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[[Image:020926-O-9999G-015.jpg|thumb|Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group, "Tuskegee Airmen," the elite, all-African American 332nd Fighter Group at Ramitelli, Italy., from left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Capt. Andrew D. Turner and Lt. Clarence P. Lester.]]
[[Image:joan of arc miniature graded.jpg|right|thumb|Image of Joan of Arc, [[painting|painted]] between [[1450]] and [[1500]] (Centre Historique des Archives Nationales, [[Paris]], AE II 2490)]]
The '''Tuskegee Airmen''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA pronunciation]]: {{IPA|[təˈski.gi]}}<ref>See [http://inogolo.com/pronunciation/Tuskegee Pronunciation of Tuskegee].</ref>) was the popular name of a group of [[African American]] pilots who flew with distinction during [[World War II]] as the [[332nd Fighter Group]] of the [[United States Army Air Forces|US Army Air Corps]].
'''St Joan of Arc''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Jeanne d'Arc''') ([[January]]<!---it's the 6th or the 16th, but to choose either one today is obviously POV as either one has no solid proof, see note 1--->{{fn|1}} [[1412]]–[[30 May]] [[1431]]), also styled the ''Maid of Orléans'' (''Pucelle d'Orléans''), is a national [[hero]]ine of [[France]] and a [[Saint]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]]. At just 17 years of age, she commanded the [[Military history of France|French royal army]]. She convinced [[Charles VII of France|King Charles VII]] to drive the [[England|English]] out of [[France]], and he gave her authority over the [[army]] in the [[Battle of Orleans|siege of Orléans]], the [[Battle of Patay]] and other engagements in [[1429]] and [[1430]]. Those campaigns enabled the [[coronation]]{{fn|2}} of Charles VII. As a result, he awarded her family with ennoblement. The [[Duke of Burgundy|Burgundians]] [[#Capture, trial and execution|captured and delivered her]] to the [[England|English]], who selected clergymen to find her guilty of [[heresy]]. [[John, Duke of Bedford]] had her [[Execution by burning|burnt at the stake]] in [[Rouen]]. In [[1920]] [[Pope Benedict XV]] canonized her in recognition of her innocence{{fn|3}} as found by an [[#Retrial|earlier appeal]] after her death. Her posthumous reception history is a lengthy one: she was revered by the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] in the [[16th century]], embraced as a cultural symbol in French patriotic circles since the [[19th century]], became an inspiration to [[Allies|Allied]] forces during the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars and an official Saint to Roman Catholics since the early [[20th century]]; currently being a focus of considerable interest in the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Canada]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]]. Many people therefore regard Joan of Arc as a notable woman of valor, vigor, and faith.
==Origins==
Joan of Arc's campaigns were responsible for a revitalization of [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]]'s faction during the [[Hundred Years' War]].
[[Image:P-51C bomber escort.jpg|thumb|right|Aircraft of the 332d Fighter Group; the "redtails" of the Tuskegee Airmen. The nearest aircraft depicted is that of Lt. Lee Archer, the only ace among the Tuskegee Airmen.]]
Prior to the Tuskegee Airmen, no US military [[aviator|pilots]] had been African American. However, a series of legislative moves by the [[United States Congress]] in 1941 forced the Army Air Corps to form an all-black combat unit, much to the War Department's chagrin. In an effort to eliminate the unit before it could begin, the War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education that they expected would be hard to fill. This policy backfired when the Air Corps received numerous applications from men who qualified even under these restrictions.
The US Army Air Corps had established the [[Psychological Research Unit 1]] at [[Maxwell Army Air Field]], [[Alabama]], and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, [[flight officer|navigator]]s and [[bombardier (rank)|bombardier]]s. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first [[standardized tests]] to quantify [[IQ]], [[dexterity]], and [[leadership]] qualities in order to select and train the right personnel for the right role (bombardier, pilot, navigator). The Air Corps determined that the same existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort would continue with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.
==Biography==rjhdfjkds family later granted [[nobility|noble]] status by Charles VII. Domremy is a village which is now in [[Lorraine]], but was then a part of the Duchy of Bar — a part of France whose Duke was pro-Anglo-Burgundian in loyalty. France at that time was split by a factional rivalry which would allow the English to make swift gains. There were two factions of the French Royal family: the [[Burgundy|Burgundians]] (supporters of the [[Duke of Burgundy]]) and the [[Armagnac (party)|Armagnacs]] (supporters of the [[Duke of Orléans]] and later of [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]]). The groups were involved in a struggle over the government which allowed [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]'s conquests in [[1415]] and the following years. In [[1420]], the [[Treaty of Troyes]] granted the throne to Henry V's heirs, disinheriting Charles, the [[Dauphin]] ([[crown prince]]), and making the infant [[Henry VI of England]] the nominal king after [[1422]].
==Training==
===Visions and mission===
On [[19 March]] [[1941]], the 99th Pursuit Squadron (Pursuit being the pre-World War II descriptive for "Fighter") was activated at [[Chanute Field]] in [[Rantoul, Illinois]].<ref> Francis 1988, p. 15. Note: It was a lawsuit or the threat of a law suit from a rejected candidate that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants.</ref> Over 250 enlisted men were trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades. This small number of enlisted men was to become the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee and Maxwell fields in Alabama– the famed Tuskegee Airmen.
[[Image:JoanOfArcLarge.jpeg|250px|right|thumb|[[Jules Bastien-Lepage]]'s [[1879]] portrayal of Joan of Arc when she first heard her call; [[Michael (archangel)|Saint Michael]], [[Saint Margaret the Virgin|Saint Margaret]], and [[Catherine of Alexandria|Saint Catherine]] are behind her. Oil on canvas in two joined vertical panels. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]].]]
[[Image:040315-F-9999G-024.jpg|thumb|left|Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross of Dayton, Ohio, as he passes down the line during review of the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at US Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941 with Vultee BT-13 trainers in the background.]]
