Richard Nixon and Halo: Difference between pages

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'''Halo''' may refer to:

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{{Infobox_President|name=Richard Milhous <!--"Milhous" is the correct spelling--> Nixon

*[[Halo (optical phenomenon)]], a ring of light that surrounds an object

| nationality=American

*[[Halo (religious iconography)]], a ring of light that surrounds an object in religious iconography

| image=Nixon 30-0316a.jpg

*[[Halo (comics)]], a DC Comics superhero

| order=37th [[President of the United States]]

*[[Halo (horse)]], an American Thoroughbred racehorse

| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1969]]

*[[Windmill (breakdance move)#Halos|Halos]], a variation of the Windmill breakdance move

| term_end=[[August 9]], [[1974]]

*[[Halo, West Virginia]]

| predecessor=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]

| successor=[[Gerald Ford]]

| birth_date=[[January 9]], [[1913]]

| birth_place={{flagicon|California}} [[Yorba Linda, California]]

| death_date={{death date and age|1994|4|22|1913|1|9}}

| death_place={{flagicon|New York}} [[New York City]]

| religion= [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]

| signature=Richard M. Nixon signature.png

| spouse=[[Pat Nixon|Thelma Catherine Ryan]]

| party=[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]

| vicepresident=[[Spiro Agnew]] (1969–1973)<br/>''vacant'' (Oct.–Dec. 1973)<br/>[[Gerald Ford]] (1973–1974)

| order2=36th [[Vice President of the United States]]

| term_start2=[[January 20]], [[1953]]

| term_end2=[[January 20]], [[1961]]

| predecessor2=[[Alben W. Barkley]]

| successor2=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]

| president2=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]

|}}

==Music==

'''Richard Milhous <!--"Milhous" is the correct spelling--> Nixon''' ([[January 9]], [[1913]]–[[April 22]], [[1994]]) was the 37th [[President of the United States]], serving from 1969 to 1974. He was the 36th [[Vice President of the United States]] in the administration of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1953–1961). Nixon is the only person elected twice to the offices of vice president and president. He is also the only President of the United States to have resigned from the office.

*[[Halo (band)]], a heavy metal band that started in Australia <!--check-->

*[[Halo numbers]], an official method of cataloging Nine Inch Nails' releases

* "Halo", a song by American heavy metal band [[Machine Head (band)|Machine Head]] on their 2007 release, ''[[The Blackening]]''

* "Halo", a song by [[Depeche Mode]] on their album ''[[Violator (album)|Violator]]''

* "Halo", a song by Texas on their album ''[[White on Blonde]]''

* "Halo", a song by [[Gary Numan]] on his album ''[[Jagged]]''

* "Halo", a song by Foo Fighters on their album ''[[One By One]]''

* "Halo", a song by Oleander on their album ''[[Unwind]]'' and on the ''American Pie 2'' soundtrack.

* "Halo", a song by Porcupine Tree on their album ''[[Deadwing]]''

* "Halo", a song by American heavy metal band SOiL on their 2001 album ''[[Scars (album)|Scars]]''

* "Halo", a song by Haley James Scott (a.k.a. Bethany Joy Lenz) on the soundtrack album ''[[One Tree Hill Volume 2]]'' featuring songs from the television series ''One Tree Hill''

==Video games and related fictional universe==

Under President Nixon, the [[United States]] followed a foreign policy marked by [[détente]] with the [[Soviet Union]] and by the opening of diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]. His [[centrist]] domestic policies combined conservative rhetoric and [[Liberalism|liberal]] action in civil rights, environmental and economic initiatives. As a result of the [[Watergate scandal]], Nixon resigned the presidency in the face of likely [[impeachment]] by the [[United States House of Representatives]]. His successor, [[Gerald Ford]], issued a controversial pardon that cleared him of any wrong-doing.

