Gladiator and List of national stadiums: Difference between pages

(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
m Reverted edits by 203.222.139.106 to last version by Everyking
 
FKO24 (talk | contribs)
 
Line 1:
A '''national stadium''' is a [[stadium]] that typically serves as the primary or exclusive home for one or more of a country's national representative sports teams. The term is most often used in reference to an [[football (soccer)|association football]] stadium. Usually, a national stadium will be in or very near a country's [[capital city]] or [[largest city]]. It is generally (but not always) the country's largest and most lavish [[sports]] venue. In many cases, but not all, it is also used by a club team. Many countries including the [[United States]], do not have a National Stadium designated as such.
:''This article is about the Roman professional fighter. For other uses of the word, see [[gladiator (disambiguation)|gladiator]].''
[[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Pollice Verso'', an [[1872]] painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], is a well known [[history painting|history painter]]'s researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]]
'''Gladiators''' ([[Latin]] ''gladiatores'') were professional fighters in ancient [[Rome]] who fought against each other and against wild animals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of spectators. These fights took place in arenas in many cities during the [[Roman republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]].
 
Some well-known national stadiums are:
The word comes from ''[[gladius]]'', the Latin word for a short [[sword]] used by [[legionaries]] and some gladiators.
 
==[[Antigua and Barbuda]]==
===Ancient Roman gladiators===
**[[Antigua Recreation Ground]] ([[cricket]] and [[football (soccer)|football]])
The gladiatorial games were originally established by the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], but were later adopted by the Roman as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in [[264 BC]]. [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the [[Forum Boarium]]. The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the attention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person’s death.
==[[Argentina]] ==
**[[Estadio Monumental]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Estadio Multipropósito Parque Roca]] ([[Basketball]] and [[Tennis]])
**[[Estadio Nacional de Hockey]] ([[Hockey]])
**[[Campo Argentino de Polo]] ([[Polo]])
**[[CeNARD]] ([[athletics]])
 
==[[Australia]]==
[[Image:Gladiator Bronzemedaillon.jpg|thumb|left|Bronze medallion depicting the fight between a gladiator and a wild animal (''venatio'').]]
**[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] ([[Australian rules football]], [[cricket]], and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]]) - often seen as the [[de facto]] national stadium due to historical links.
Public spectacles (called ''munera'', singular ''munus'') took place in [[amphitheatre]]s (like the [[Colosseum]]) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (''venationes'') and public executions (''noxii''). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the ''editor'', ''munerator'', or ''dominus'' and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (''ludi circenses''), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment.
**[[Telstra Stadium]], the 2000 Sydney Olympic Stadium ([[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], and [[football (soccer)]]) - many feel this is the national football stadium. ''There exists a popular rivalry between Telstra Stadium and the MCG due to lasting rivalries between [[football]] codes and the respective cities.''
**The [[Australian national cricket team|Australian cricket team]] plays at a range of grounds throughout the country. The [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] and [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]] cricket grounds are the major venues.
==[[Bahamas]]==
**[[Thomas Robinson Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
 
==[[Belgium]]==
Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (''ludi''). One of the largest schools was in [[Ravenna]]. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the ''Ludus Magnus''. The ''Ludus Magnus'' was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (''familia'') that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a [[lanista]]. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whoever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year.
**[[King Baudouin Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Bermuda]]==
**[[Bermuda National Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]], [[rugby union]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Bhutan]]==
**[[Changlimithang Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[archery]])
==[[Bulgaria]]==
**[[Vasil Levski National Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Canada]]==
**[[BMO Field]] ([[football (soccer)|soccer]])
==[[Chile]]==
**[[Estadio Nacional de Chile|Estadio Nacional]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
 
==[[People's Republic of China|China]]==
It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally.
**[[Beijing National Stadium|Beijing Olympic Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
 
==[[Colombia]]==
Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire ''lanistae'' to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites.
**[[Estadio Metropolitano]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
 