[[Image:Jeanne d' Arc (Eugene Thirion).jpg|200px|right|thumb|''Jeanne d' Arc'' by Eugene Thirion ([[1876]]) depicts Joan's awe upon receiving a vision from the [[archangel]] [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]]]
In June 1941, the Tuskegee program officially began with formation of the [[99th Fighter Squadron]] at the [[Tuskegee Institute]], a highly regarded university founded by [[Booker T. Washington]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama]].<ref> Thole 2002, p. 48. Note: The Coffey School of Aeronautics in Chicago was also considered.</ref> The unit consisted of an entire service arm, including ground crew, and not just pilots. After basic training at [[Moton Field]], they were moved to the nearby [[Tuskegee Army Air Field]] about 16 km (ten miles) to the west for conversion training onto operational types. The Airmen were placed under the command of Capt. [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], one of the few African American [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduates. His father [[Benjamin O. Davis, Sr.]] was the first black general in the US Army.
During its training, the 99th Fighter Squadron was commanded by white and Puerto Rican officers, beginning with Capt. George "Spanky" Roberts. By 1942, however, it was Col. Frederick Kimble who oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield. Kimble proved to be highly unpopular with his subordinates, whom he treated with disdain and disrespect. Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble with Maj. Noel Parrish. Parrish, counter to the prevalent racism of the day, was fair and open-minded, and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
Around [[1424]], Joan said she began receiving visions of Saint [[Michael the Archangel]], [[Saint Catherine of Alexandria|St Catherine]], and [[Saint Margaret the Virgin|St Margaret]] telling her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to [[Reims]] for his coronation. In [[1428]] at the age of 16, she asked a family relative, Durand Lassois, to bring her to nearby Vaucouleurs in order to ask the garrison commander, Lord [[Robert de Baudricourt]], to give her an escort to bring her to the Dauphin's court at [[Chinon]]. She was rejected, but returned the following January and was finally granted an escort of six men. Two of these soldiers, Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy, said they gave her male clothing to wear (as the standard disguise used in such circumstances) and brought her through Burgundian-controlled territory to Chinon. She was said to have convinced Charles to believe in her by relating a private prayer that he had made the previous [[1 November]], although he additionally insisted on having her examined for three weeks by theologians at [[Poitiers]] before granting final acceptance. She was then brought to a succession of towns where preparations were being made to bring supplies to the city of [[Orléans]], which had been under siege by the English since the previous October.
In response, a hearing was convened before the [[House Armed Services Committee]] to determine whether the Tuskegee Airmen "experiment" should be allowed to continue. The committee accused the Airmen of being incompetent — based on the fact that they had not seen any combat in the entire time the "experiment" had been underway. To bolster the recommendation to scrap the project, a member of the committee commissioned and then submitted into evidence a "scientific" report by the [[University of Texas]] which purported to prove that Negroes were of low intelligence and incapable of handling complex situations (such as air combat). The majority of the Committee, however, decided in the Airmen's favor, and the 99th Pursuit Squadron soon joined two new squadrons out of Tuskegee to form the all-black [[332nd Fighter Group]].
She was joined by her brothers Jean and Pierre, and equipped with [[armour]] and a white banner depicting God flanked by two angels and the words "Jesus" and "Mary" on the side. With her piety, confidence, and enthusiasm, she boosted the morale of the troops. The small force she eventually led included the legendary soldiers [[Jean de Dunois|Jean d'Orleans (Count of Dunois)]], [[La Hire]], and [[Poton de Xaintrailles]].
==Combat==
She arrived at the [[Battle of Orléans|besieged city of Orléans]] on [[April 29]], [[1429]]. After several English fortifications were taken from [[May 4]]–[[May 7]], the remaining English forces were pulled from their [[siege]] lines on [[May 8]]. The lifting of the siege — the "sign" that she had said would verify her legitimacy as a visionary — gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the [[Archbishop of Embrun]] and the prominent theologian [[Jean Gerson]], who both wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event.
[[Image:99th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|thumb|right|Patch of the 99th Fighter Squadron]]
The 99th was ready for combat duty during some of the Allies' earliest actions in the [[North African campaign]], and was transported to [[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]], on the ''[[USS Mariposa]]''. From there, they travelled by train to [[Oujda]] near [[Fes]], and made their way to [[Tunis]] to operate against the [[Luftwaffe]]. The flyers and ground crew were largely isolated by racial segregation practices, and left with little guidance from battle-experienced pilots. Operating directly under the [[Twelfth Air Force]] and the XII Air Support Command, the 99th FS and the Tuskegee Airmen were bounced around between three groups, the 33rd FG, 324th FG, and 79th FG. The 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small but strategic volcanic island of [[Pantelleria]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] between [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]], in preparation for the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]] in [[July]] [[1943]]. The 99th moved to Sicily while attached to the [[33rd Fighter Group]],<ref name="duc"/> whose commander, Col. [[William Momyer|William W. Momyer]], fully involved the squadron, and the 99th received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] for its performance in Sicily.
[[Image:020903-o-9999b-098.jpg|thumb|left|Tuskegee Airmen in front of a <br />[[Curtiss P-40|P-40]].]]
The Tuskegee Airmen were initially equipped with [[Curtiss P-40|P-40 Warhawk]]s, later with [[P-47 Thunderbolt]]s, and finally with the airplane that they would become most identified with, the [[P-51 Mustang]].