<!-- Please don't add the other games here. Since this is a disambiguation page, and not a general list, only the things actually commonly called just "Halo" should appear here. -->

*[[Halo (series)|''Halo'' (series)]], by Bungie Studios

*''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'', the first game in the series

*[[Halo (film)|''Halo'' (film)]], a film based on the series, currently halted in production

*[[Halo (megastructure)]], an eponymous ring-shaped space station

==Early yearsMilitary==

*[[HALO/HAHO]] (High Altitude, Low Opening/High Altitude High Opening), a form of parachute jump

Richard Nixon was born in [[Yorba Linda, California]], United States. His father was [[Francis A. Nixon|Francis "Frank" A. Nixon]] and his mother was Hannah M. Nixon (born [[Hannah Milhous Nixon|Hannah Milhous]]). His mother was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]], and his upbringing is said to have been marked by conservative Quaker observances: such as refraining from drinking, dancing, and swearing. His father converted from [[Methodism|Methodist]] to Quaker after his marriage. Richard Nixon's great-grandfather George Nixon III had been killed at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] during the [[American Civil War]] while serving in the 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. Through his mother, he was a second cousin of the writer [[Jessamyn West (writer)|Jessamyn West]].

*[[BAE HALO]] (High Altitude Low Observability), a military aircraft under development

*[[HALO Trust]] (Hazardous Areas Life-Support Organization), a charity for removing war debris

*[[Mil Mi-26]] a heavy transport helicopter codenamed Halo

==Other==

Nixon's parents had five children, all boys:

*''HALO: Hidden Alias List Operation'', a witness protection program in the movie ''[[Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle]]''

{{disambig}}

*[[Harold Nixon]] ([[June 1]], [[1909]]–[[March 7]], [[1933]])

*Richard ([[January 9]], [[1913]]–[[April 22]], [[1994]])

*[[Donald Nixon]] ([[November 23]], [[1914]]–[[June 27]], [[1987]])

*[[Arthur Nixon]] ([[May 26]], [[1918]]–[[August 10]], [[1925]])

*[[Edward Nixon]] ([[May 3]], [[1930]])

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[[Image:Lt_Cmdr_Richard_Nixon_1945.jpg|thumb|The young Lt Commander Richard Nixon of the U.S. Navy 1945]]

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Nixon attended [[Fullerton High School (California)|Fullerton High School]], from 1926 to 1928, in [[Fullerton, California]], and later, [[Whittier High School]], from 1928 to 1930, in [[Whittier, California]]. He graduated second in his class from Whittier, showing a penchant for [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[Latin]]. Although he was awarded a full-[[tuition]] [[scholarship]] to [[Harvard University]], he declined, due to insufficient financial means for attendance. Instead, he chose to enroll at [[Whittier College]], a local Quaker school, where he co-founded a [[fraternity]] called [[the Orthogonian Society]]. Nixon was a formidable [[debate|debater]] and was elected student-body president. While at Whittier, he taught [[Sunday school]] at East Whittier Friends Church, where he remained a member all his life. A lifelong [[American football]] fan, Nixon practiced with the team assiduously, but spent most of his time on the bench. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier, and went on to [[Duke University]] [[Duke University School of Law|School of Law]], where he received a full scholarship and graduated third in his class.

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In 1937, Nixon returned to [[California]], was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]], and began working in the law office of a family friend in a nearby small town. The work was mostly routine, and Nixon generally found it to be dull. He later wrote that family law cases caused him particular discomfort, since his reticent Quaker upbringing was severely at odds with the idea of discussing intimate marital details with strangers.

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[[nl:Halo]]

Subsequently, he met [[Pat Nixon|Thelma "Pat" Ryan]], a high school teacher; they were married on [[June 21]], [[1940]]. They had two daughters: [[Tricia Nixon|Tricia]] and [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]].