==[[Cook Islands]]==
Criminals were either expected to die within a year (''ad gladium'') or might earn their release after three years (''ad ludum'') — if they survived.
**[[National Stadium (Cook Islands)]]
==[[Costa Rica]]==
**[[Estadio Nacional de Costa Rica]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Croatia]]==
**[[Maksimir Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Czech Republic]]==
**[[Strahov Stadium]] ([[sokol]])
**[[Toyota Arena]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Sazka Arena]] ([[ice hockey]])
==[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]==
**[[Stade des Martyrs]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Denmark]]==
**[[Parken Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Djibouti]]==
**[[Stade du Ville]]
==[[Dominican Republic]]==
**[[Estadio Quisqueya]] ([[baseball]])
==[[East Timor]]==
**[[National Stadium (East Timor)|National Stadium]] ([[football]])
==[[El Salvador]]==
**[[Estadio Cuscatlán]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[England]]==
**[[Lord's Cricket Ground]] ([[cricket]])
**[[Twickenham stadium|Twickenham]] ([[rugby union]])
**[[Wembley Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Crystal Palace National Sports Centre]] ([[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]]) ''will be replaced by [[Olympic Stadium (London)|the Olympic Stadium]]''
**[[National Hockey Stadium]] ([[hockey]])
==[[Estonia]]==
**[[A. Le Coq Arena]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Fiji]]==
*[[National Stadium (Suva)]]
==[[Finland]]==
**[[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
**[[Hartwall Areena]] ([[ice hockey]])
==[[France]]==
**[[Stade de France]] ([[football (soccer)|football]], [[rugby union]], and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Guatemala]]==
**[[Estadio Mateo Flores]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Honduras]]==
**[[Estadio Tiburcio Carias Andino]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Hong Kong]]==
**[[Hong Kong Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[rugby union]])
 
==[[Iran]]==
Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included:
**[[Azadi Stadium]]
==[[India]]==
**[[Eden Gardens]] ([[cricket]])
**[[Salt Lake Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]==
**[[Croke Park]] ([[Gaelic Games]])
**[[Lansdowne Road]] ([[rugby union]] and [[football (soccer)|association football]])
**[[Morton Stadium]] (athletics)
**[[National Aquatic Centre]] (swimming)
==[[Israel]]==
**[[Ramat Gan Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Italy]]==
** [[Stadio Flaminio]] (rugby union)
** [[Stadio Olimpico]] (Football)
 
==[[Jamaica]]==
* ''Andabatae'': Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback.
**[[Independence Park]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
* ''Cimachaeri'': Carried two short swords (the [[gladius]])
==[[Korea, South]]==
* ''Bestiari'': Fought against beasts, usually with spears.
**[[Olympic Stadium, Seoul|Seoul Olympic Stadium]] ([[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
* ''Equites'': Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a ''[[manica (armour)|manica]]''
**[[Seoul World Cup Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
* ''Essedari'': [[Charioteer]]s in Celtic style.
==[[Korea, North]]==
* ''Hoplomachi'': Fully armored, based on [[Greece|Greek]] [[hoplite]]s. They wore a helmet with a stylized [[griffin]] on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later.
**[[Rungnado May Day Stadium]],([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
* ''Laquerii'': [[Lasso]] Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries
==[[Lesotho]]==
* ''[[Murmillo|Mirmillones]]'' (or ''murmillones''): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a ''manica''. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces.
**[[Setsoto Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
* ''Provocatores'': Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term "provocators")
==[[Liechtenstein]]==
* ''[[Retiarius|Retiarii]]'': Carried a [[trident]], a dagger, and a net, and had at least [[naked]] torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones.
**[[Rheinpark Stadion]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
* ''Samnites'': Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the [[Samnites|people]] of the same name Romans had conquered.
==[[Malaysia]]==
* ''[[Secutor|Secutores]]'': Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii.
**[[Stadium Negara]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
* ''Thraces'': Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from [[Thracians]], and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi.
**[[Bukit Jalil National Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
<!--([[1998 Commonwealth Games|Commonwealth Games]])-->
==[[Martinique]]==
**[[Stade d'Honneur (Martinique)|Stade d'Honneur]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Mexico]]==
**[[Estadio Azteca]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Monaco]]==
**[[Stade Louis II]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
 
==[[Netherlands]]==
[[Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between two gladiators (''[[Murmillo|mirmillones]]'').]]
**[[Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)|Olympisch Stadion]] ([[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
Gladiators usually fought in pairs (''Ordinarii''), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales'').
==[[New Zealand]]==
**[[Eden Park]] ([[Rugby union]]
 
==[[Nicaragua]]==
At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed, but it is not clear which way they pointed. It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death. A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future. A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a wooden sword as a memento.
**[[Estadio Dennis Martinez]] ([[baseball]] and [[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Northern Ireland]]==
**[[Windsor Park]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Norway]]==
**[[Ullevaal stadion]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Bislett stadion]] ([[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Pakistan]]==
**[[National Stadium, Karachi]], ([[cricket]])
 
==[[Panama]]==
The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than [[slave]]s, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator, but [[Faustina]], the mother of the emperor [[Commodus]], was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator (Commodus likely invented this story himself).
**[[Estadio Nacional de Panamá]] ([[baseball]])
**[[Estadio Rommel Fernandez]] ([[Football (Soccer)|Football]])
 