On [[27 January]] and [[28 January]] [[1944]], German [[Fw 190]] fighter-bombers raided [[Anzio Campaign|Anzio]], where the Allies had conducted amphibious landings on [[January 22]]. Attached to the 79th Fighter Group, eleven of the 99th Fighter Squadron's pilots shot down enemy fighters, including Capt. Charles B. Hall, who shot down two, bringing his aerial victory total to three. The eight fighter squadrons defending Anzio together shot down a total of 32 German aircraft, and the 99th had the highest score among them with 13.<ref name="kills">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. ''Aerial Victory Credits of the Tuskegee Airmen''. AFHRA Maxwell AFB. [http://www.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070207-059.pdf] Access date: [[16 February]] [[2007]].</ref>
The Royal army's next objective was to clear the rest of the Loire Valley of English strongholds. [[Jargeau]] was taken on [[June 12]]; the bridge at [[Meung-sur-Loire]] was occupied on the 15th, followed by the surrender of Beaugency on the 17th. A greater victory was achieved on the 18th, when an English army was cut to pieces near [[Patay]], with a loss of 2,200 English soldiers versus only a little over 20 French and Scots. This allowed the Royal army to now attempt a march toward Reims for Charles' coronation.
The squadron won its second [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] on [[12 May]]-[[14 May]] [[1944]], while attached to the 324th Fighter Group, attacking German positions on Monastery Hill ([[Battle of Monte Cassino|Monte Cassino]]), attacking infantry massing on the hill for a counterattack, and bombing a nearby strong point to force the surrender of the German garrison to [[Moroccan]] [[Goumier]]s.
[[Image:ingres coronation charles vii.jpg|thumb|left|Joan of Arc at the coronation of Charles VII by [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]], 1854]]
[[Image:100th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|thumb|right|Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron]]
By this point, more graduates were ready for combat, and the all-black [[332nd Fighter Group]] had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: the [[100th Flying Training Squadron|100th]], [[301st Fighter Squadron|301st]] and [[302nd Fighter Squadron|302nd]]. Under the command of Col. [[Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.|Benjamin O. Davis]], the squadrons were moved to mainland [[Italy]], where the 99th FS, assigned to the group on [[1 May]], joining them on [[6 June]]. The Airmen of the 332nd Fighter Group escorted bombing raids into [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]] and [[Germany]].
Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd racked up an impressive combat record, often entering combat against greater numbers of superior German aircraft and coming out victorious. Reportedly, the Luftwaffe awarded the Airmen the nickname, "Schwarze Vogelmenschen," or "Black Birdmen." The Allies called the Airmen "Redtails" or "Redtail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson paint on the vertical stabilizers of the unit's aircraft. Although bomber groups would request Redtail escort when possible, few bomber crew members knew at the time that the Redtails were black.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
The army set out from [[Gien-sur-Loire]] on [[29 June]], accepting the neutrality of the Burgundian-held city of [[Auxerre]] by [[3 July]] before laying siege to the city of [[Troyes]] on [[July 5]]. This city surrendered on the 9th, followed by [[Châlons-sur-Marne]] on the 14th. Reims opened its gates to the army when it arrived on the 16th, allowing the Dauphin to be crowned as Charles VII the following morning, [[July 17]], [[1429]].
[[Image:tuskegee airmen.jpg|thumb|left|Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a US base after a mission in the Mediterranean theater.]]
While it had long been said that the Redtails were the only fighter group who never lost a bomber to enemy fighters,<ref>[http://www.pingry.k12.nj.us/about/articles/2002-nov-11-tuskegee.html Lt. Col. Thomas E. Highsmith, Jr.; speech at The Pingry School, 8 November 2002]</ref> suggestions to the contrary, combined with Air Force records and eyewitness accounts indicating that at least 25 bombers were lost to enemy fire, resulted in the Air Force conducting a reassessment of the history of this famed unit in the fall of 2006.
The claim that the no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire first appeared on [[24 March]] [[1945]]. The claim came from an article, published in the [[Chicago Defender]], under the headline "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss." Ironically, this article was published on the very day that, according to the [[28 March]] [[2007]] Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were shot down.<ref> ''Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers''. The Associated Press, [[1 April]] [[2007]]. [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-04-01-tuskegee-airmen_N.htm] Access date: [[1 April]] [[2007]].</ref><ref>[http://www.comcast.net/news/national/index.jsp?cat=DOMESTIC&fn=/2006/12/11/539246.html Comcast.net news; Access date: [[11 December]] [[2006]] (Article ID:539246)]</ref><ref>''Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen''. Washington Post, [[17 December]] [[2006]], p. A18.</ref><ref>AP Story [[29 March]] [[2007]]</ref> The subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, was released in March 2007 and documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy [[fighter aircraft]] while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>Report: ''Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers''. The Associated Press, [[2 April]] [[2007]]
Although Jeanne and a number of the commanders urged a prompt march on [[Paris]], the Royal Court was mesmerized by the prospect of a negotiated peace offered by the Duke of Burgundy. Negotiations with Burgundian diplomats began at Reims shortly after the coronation, resulting in a 15-day truce which merely had the effect of stalling the Royal army's momentum. Charles used this time to take the army on a wandering tour of nearby cities in the hope of accepting their allegiance in turn, a process which bore fruit largely due to Jeanne's "great diligence" (according to one of the chroniclers who served in her army). A day of skirmishing with an English army under the [[John, Duke of Bedford|Duke of Bedford]] at [[Montépilloy]] on [[August 15]] led to a slow march toward Paris. An attack on the city finally came on [[September 8]], but ended in disaster when Jeanne was shot in the leg and the attack was called off against her will. Charles ordered the army to withdraw on the 10th. A lack of royal support was also blamed for the failure to take [[La-Charité-sur-Loire]] in late November and December.
[http://aimpoints.hq.af.mil/display.cfm?id=17731] Access date: [[10 April]] [[2007]].</ref>
A [[B-25]] bomb group, the [[477th Bombardment Group (Medium)]], was forming in the US but completed its training too late to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.