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During [[World War II]], Nixon served as a reserve officer in the [[United States Navy|Navy]]. He received his training at [[Quonset Point, Rhode Island]] and [[Ottumwa, Iowa]], before serving in the supply corps on several islands in the South Pacific, commanding cargo handling units in the [[South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command|SCAT]].<ref>Hove, Duane T. ''American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of WWII'', Burd Street Press, 2003 ISBN 1-57249-307-0; summary accessed at [http://www.americanwarriorsfivepresidents.com/] [[August 2]] [[2006]]</ref> There he was known as "Nick" and for his prowess in [[poker]], banking a large sum that helped finance his first campaign for [[United States Congress|Congress]].

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==House and Senate: 1946–1952==

Nixon was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1946, defeating Democratic incumbent [[Jerry Voorhis]] for [[California's 12th congressional district]]. Nixon's campaign alleged that his opponent's [[Congress of Industrial Organizations|CIO]] [[Political action committee|PAC]] support showed that Voorhis was collaborating with [[communist]]-controlled [[labor union]]s.

Nixon's first major breakthrough came in his two terms in Congress, where his dogged investigation on the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] broke the impasse of the [[Alger Hiss]] spy case in 1948. Nixon believed [[Whittaker Chambers]], who alleged that Hiss, a high [[United States Department of State|State Department]] official, was a Soviet spy. Nixon discovered that Chambers had saved microfilm reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin (these became known as the "Pumpkin Papers"). These documents were alleged both to be accessible only by Hiss, and to have been typed on Hiss's personal typewriter. The discovery that Hiss, who had been an adviser to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], could have been a Soviet spy, thrust Nixon into the public eye and made him the hero to FDR's many enemies. In reality, his support for internationalism put him closer to the center of the Republican party.

In 1950, Nixon was elected to the [[United States Senate]] over Congresswoman [[Helen Gahagan Douglas]]. Accusing her of [[communist]] or [[fellow traveler]] sympathies, Nixon called her "the Pink Lady" and said she was "pink right down to her underwear." Gahagan, meanwhile, gave Nixon one of the most enduring nicknames in politics: "[[Tricky Dick]]."

==Vice Presidency==

{{main|Eisenhower Administration}}

[[Image:Eisenhower 68-40-67.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon at a campaign stop for the presidential elections of 1952]]

In [[United States presidential election, 1952|1952]], Nixon was elected [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] on Dwight D. Eisenhower's ticket. He was 39 years old. In September 1952, during the campaign, the [[New York Post]] and other publications reported that Nixon had kept a "[[slush fund]]" for personal use. Democrats and leading Republicans pressured Eisenhower to remove Nixon from the ticket. Nixon convinced Eisenhower to let him defend himself. Nixon went on TV on September 23, and defended himself in a famous speech. He provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting along with a personal summary of his finances, which he cited as exonerating him from wrongdoing, and he charged that the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] Presidential candidate, [[Adlai Stevenson]], also had a slush fund. This speech would, however, become better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated that his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat," and that although he had been given a [[cocker spaniel]] named "Checkers" in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give it back because his daughters loved it. As a result, this speech became known as the "[[Checkers speech]]." At the end of the broadcast, Nixon intended to appeal to viewers to write to the Republican National Committee to voice their support or opposition. Although the broadcast was cut off before he could make this appeal, his speech resulted in a flood of support, prompting Eisenhower to keep Nixon on the ticket.

Nixon greatly expanded the office of Vice President. Although he had little formal power he had the attention of the media and the Republican Party. He demonstrated that the office could be a springboard to the [[White House]] as it had not been since the 19th century; most Vice Presidents since have followed his lead and sought the presidency. Nixon was the first Vice President to step in temporarily to run the government. He did so three times when Eisenhower was ill: on the occasions of Eisenhower's [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] on [[September 24]], [[1955]]; his [[ileitis]] in June 1956; and his [[stroke]] on [[November 25]], [[1957]]. Despite this, Nixon was forced to announce his own inclusion on the 1956 Eisenhower re-election campaign, which highlighted the lack of rapport he and Eisenhower shared. Nixon's quick thinking was on display on [[July 24]], [[1959]], at the opening of the American National Exhibition in [[Moscow]] where he and [[Soviet]] leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] had an impromptu "[[kitchen debate]]" about the merits of [[capitalism]] versus [[communism]].

