and the medial; three numbers: singular, dual (except in the third person), and plural; two tenses: present and preterite (derived from a former perfect tense); three [[grammatical mood]]s: [[indicative mood|indicative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (from an old [[optative mood|optative]] form) and [[imperative mood|imperative]]; as well as three kinds of nominal forms: a present [[infinitive]], a present [[participle]], and a past [[passive]]. Not all tenses and persons are represented in all moods and voices - some conjugations use [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary forms]].

Finally, there are forms called "preterite-present" - old Indo-European perfect tenses that were reinterpreted as present tense. The Gothic word ''wáit'', from the proto-Indo-European ''*woid-h₂e'' ("to see" in the perfect tense), corresponds exactly to its Sanskrit cognate ''véda'' and in Greek to Ϝοἶδα. Both etymologically should mean "I saw" (in the perfective sense) but mean "I see" (in the preterite-present meaning). Latin follows the same rule with ''nōuī'' ("I knew" and "I know"). The preterite-present verbs include ''áihan'' ("to possess") and ''kunnan'' ("to know") among others.

==Gothic compared to other Germanic languages==

===Gothic and Old Norse===

The Goths had a tradition of a Scandinavian origin, and there are linguistic similarities with [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], especially with its dialect [[Old Gutnish]]. The number of similarities that Old Gutnish had with Gothic made the prominent linguist [[Elias Wessén]] classify it as a Gothic dialect. This is a text sample from the [[Gutasaga]] about a migration to southern Europe (Manuscript from the [[14th century]]):

:''siþan af þissum þrim aucaþis fulc j gutlandi som mikit um langan tima at land elptj þaim ai alla fyþa þa lutaþu þair bort af landi huert þriþia þiauþ so at alt sculdu þair aiga oc miþ sir bort hafa som þair vfan iorþar attu... so fierri foru þair at þair quamu til griclanz... oc enn byggia oc enn hafa þair sumt af waru mali''

:over a long time, the people descended from these three multiplied so much that the land couldn't support them all. Then they draw lots, and every third person was picked to leave, and they could keep everything they owned and take it with them, except for their land. ... They went so far that they came to the land of the Greeks. ... they settled there, and live there still, and still have something of our language.

The main points cited for grouping North and East Germanic are:

1) The evolution of the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] *''-jj-'' and *''-gg-'' into Gothic ''ddj'' (from an older Gothic ''ggj''?) and ''ggw'' and Old Norse ''ggj'' and ''ggv'' ("Holtzmann's law"). For instance, the [[Old High German]] genitive of ''zwei'' (two) is ''zweio'', which is distinct from Gothic ''twaddje'' and Old Norse ''tveggja''. Whereas German has the form ''treu'', Gothic has ''triggws'' and modern Swedish ''trygg''.

2) The existence of numerous inchoative verbs ending with -''na'', such as Gothic ''waknan'' and modern Swedish ''vakna''.

3) Gothic is important for the understanding of the evolution of Proto-Germanic into Old Norse through [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]]. For instance, the final -''n'' in North Germanic languages, such as ''navn'' and ''namn'' (name) is explained by referring to Gothic in which ''namo'' had its plural genitive ''namne''. Sometimes, Gothic explains forms of words found on the oldest runestones, such as the Gothic word ''gudja'' ([[gothi]], man serving as priest) which explains the word ''gudija'' found on the runestone of Nordhuglo in Norway.

But there have also been theories grouping West and East Germanic. Today, the three groups are generally treated as derived independently from [[Proto-Germanic]].

===Other unique features of Gothic===

Being the first attested Germanic language, Gothic fails to display a number of traits that are shared by all other known Germanic languages. Most conspicuously, Gothic contains no morphological [[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]]: the Gothic word ''fotus'' : ''fotjus'' can be contrasted with English ''foot'' : ''feet'', German ''Fuß'' : ''Füße'', Danish ''fod'' : ''fødder'', Swedish ''fot'' : ''fötter''. These forms contain the characteristic change /o:/ > /ø:/ (> Eng. /i:/, Germ. /y:/) that indicates the influence of ''i''-umlaut; the Gothic form shows no such change.

Gothic retains a [[passive voice]] inherited from Indo-European, but unattested in all other Germanic languages. Gothic preserves several verbs that display [[reduplication]] (''haitan'', "to be called" : ''haihait''; cf. Norwegian ''heita'' : ''het'', Swedish ''heta'' : ''hette'', German ''heißen'' : ''hieß'', Dutch ''heten'' : ''heette'', archaic English ''hight'') in the formation of the [[preterit]]; another Indo-European inheritance that has left only a few traces in Old English, Old Dutch, Old Norse and Old High German.

==References==

<references/>

*This article draws heavily on the [[:fr:Gotique|corresponding article]] in the French Wikipedia, retrieved April 6, 2005.

* F. Mossé, ''Manuel de la langue gotique'', Aubier Éditions Montaigne, 1942

* W. Braune and E. Ebbinghaus, ''Gotische Grammatik'', 17th edition 1966, Tübingen

** 20th edition, 2004. ISBN 3-484-10852-5 (hbk), ISBN 3-484-10850-9 (pbk)

* W. Streitberg, ''Die gotische Bibel '', 4th edition, 1965, Heidelberg ;

* J. Wright, ''Grammar of the Gothic language'', 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1966

** 2nd edition, 1981 reprint by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-811185-1

* W. Krause, ''Handbuch des Gotischen'', 3rd edition, 1968, Munich.

==See also==

*[[List of Germanic languages]]

*[[Germanic languages#Vocabulary comparison|Germanic Languages - Comparison of Selected Terms]] for a chart comparing Gothic words to those of other Germanic languages

*[[Geats]]

*[[Gotlander]]s

*[[Old Gutnish]]

*[[Grimm's law]]

*[[Verner's law]]

==External links==

*[http://www.earthorganization.org Official Website]

{{InterWiki|code=got}}

*[http://www.earthorganization.org/WhoWeAre.aspx?CatID=1 The Earth Organization Scientific Advisory Board]

{{Wikibookspar||Gothic}}

*[http://www.lawrenceanthony.co.za Founder of The Earth Organization]

*[http://www.reimar.de/gotisch.html Gotisch im WWW] Portal for information on Gothic (in German)

*[http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/egdhome.html English-Gothic Dictionary] (Also contains neologisms and reconstructed words)

*[http://members.terracom.net/~dorothea/david/gothic/index.html Gothic lessons]

*[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/aa_texts.html Early editions of several of the references]

*[http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Patrologia_Latina_Vol_18_Ulfilas Patrologia Latina vol. 18] Gothic corpus, grammar and glossary

* Texts:

** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Die_gotische_Bibel The Gothic Bible in Latin alphabet]

** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Gothic_Bible_in_Ulfilan_Gothic_Script The Gothic Bible in Ulfilan script (Unicode text) from Wikisource]

** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Gothic_Bible_in_Runic_Alphabet The Gothic Bible in Runic alphabet (Unicode text) from Wikisource]

** [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/texte2.htm#got Titus] has Streitberg's ''Gotische Bibel'' and Crimean Gothic material after Busbecq.

** [http://www.wulfila.be/ Wulfila Project]

** [http://germa.germsem.uni-kiel.de/gotisch/skeireins/index.html Skeireins Projet]

** ''[http://members.aol.com/yahyam/BagmeBloma.html Bagme Bloma]'', a Gothic poem by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]

*[http://specgram.com/CXLVII.4/03.judzis.gothic.html Gothic for Travellers]: Good conversation starters are death, torture, eating and drinking.

{{Extinct Germanic languages}}

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