===Capture, trial and execution===
[[Image:Joan of Arc on horseback (1505 manuscript).png|200px|thumb|right|Jeanne depicted on [[horse]]back in an illustration from a [[1505]] manuscript]]
[[Image:Joan-of-Arc-Paris.jpg|right|thumb|Statue of Jeanne D'Arc, [[Paris]]]]
By the end of the war, the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down,<ref name="kills"/> a patrol boat run aground by machine-gun fire, and destruction of numerous fuel dumps, trucks and trains. The squadrons of the 332nd FG flew more than 15,000 sorties on 1,500 missions. The unit received recognition through official channels and was awarded a [[Presidential Unit Citation (US)|Distinguished Unit Citation]] for a mission flown [[24 March]] [[1945]], escorting B-17s to bomb the [[Daimler-Benz]] tank factory at [[Berlin, Germany]], an action in which its pilots destroyed three [[Me-262]] jets in aerial combat. The 99th Fighter Squadron in addition received two DUCs, the second after its assignment to the 332nd FG.<ref name="duc"> ''Air Force Historical Study 82''. AFHRA Maxwell AFB. [http://afhra.maxwell.af.mil/numbered_studies/916794.pdf] Access date: [[16 February]] [[2007]].</ref> The Tuskegee Airmen were awarded several [[Silver Star Medal|Silver Stars]], 150 [[Distinguished Flying Cross (USA)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]es, 14 [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Stars]] and 744 [[Air Medal]]s.
With a truce in effect, Jeanne didn't return to the field until the following March. An attempt to lift the siege laid to the city of [[Compiegne|Compiègne]] on [[May 23]] led to her capture by Burgundian troops when she and her soldiers were trapped outside the city.
In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1940 to 1946; about 445 deployed overseas, and 150 Airmen lost their lives in training or combat.<ref>http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1356</ref>
==Postwar==
Several sources state that Charles demanded that she be ransomed back to her own side, but the Burgundians refused. Instead, she was transferred to their English allies in exchange for the usual monetary compensation common in such transfers, with the hand-over being entrusted to [[Pierre Cauchon]], [[Bishop of Beauvais]] and counselor for the English occupation government. Surviving documents record payments made by the English government to cover the costs of obtaining Joan and rewarding many of the judges whom they selected to preside over her trial.
[[Image:joantuskegee of arcairman interrogationposter.jpg|thumb|left|JoanColor poster of Arca is being interrogated by the cardinal ofTuskegee WinchesterAirman]]
Far from failing as originally expected, a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training had resulted in some of the best pilots in the US Army Air Corps. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight [[racism]]. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group (notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort), but other units were less than interested and continued to harass the Airmen.
All of these events appear to have simply stiffened the Airmen's resolve to fight for their own rights in the US. After the war, the Tuskegee Airmen once again found themselves isolated. In [[1949]] the 332nd entered the yearly gunnery competition and won. After segregation in the military was ended in [[1948]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]] with [[Executive Order 9981]], the Tuskegee Airmen now found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed [[United States Air Force]].
Jeanne was put on trial by a hand-picked gathering of pro-English [[clergy]], who charged her with [[heresy]]. The trial, held in the seat of the English occupation government at [[Rouen]], beginning on [[9 January]] [[1431]], was conducted in flagrant violation of a number of basic [[Inquisition|Inquisitorial]] guidelines. The accusations were a large and motley list, unbacked by any of the direct witness evidence required under the Church's rules. Her visions were dismissed as [[demon]]ic in origin, without the usual procedures of discernment ("[[discretio spirituum]]") being followed to provide any proof of this accusation. She was alleged to be in opposition to the Church, although eyewitnesses confirmed that this was based on a distortion: she only objected to being tried by pro-English clergy who were intent on convicting her. She appealed instead to the [[Pope]], but this was rejected; her appeal to the [[Council of Basel]] was omitted from the record on Cauchon's orders. She was accused of being a bloodthirsty killer, although her statement that she had never killed anybody (preferring to carry her banner in combat) is confirmed by the other sources, which additionally attest to the mercy she showed toward enemy soldiers. It was, ironically, her judge, Bishop Cauchon, who had supported the bloody [[Cabochien Revolt]] in [[1413]], and defended the assassination of [[Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans|Louis, Duke of Orléans]] in [[1407]].
Many of the surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen annually participate in the Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by [[Tuskegee Airmen, Inc]].
In addition to the various illegal procedures and the denial of her appeal to the Pope, she was also kept in a [[secular]] prison guarded by English soldiers instead of in an [[ecclesiastical]] prison, as the Church's rules mandated. It was this last issue which was most cruelly utilized by her accusers: many eyewitnesses confirm that she was being subjected to attempted rape at the hands of the five English soldiers who served as her guards, for which reason she clung to the safety provided by the "laces and points" on her male clothing which allowed the pants and tunic to be securely fastened together. For this, she was accused of the sin of cross-dressing, although the [[Summa Theologica]] and other medieval theological works specifically grant an exemption in such cases of necessity.
In 2005, four Tuskegee Airmen (Lt. Col. Lee Archer, Lt. Col. Robert Ashby, MSgt. James Sheppard, and TechSgt. George Watson) flew to Balad, Iraq, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, reactivated as first the 332d Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the [[332d Air Expeditionary Wing]]. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the [[Ninth Air Force]] and US Central Command Air Forces, in an e-mail to the Associated Press.
A set of 12 articles of accusation, which the [[Notary public|notaries]] later confirmed had been drawn up without their knowledge and without any correction of the many errors contained within, was sent to the pro-English [[University of Paris]], which dutifully recommended conviction. Since only a "relapsed heretic" could be given the death penalty, Cauchon next carried out what is generally accepted to have been a deliberate attempt to provide an excuse for labeling her "relapsed". [[Image:Jeanne d'arc Marseille.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jeanne D'Arc statue in Marseille, France]]
==Legacy and honors==
She was first brought to [[Saint-Ouen]] cemetery and threatened with summary execution unless she signed a confession and agreed to wear a dress. This was followed by what eyewitnesses described as a concerted attempt by the guards, joined by a "great English lord", to [[rape]] her, as a means of inducing her to readopt the protective male clothing. In the end, according to the bailiff, [[Jean Massieu]], they gave her nothing else to wear except the offending male clothing, which she finally put back on after arguing with the guards "until noon". The judges were then brought in to view the "relapse". Witnesses saw Cauchon triumphantly announce to the English commanders waiting outside: "Farewell, be of good cheer, it is done!"