==1960 election and post-vice presidency==

{{main|United States presidential election, 1960}}

In [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]], Nixon ran for President against [[John F. Kennedy]] in a race that remained close all year.<ref>[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960] — Erika Tyner Allen, [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]], accessed [[April 4]], [[2006]]</ref> Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and suggested the Eisenhower-Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to make gains in the arms race. Kennedy also made much of the stagnant American economy of 1960, telling voters it was time to "get the country moving again." Nixon's frosty relationship with Eisenhower also hurt him. When asked about major policy decisions that Nixon had helped shape, the President responded: "Give me a week and I might think of one." In the first of four televised debates, Kennedy not only looked better physically, he also came off as polished, articulate and mature. The performance dispelled many people's worries that the young senator was too inexperienced to be President. Nixon, for his part, was recovering from an illness, and, with the stubble on his face visible, looked unimpressive. (Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre only in the still-young medium of television, though; many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won). Nixon lost the 1960 election narrowly. It is often argued by American historians that Nixon in fact lost primarily due to the invention of the televised debate. There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois, and Nixon supporters challenged the results in both states as well as nine others. All of these challenges failed. The Kennedy camp challenged Nixon's victory in Hawaii. That challenge succeeded, and after all the court battles and recounts were done, Kennedy had gained a greater number of electoral votes than he had held after Election Day.

Nixon wrote ''Six Crises'' (1962), a book dealing with his political involvement as a congressman, senator and as Vice-President. The book used six different crises Nixon had experienced throughout his political career to illustrate his political memoirs. It was not supposed to be an academic work on the subject of crises, rather a method of depicting his political biography in a personal manner. The work won praise from many policy experts and critics. Ironically, as Margaret MacMillan would discuss in her book ''Nixon in China'' (2006), ''Six Crises'' found a favorable critic in [[Mao Zedong]], who referred to the book when in preparation for Nixon's visit in 1972.

In 1962, against the advice of many friends and supporters, Nixon chose to challenge the popular [[Pat Brown]] for [[Governor of California]]. Nixon had never before shown any interest in the office and biographers still disagree on his precise motive in seeking it. In all likelihood, he was looking for a reason not to run for president again in 1964. With John F. Kennedy's popularity strong, it was likely to be a losing effort. Therefore, if Nixon won in 1962, he would have the excuse that he was too busy running the state. If he lost, he could plead a desire not to campaign again so soon. In either case, Brown won handily.

Nevertheless, years of campaigning and losing had worn Nixon down. In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent, and stated that it was his "last press conference" and that "you won't have Nixon to kick around anymore." This was widely believed to be the end of his career. In just another 12 months though, John Kennedy would be [[assassination|assassinated]] in [[Dallas, Texas]]. The events that define the tumultuous [[1960s]] were beginning, and before the decade closed a "New Nixon," one who was "tanned, rested and ready," would win the presidency in another close election.

==1968 election==

{{main|United States presidential election, 1968}}

Bored in [[Los Angeles]] and seeking a fresh start after the 1962 [[governor|gubernatorial]] debacle, Nixon moved to [[New York City]], where he became a senior partner in the leading law firm ''Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander''. During the [[U.S. House election, 1966|1966 Congressional elections]], he stumped the country in support of Republican candidates, rebuilding his base in the party. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|election of 1968]], he completed a remarkable political comeback by taking the nomination. Nixon's success in the nomination might be attributed to [[Robert F. Kennedy]]'s [[assassination]] after he won the [[California]] Democratic primary in June 1968. Nixon appealed to what he called the "[[silent majority]]" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the [[hippie]] [[counterculture]], and [[anti-war]] demonstrators. Nixon promised peace with honor, and, though never claiming to be able to win the war, Nixon did say that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the [[Pacific]]". He did not explain in detail his plans to end the war in Vietnam, causing Democratic nominee [[Hubert Humphrey]] to allege that he must have had some "[[election promise#Richard Nixon's Election promises|secret plan]]." Nixon didn't invent the phrase, but because he did not disavow the term, it soon became part of the campaign. In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he actually had no such plan. He eventually defeated Humphrey by less than 1% of the popular vote, along with independent candidate [[George Wallace]], to become the 37th President of the United States.