==[[Paraguay]]==
Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles.
**[[Estadio Defensores del Chaco]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Peru]]==
**[[Estadio Nacional (Lima)]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Poland]]==
**[[Silesia Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]], [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]], [[Motorcycle speedway|speedway]])
==[[Portugal]]==
**[[Estádio do Jamor]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Puerto Rico]]==
**[[Hiram Bithorn Stadium]] ([[baseball]])
==[[Russia]]==
**[[Luzhniki Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[Athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Scotland]]==
**[[Hampden Park]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Murrayfield Stadium|Murrayfield]] ([[rugby union]])
==[[Singapore]]==
**[[National Stadium, Singapore|National Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[South Africa]]==
**[[FNB Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Newlands Cricket Ground]] ([[cricket]])
**[[Newlands Stadium]] ([[rugby union]])
==[[Sweden]]==
**[[Råsunda Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
**[[Stockholm Globe Arena|Globe Arena]] ([[ice hockey]])
==[[Turkey]]==
**[[Atatürk Olympic Stadium]] ([[football (soccer)|football]] and [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]])
==[[Uruguay]]==
**[[Estadio Centenario]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
==[[Wales]]==
**[[Millennium Stadium]] ([[rugby union]] and [[football (soccer)|football]])
 
==References==
Their oath (which [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (''infamia''). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: ''Morituri te salutant'' ("Those about to die salute you").
{{unreferenced|date=August 2006}}
 
[[Category:National stadiums| ]]
Some [[Roman Emperors|emperors]], among them [[Hadrian]], [[Caligula]], [[Titus]] and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor [[Trajan]] organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete.
[[Category:Lists of stadiums]]
 
[[da:Nationalstadion]]
[[Gaius Marius]] had gladiators train the [[legionaries]] in single combat.
[[de:Nationalstadion]]
 
[[sv:Nationalarena]]
[[Female gladiators]] also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in "The Twelve Caesars".
 
One of the most famous gladiators was [[Spartacus]] who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in [[73 BC]], was crushed by [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again.
 
The Greek physician [[Galen]] worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in [[Pergamon]].
 
Gladiator fights were first outlawed by [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] in [[325]] but continued sporadically until about [[450]]. The last known gladiator competition in the city of [[Rome]] occurred on [[January 1]], [[404]].
 
==Gladiators in modern popular culture==
 
===Science fiction and fantasy===
Gladiators are sometimes mentioned in [[science fiction]], being depicted in the film ''[[The Running Man]]''; as well as the games ''[[Battletech]]'', ''[[Quake computer game|Quake]]'', and ''[[Unreal]]''. The Unreal Tournament series is especially notable as a futuristic pro-wrestling take on gladiators.
 
The exploits of gladiators are also typical fare in the [[sword and sandal]] genre of fantasy films.
 
===Reality entertainment===
For obvious [[human rights]] and [[liability]] reasons, it has been impossible to revive gladiator fights in the historically accurate ''Roman'' sense (where the fight concludes with serious bodily injury or death).
 
In the U.S. during the 1990s, there was a game show called ''[[American Gladiators]]'', and around the same time, [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] popularized a rather wild style of wrestling which some compared to gladiator combat. However, the competitors on ''American Gladiators'' never directly attacked each other, and the WWE fights have been criticized as staged due to the rare occurrence of severe physical injuries (indeed, the WWE admitted as much in certain lawsuits it was a party to).
 
In [[California]], [[Corcoran State Prison]] became infamous in 1997 when it was discovered that the guards were staging informal "gladiator" fights with the prisoners (some of which were videotaped). Such fights differ from true gladiator fights in that they were not state-sponsored or approved.
 
== References ==
* Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992
* [http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html James Grout: ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
*[http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles]
*[http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay.
* Daniel P Mannix: "Those About To Die", Ballantine Books, New York 1958
 
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Defunct occupations]]
[[Category:Sports occupations]]
 
[[de:Gladiator]]
[[et:Gladiaator]]
[[fr:Gladiateur]]
[[he:&#1490;&#1500;&#1491;&#1497;&#1488;&#1496;&#1493;&#1512;]]
[[it:Gladiatore]]
[[la:Gladiator]]
[[nl:Gladiator]]
[[pl:Gladiator]]
[[sr:&#1043;&#1083;&#1072;&#1076;&#1080;&#1112;&#1072;&#1090;&#1086;&#1088;]]
[[fi:Gladiaattori]]
[[sv:Gladiator]]
[[zh:&#35282;&#26007;&#22763;]]
[[ja:&#21091;&#38360;&#22763;]]