[[Image:Tuskegee Airmen + US Congressional Gold Medals, 2007March29.jpg|thumb|President George W. Bush presented the Congressional Gold Medal to about 300 Tuskegee Airmen on 29 March 2007 at the US Capitol.]]
On [[29 March]] [[2007]], about 350 Tuskegee Airmen and their widows were collectively awarded the [[Congressional Gold Medal]]<ref name=THOMAS>Library of Congress. [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c110:2:./temp/~c110J3sEbQ:: Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on [[29 March]] [[2007]], for a ceremony to award a Congressional... (Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate)], [[7 March]] [[2007]]. </ref> at a ceremony in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|US Capitol rotunda]].<ref>Price, Deb. ''Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen''. The Detroit News, [[29 March]] [[2007]]. [http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070329/NATION/703290308] Access date: [[29 March]] [[2007]].</ref><ref> ''Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law''. Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel. [http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny15_rangel/CBRStatementTuskegeeBillSigned04112006.html] Access date: [[26 October]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>
Evans, Ben. ''Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal''. Associated Press, [[30 March]] [[2007]].
[http://thetandd.com/articles/2007/03/30/news/doc460c7d58cd40f058827045.txt]
Access date: [[30 April]] [[2007]].</ref> The medal will go on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]]; individual honorees will receive bronze replicas.<ref>AP Story [[29 March]] [[2007]]</ref>
The airfield where the airmen trained is now the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]].<ref>Official NPS website: [http://www.nps.gov/tuai/ Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]</ref>
Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution on [[May 30]], [[1431]]. Tied to a tall pillar, she asked two of the clergy, [[Martin Ladvenu]] and [[Isambart de la Pierre]], to get a [[crucifix]] from a nearby church to hold up in front of her. She repeatedly called out "...in a loud voice the holy name of Jesus, and implored and invoked without ceasing the aid of the saints of Paradise". When her body went limp and her head dropped forward, the witnesses knew her ordeal was over. One English soldier, who had just picked up a piece of wood to throw on the fire, was terrified by the vision of a white dove (symbol of the Holy Spirit) which he said flew out of her body at the moment of death and headed toward French-held territory to the south. The executioner, [[Geoffroy Therage]], confessed to having "...a great fear of being damned, [as] he had burned a saint." Her ashes were cast into the [[Seine]] River.
In 2006, California Congressman [[Adam Schiff]], and Missouri Congressman [[William Lacy Clay, Jr.]], have led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>[http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htmSchiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen]</ref>
===Retrial===
After Charles VII regained Rouen in November of [[1449]], the process of investigating the case began with an inquest by the clergyman [[Guillaume Bouille]]. This was followed by Inquisitor-General Jean Brehal's investigation in [[1452]]. The formal appeal was initiated in November of [[1455]]. [[Pope Callixtus III]] authorized this appeal (known today as the "Rehabilitation Trial") at the request of the Inquisitor and three surviving members of Jeanne d'Arc's family. Unlike the original trial, the appellate process included clergy from throughout Europe, and faithfully observed lawful court procedure. After taking the testimony of 115 witnesses and the opinions of theologians, the Inquisitor drew up his final summary of the case, the "Recollectio F Johannis Brehalli", in June of [[1456]], describing Jeanne as a [[martyr]] and her judges as heretics for having deliberately convicted an innocent woman in the pursuit of a secular vendetta. The declaration of her innocence was read out on [[7 July]] 1456. The religious play in her honor at Orleans was declared by the [[15th century]] Church to be a [[pilgrimage]] site meriting an [[indulgence]], and she was subsequently used as a symbol of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] during the [[16th century]]. Her official [[beatification]] came in [[1909]] in [[Notre Dame de Paris]], followed by [[canonization]] as a [[saint]] on [[May 16]], [[1920]]. Her feast day is the 2nd Sunday in May.
== Film, media and other facts==
==Clothing==
* In 1945, the First Motion Picture Unit of the Army Air Corps produced ''[[Wings for This Man]]'', a "propaganda" short about the unit narrated by [[Ronald Reagan]].
[[Image:Joan of Arc-Notre Dame.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statue of armored Joan of Arc inside [[Notre Dame de Paris]]]]
* In 1996, [[HBO]] produced and aired ''[[The Tuskegee Airmen]]'', starring [[Laurence Fishburne]].
* The Tuskegee Airmen are represented in the 1997 [[G.I. Joe]] action figure series.<ref>[http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html 1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection]</ref>
* Television host [[Fred Rogers]]' foster brother was an instructor for the Tuskegee Airmen and taught Rogers how to fly.<ref>Garfield, Eugene. ''Mister Rogers on the Roots of Nurturing and the Untapped Role of Men in Professional Childcare''. Current Comments, [[25 September]] [[1989]]. [http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/v12p270y1989.pdf#search=%22%22mr.%20rogers%22%20tuskegee%22]
Access date: [[24 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
* In the book ''Wild Blue'', by [[Stephen Ambrose]], the Tuskegee Airmen were mentioned, and honoured.
* The 2004 documentary film ''Silver Wings and Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly'', was the first film to feature the "Freeman Field Mutiny," the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club. [http://www.fight2fly.com/]
* May 17, 2005, [[George Lucas]] is planning a film about the Tuskegee Airmen called ''Red Tails''. Lucas says, "They were the only escort fighters during the war that never lost a bomber so they were, like, the best."<ref>[http://www.filmfocus.co.uk/newsdetail.asp?NewsID=335 Exclusive: Lucas looks to the future]</ref>
[[Image:Col Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr.jpg|thumb|right|Col. [[Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.]], commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] in Sicily.]]
During her campaigns and imprisonment, Joan of Arc wore clothing more commonly worn by men. Her motive is given in her own words, either quoted directly or via eyewitnesses who knew her.