==The Nixon presidency (1969–1974)==

===Foreign policies===

====Vietnam War====

{{main|Vietnam War}}{{main|The United States and the Vietnam War}}

[[Image:Nixon greets POW McCain.jpg|thumb|right|President Nixon greets released [[POW]] [[Lieutenant Commander#United States Navy and Coast Guard|Lt.Cdr]] [[John McCain]], future [[United States Senator|U.S. Senator]], upon his return from years in a [[North Vietnam]]ese prison camp in 1973.]]

Once in office, he proposed the [[Nixon Doctrine]], a strategy of replacing American troops with the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam|Vietnamese troops]], also called "[[Vietnamization]]". In July 1969, he visited [[South Vietnam]], and met with President [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] and with U.S. military commanders. American involvement in the war declined steadily until all American troops were gone in 1973. After the withdrawal of U.S. troops, fighting was left to the South Vietnamese army. Although the South Vietnamese were well supplied with modern arms, their fighting capability was limited by inadequate funding, low morale, and corruption. The lack of funding was primarily because of large funding cutbacks by the [[U.S. Congress]]. Nixon was widely praised in the United States for having delivered 'peace with honor', and ended American involvement in the war in [[Vietnam]]. However, a part of his strategy was the resumption of the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam should they violate the Peace agreement, which Nixon was confident they would. Watergate, however, made it impossible to carry this out. Nixon, along with his [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]] [[Henry Kissinger]] also sought a 'decent interval' solution to the problem of South Vietnam, so that the country would survive for long enough for him not to be personally blamed for its ultimate collapse.

Nixon ordered secret bombing campaigns in [[Cambodia]] in March 1969 (code-named ''[[Operation Menu]]'') to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the [[National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam]], and later escalated the conflict with secretly bombing [[Laos]] before Congress cut the funding for the conflict in Vietnam. Another goal of the bombings was to [[Air interdiction|interdict]] the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]] that passed through Laos and Cambodia. In ordering the bombings, Nixon realized he would be extending an unpopular war as well as breaching Cambodia's stated neutrality.

During deliberations over Nixon's impeachment, his [[unorthodox]] use of [[executive (government)|executive powers]] in ordering the bombings was considered as an article of impeachment, but the charge was dropped as not a violation of constitutional powers.

====China and the Soviet Union====

[[Image:Nixon_Mao_1972-02-29.png|thumb|left|President Nixon greets [[Communist Party of China]] [[Mao Zedong|Chairman Mao]] (left) in a visit to China in 1972.]]

[[International relations|Relations]] between the Western powers and [[Eastern Bloc]] changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960, the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) publicly split from its main ally, the [[Soviet Union]], in the [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. As tension along the border between the two communist nations [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|reached its peak]] in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the [[Cold War]]. In what later would be known as the "China Card", the Nixon administration deliberately improved relations with China in order to gain a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union, but also gave Moscow a chance to improve relations so as not to be squeezed by a U.S.-China détente. In 1971, a move was made to improve relations when China invited an American table tennis team to China; hence the term "[[Ping Pong Diplomacy]]". Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971, after which a stunned world was told that Nixon intended to visit Communist China in 1972. As a result, many countries that had previously opposed the PRC's entry into the [[United Nations]] changed their stance. Despite frantic lobbying by the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, [[George H. W. Bush]], in October 1971 the UN [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] voted to give to the PRC the seat that had been held since 1945 by America's ally, [[the Republic of China]] (ROC), and expel the ROC from the UN. In February 1972 Nixon grabbed the world's attention by himself going [[Nixon visit to China 1972|to China]] to have direct talks with [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]. During this visit he privately stated that he believed “There is one China, and Taiwan is a part of China.”<ref>Victor S. Kaufman; ''Confronting Communism: U.S. and British Policies toward China'' (2001), 228–31; Anthony Kubek, "The 'Opening' of China: President Nixon's 1972 Journey." ''American Asian Review'' 1992 10(4): 1–22. {{ISSN|0737-6650}}; Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, "Taiwan Expendable? Nixon and Kissinger Go to China," ''Journal of American History'' (2005) 92(1): 109–135. {{ISSN|0021-8723}} </ref> Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for [[détente]].