==References==
A summary of this evidence would be as follows:
{{reflist}}
*During her campaigns she said - as quoted by chronicles such as "la Chronique de la Pucelle" - that she wore such clothing primarily to better safeguard her chastity while camped in the field with her troops, to discourage them from lusting after her, and because her saints had commanded her to adopt such clothing as part of her service in the army.
*She was quoted by a number of the clergy who took part in her trial, who later admitted that she had said repeatedly that she clung to such clothing out of necessity: since the type of male clothing in question had "laces and points" by which the pants and tunic could be securely tied together, such clothing was the only protection she had against attempted rape at the hands of her English guards. Additionally, they said that she was finally maneuvered into a "relapse" by two methods
*# after being forced to wear a dress under threat of immediate burning, her guards increased their attempts to abuse her in order to induce her to re-adopt the protective clothing, and
*# in the end they finally left her nothing else to wear except the offending male outfit, which she put back on after a prolonged argument with the guards that went on "until noon" (according to the bailiff at the trial, Jean Massieu). This was seized upon as an excuse to convict her by Pierre Cauchon, who had been placed as her judge by the English.
==Sources==
Since the medieval Church granted an exemption for such necessity-based instances of "cross-dressing", as defined in the "Summa Theologica", "Scivias", etc, her actions were defended during her campaigns by a number of prominent clergy such as the [[Archbishop]] of Embrun, the famous [[theology|theologian]] [[Jean Gerson]], etc, as well as by the clergy who were called upon to give their ruling at the postwar appeal of her case (the "Rehabilitation" or "Nullification" Trial) after the English were driven out of Rouen.
* Bucholtz, Chris and Laurier, Jim. ''332nd Fighter Group - Tuskegee Airmen''. London: Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-84603-044-7.
* Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project." ''Flypast, No, 248, March 2002''.
* Francis, Charles F. ''The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men who Changed a Nation''. Boston: Branden Publishing Company, 1988. ISBN 0-8283-1908-1.
* Hill, Ezra M. Sr. ''The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen''. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope. 2006.
* Leuthner, Stuart and Jensen, Olivier. ''High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation''. Washington, DC: [[Smithsonian Institution Press]], 1989. ISBN 0-87474-650-7.
* McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. ''Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II''. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996. ISBN 0-80278-292-2.
* Ross, Robert A. ''Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II''. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980. ISBN 0-917612-00-0.
* Sandler, Stanley. ''Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. ISBN 1-56098-154-7.
* Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." ''Flypast, No, 248, March 2002''.
==VisionsExternal links==
{{Commons|Tuskegee Airmen}}
Many contemporary attempts to explain Joan's visions have been based on the commonly-held belief that her visions were described merely as auditory sensations which only she could hear. Analyses based on this idea have led to the belief that she was experiencing [[hallucinations]] brought on by [[mental illness]], ranging from [[schizophrenia]] to [[temporal lobe epilepsy]] and even [[Bovine Tuberculosis]]. However, the historical documents describe her visions quite differently than the common conception of the subject, containing quotes from Joan stating that these visions instead were often visual and tactile, and could take solid, physical form that she and other people could see and touch. These quotes and other documents state that people such as the Count of Clermont, Guy de Cailly, etc, could simultaneously experience her visions.
* [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0802782922 "Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/asithappens/international/tuskegee_010814.html Tuskegee reunion: A whopping tale of coincidence]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/ The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)]
* [http://www.shoppbs.org/sm-pbs-the-tuskegee-airmen--pi-1402874.html The Tuskegee Airmen] [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] [[Documentary film]]hello
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/articles/tuskegee_airmen.html Reference Room: African American World, Articles, Tuskegee Airmen PBS [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]]
==False "Joans of Arc"==
* [http://www.aeromuseum.org/Exhibits/travel.html 99th Pursuit Squadron at Chanute Field]
After the execution of the Maid of Orleans, there were number of [[impostor]]s who claimed to be Joan, having escaped from the fire. Most of these were swiftly exposed but two of the most famous are known as '''Jeanne de Armoises''' and '''Jehanne de Sermaises''', although contemporary accounts are sketchy at best.
* [http://www.blackaviation.com/blackhistory.html Articles about the Tuskegee Airmen] from the [[Chicago Defender]] newspaper, 1944, at Black Aviation Enterprises
* [http://tuskegeeairmen.org/ Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. - Official Web Site]
* [http://www.redtail.org/ The Red Tail Project]
* [http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/ African Americans in the U.S. Army]
* [http://dailynews.att.net/cgi-bin/news?e=pri&dt=070329&cat=news&st=newsd8o61bb00&src=ap AP Story March 28, 2007]
* [http://www.aaregistry.com/ National Museum of the United States Air Force: Eugene Jacques Bullard]
* [http://www.bahai.us/node/195 Honored Tuskegee Airmen include two Baha’is] Airmen Dempsey W. Morgan, far left in the header picture, and Myron Wilson are members of the [[Bahá'í faith]].
==See also==
According to a later story (found 1686 in [[Metz]]), Jeanne appeared for the first time in [[20 May]] [[1436]] in Metz where she met with two brothers of Joan – Pierre and Jehan – and convinced them that she was their deceased sister. Whether the brothers really did believe or feigned belief for their own reasons is impossible to say. For the next three years the town of Orleans stopped the memorial services for the Maid of Orleans and, according to town records, paid some of her expenses.
* [[United States Colored Troops]]
* [[Buffalo Soldiers]]
* [[U.S. 2d Cavalry Division]]
* [[Freeman Field Mutiny]]
* [[U.S. 366th Infantry Regiment]]
* [[U.S. 761st Tank Battalion|761<sup>st</sup> Tank Battalion (aka Black panthers)]]
* [[Golden Thirteen]]
* [[The Port Chicago 50]]
* [[Bessie Coleman]]
* [[List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
* [[Alfonza W. Davis]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
Afterwards, the false Joan supposedly moved to [[Arlon]] in [[Luxembourg]] where she reputedly met Madame de Luxembourg. Later she married a knight: Robert des Hermoises or Armoises.
[[Category:Black history in the United States military]]
[[Category:History of Alabama]]
The false Joan dealt with the king Charles VII via letters for the next four years. Around [[1440]] she finally received an audience with him. According to a later account of the king's chamberlain de Boisy, the king asked her about the secret he and Joan had shared; reputedly it was that the king had suspected he might have been [[illegitimate child|illegitimate]]. She did not know the secret so she kneeled, confessed and begged for mercy. Later she was forced to admit her imposture in public. Still, there are contemporary claims that Joan's brothers had with them a woman they called their sister around 1449-1452.
[[Category:Groups of World War II]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
In [[1457]], after the Maid had been exonerated, there was a woman named '''Jehanne de Sermaises''' in [[Anjou]]. De Sermaises was accused of having called herself the Maid of Orleans; having worn male dress; and deceiving many people. She was sentenced to prison but released in February 1457 on the condition that she would "bear herself honestly in dress" (i.e. use female clothing). Afterwards she disappeared from public records.
[[Category:United States Army officers]]
[[Category:Tuskegee University]]
==Trivia==
[[Category:Military units and formations of the United States in World War II]]
===Historical representation===
[[Category:People from Tuskegee, Alabama]]
The figure of Jeanne d'Arc has fascinated writers throughout the ages. The best known plays, offering widely differing interpretations of her life, were written by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] (''[[Henry VI, part 1]]''), [[George Bernard Shaw]] (''[[Saint Joan]]''), [[Friedrich Schiller]] (''Die Jungfrau von Orleans''), [[Jean Anouilh]] (''L'Alouette'') and [[Bertolt Brecht]] (''Saint Joan of the Stockyards''). Schiller's version became the basis of the opera ''[[Giovanna d'Arco]]'' by [[Giuseppe Verdi]]. [[Samuel Clemens]] wrote a fictional [[biography]] entitled (''Joan of Arc''), under the pen-name of Sieur Louis de Conte (borrowing the name of one of Joan's pageboys), forgoing his usual [[pseudonym|pen name]] of [[Mark Twain]].
During [[World War II]], both the [[Vichy France|Vichy Regime]] and the [[French resistance]] used the image of Jeanne: the Vichy regime took her as a symbol of national pride and emphasized her peasant origin and anti-English spirit, and tried to rally support against the Allies by producing posters showing Rouen being bombed by British warplanes with the ominous caption: "They Always Return to the Scene of Their Crimes". The resistance countered by reminding people that Jeanne was born in the Lorraine region (now lost to the Germans) and that she had fought for the liberation of the country.
To this day the French political party [[National Front (France)|'Front National']] still uses the image of Jeanne as a symbol of [[French nationalism]] and views respect of the Maid as a patriotic duty.
Her name has been applied to three separate vessels of the [[French Navy]], including a [[FS Jeanne d'Arc|Helicopter Carrier]] currently in active service.
===Joan of Arc in [[pop culture|popular culture]]===
[[Image:Char joan2.gif|frame|right|Joan of Arc on Clone High]]
* [[Leonard Cohen]]'s 1970 album ''[[Songs of Love and Hate]]'' contains a song named ''[[Joan of Arc]]'', and a verse in the song ''[[Last Year's Man]]'' refers to her: 'I met a lady, she was playing with her soldiers in the dark, oh one by one she had to tell them that her name was Joan of Arc,'
* A "clone" of Joan of Arc appeared in the traditionally animated television show ''[[Clone High]]''.
* The reincarnation of Joan of Arc was the main character in the Japanese [[manga]] and animated show ''[[Kamikaze Kaitou Jeanne]]'', who used her God-given powers and arsenal of push-pins to trap demons hiding in works of art.
* The theme song to the [[CBS]] series ''[[Maude]]'' refers to Joan: 'with the Lord to guide her/she was a sister who really cooked.'
* [[CBS]]'s ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]'', in which a girl about Joan's age speaks to God and uses His influence to do good deeds in her community.
* The [[Fox Television]] series ''[[Wonderfalls]]'' was inspired by Joan of Arc.
* The [[Warner Bros.|WB]] animated series ''Histeria!'' (1998-2000), featured Joan as a regular character, voiced by [[Laraine Newman]].
* [[Joan of Arc (band)|Joan of Arc]] is the name of an [[indie rock]] band from [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].
* [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]] released two singles ''Joan of Arc'' and ''Maid of Orleans''.
* [[The Smiths]]' song "Bigmouth Strikes Again" includes the line 'And now I know how Joan of Arc felt, as the flames rose to her Roman [[nose]] and her [[Walkman]] started to melt'.
* The [[silverfish (band)|Silverfish]] song "This Bug" includes the lyrics, "Sometimes I feel like Joan of Arc -- the way I bite, and spit and bark".
* [[Garbage (band)|Garbage's]] song ''Vow'' includes the line 'You burned me out but I'm back at your door, like Joan of Arc coming back for more'.
* [[Catatonia (band)|Catatonia's]] song ''Post Script'' includes the line 'Joan of Arc, come kiss my art, leave a charcoal mark. There's so much more to solitary refinement'.
* In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', Lisa played Joan of Arc and Milhouse played the Dauphin, after Homer read about her in a children's book.
* In [[Victory Gundam|Mobile Suit Victory Gundam]], the [[flagship]] for the League Militaire's resistance is a [[Ra Cailum class battleship]] named ''Jeanne D'Arc''.
* There is a [[Japanese rock]] band named [[Janne Da Arc]], although they are not directly named after Joan of Arc.
* [[Tal Bachman]] mentions Joan of Arc in his 1999 hit 'She's So High', "She's so high, like Cleopatra, Joan of Arc".
* In an episode of [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]], the character of [[Willow Rosenberg|Willow]] dresses as Joan of Arc for a costume party, having almost been burned at the stake herself in a previous episode.
* Also, in the [[Buffyverse]], Joan of Arc was the Vampire Slayer of her time period. She had some encounters with the newly sired [[vampire]] and former ally, [[Gilles de Rais]], after the war.
===Joan of Arc in film===
The story of Joan of Arc has been played out to varying degrees of success in many motion pictures, including:
* [[Geraldine Farrar]] was film's earliest Joan in ''Joan the Woman'' [[1917]]
* [[Sybil Thorndike]] portrayed Joan in the 1927 film, ''Saint Joan''
* The [[1928]] film, ''La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc'' (''[[The Passion of Joan of Arc]]''), was made by [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]], based upon transcripts of her trial. Starring [[Maria Falconetti]] in her second and final film role, her performance is considered by some film historians to be the definitive portrayal of Joan. Some also regard the film itself to be one of the great masterpieces of the silent era.
* German actress [[Angela Salloker]] portrayed Joan in the 1935 film ''Das Mädchen Johanna''
* [[Ingrid Bergman]], despite being much older than Joan was in real life, portrayed her in two films, 1948's ''[[Joan of Arc (1948 film)|Joan of Arc]]'', and again in the 1954 Italian film, ''[[Giovanna d'Arco al rogo]]'' (a.k.a. ''Joan at the Stake'').
* [[Jean Seberg]] portrayed Joan in the 1957 film, ''[[Saint Joan]]''.
* [[Hedy Lamarr]] portrayed Joan in the 1957 film, ''The Story of Mankind''
* [[Janet Suzman]] portrayed Joan in the 1968 TV movie ''St. Joan''
* [[Jane Wiedlin]] portrayed Joan in the 1989 comedy ''[[Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure]]''.
* [[Milla Jovovich]] portrayed Joan in the 1999 [[Luc Besson]] film ''[[The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc]]''.
* [[Leelee Sobieski]] portrayed Joan in a [[television]] [[mini-series]] also made in 1999.
* [[Christine Lakin]] portrayed Joan of Arc in the 2005 TV movie/musical ''[[Reefer Madness]]''.
==Notes==
:{{fnb|1}} Born on or after the Feast of Epiphany, [[6 January]] or [[16 January]]
:{{fnb|2}} Coronation in [[Rheims]]
:{{fnb|3}} An Inquisitorial tribunal led by Inquisitor-General Brehal retried her case after the English were driven out. She was pronounced innocent, and described as a martyr by the Inquisitor-General. She was beatified in 1909, and canonized in 1920.
==See Also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Joan of Arc}}
*[[St. Joan of Arc Chapel]]
*[[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
*[[Saints]]
*[[History of France]]
*[[Middle Ages in film]]
== External links ==
<!-- note: need to add descriptions for sites -->
===Organizations & Collections===
*[http://www.smu.edu/ijas/ International Joan of Arc Society], director: Bonnie Wheeler.
*[http://www.stjoan-center.com/ St. Joan of Arc Center] in Albuquerque, initiated by Virginia Frohlick.
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/musee.jeannedarc/indexanglais.htm Joan of Arc Museum in Rouen], official site.
*[http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/ Joan of Arc Archive], a comprehensive online archive, by Allen Williamson.
===Online Information, Essays, etc===
*[http://www.scuttlebuttsmallchow.com/joanarc.html Joan of Arc in the First World War]
*[http://www.joanofarcpo.com/ABOUThome Information about Joan of Arc]
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/mcmaken/mcmaken102.html Review of ''La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc'']
*[http://www.vialin.com/jeannelapucelle/joanofarc2.html Joan of Arc, La Pucelle, Maid of Orléans]
*[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/stj05003.htm Essay on Joan of Arc]
*[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/28joan.html Joan of Arc]
*[http://www.marquette.edu/chapel/ Joan of Arc Chapel Marquette University]
*[http://www.saintjoanofarc.org/ Saint Joan of Arc]
*[http://www.reportret.info/gallery/joanofarc1.html Reportret: Joan of Arc]
*[http://www.washtimes.com/culture/20040519-111643-7038r.htm Joan of Arc leaves indelible mark]
*[http://maidjoan.tripod.com/hpics.html Images of Joan of Arc]
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/giallo/ Collection of Postcards of Joan of Arc]
*[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj05.htm Joan of Arc]
*[http://maidjoan.tripod.com/ JoanNet]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://us.imdb.com/Tsearch?joan+of+arc IMDb film search]
*[http://www.vialin.com/jeannelapucelle/ Joan of Arc - Jehanne la Pucelle, Maid of Orléans]
*[http://members.aol.com/joanofarc7897/index.html Joan of Arc, In Pictures and Text]
*[http://www.geocities.com/joanofarc3834/ Jeanne d'Arc]
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/joanofarc1823/ Jeanne d'Arc]
*[http://fantasm.still-inspired.com/joan/ Jehanne D'Arc]
*Short biographies of Joan of Arc (text only):
**[http://jeanne-la-pucelle.ifrance.com/ Jeanne d'Arc, Sainte (Joan of Arc)]
**[http://www.geocities.com/joanofarc2222/ Biography of Joan of Arc]
**[http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/JOAN.htm Saint Joan of Arc, Virgin—1412-1431]
===Books and Other Publications===
*''Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc'', [http://mark-twain.classic-literature.co.uk/personal-recollections-of-joan-of-arc-vol-1/ volume 1] and [http://mark-twain.classic-literature.co.uk/personal-recollections-of-joan-of-arc-vol-2/ volume 2] by [[Mark Twain]] - A fictional biography of Joan of Arc
**{{gutenberg|no=2874|name=Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc — Volume 1}}
**{{gutenberg|no=2875|name=Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc — Volume 2}}
[[Category:1412 births]]
[[Category:1431 deaths]]
[[Category:Hundred Years' War]]
[[Category:Catholic martyrs]]
[[Category:Wrongfully convicted people]]
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:Shepherds]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in France]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]
[[Category:History of France]]
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