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. The first [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] were finally concluded the same year with the [[SALT I]] treaty. To win American friendship both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms. They did not, however, cut back their military aid to North Vietnam — in fact Chinese military aid to North Vietnam increased during this period.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, '' Strategies of Containment'' (1982), pp. 294 and 299; Ang Cheng Guan, ''Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists' Perspective'' (2003), pp. 61, 69 and 77–79; Qiang Zhai ''China and the Vietnam Wars'', p. 136</ref> Nixon later explained his strategy:

:I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.<ref> Nixon, ''No More Vietnams'' (1987), pp. 105–106.</ref>

====Indo-Pakistan War of 1971====

[[Image:Yahya and Nixon.jpg|thumb|250px|The Nixon administration staunchly backed [[President of Pakistan|Pakistan President]] Yahya Khan during [[Bangladesh Liberation War|the 1971 crisis]] in [[East Pakistan]].]]

Nixon strongly supported General [[Yahya Khan]] of [[Pakistan]] during the [[Indo-Pakistan War of 1971]] despite widespread [[1971 Bangladesh atrocities|human rights violations]] against the [[Bengali people|Bengali]]s, particularly [[Hindu]]s, by the [[Pakistan Army]]. Though Nixon claimed that his objective was to prevent a war, and safeguard Pakistan's interests (including the issue of refugees), in reality the U.S. President was fearful of an Indian invasion of [[West Pakistan]] that would lead to Indian domination of [[Indian subcontinent|the sub-continent]] and strengthen the position of the [[Soviet Union]], which had recently signed a Treaty of Friendship with India. He also sought to demonstrate his reliability as a partner to the [[People's Republic of China]], with whom he had been negotiating a [[rapprochement]], and [[1972 Nixon visit to China|where he planned to visit]] just a few months later. President Nixon and his national security adviser Henry Kissinger downplayed reports of Pakistani [[genocide]] in [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]) and risked a confrontation with Moscow to look tough.<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20050629/index.htm NSA archives on South Asia crisis]</ref> Many, including Kissinger,<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB13.pdf Harold H. Saunders, “Memorandum of Conversation: Kenneth Keating, Henry A. Kissinger and Harold H. Saunders,” [[June 3]] [[1971]], The National Security Archive]</ref> have mentioned that the foreign policy "tilt" towards Pakistan had more to do with Nixon's personal like for the dictator and the support to Pakistan was influenced by sentimental considerations and a long standing anti-Indian bias.<ref>Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, — Raymond L Garthodd, p 298</ref> The Nixon administration was also responsible for illegally providing military supplies to the [[Military of Pakistan|Pakistani military]] despite Congressional objections,<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971] — Sajit Gandhi, [[National Security Archive]] Electronic Briefing Book No. 79, [[December 16]], [[2002]] </ref> and against American public opinion, which was concerned with the atrocities against East Pakistanis.<ref>Thornton, The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping American’s Foreign Policy, pp.113–115</ref> His decision to help [[Pakistan]] in a war at any cost prompted him to send the nuclear-equipped [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS Enterprise]] to the [[Indian Ocean]] to try to threaten the [[Military of India|Indian military]]. Though it did little to turn the tide of war, it has been viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent [[India and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear program]].<ref> {{cite journal

| last=Sharma

| first = Dhirendra

| title = India's lopsided science

| journal = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist

| volume = 47

| issue = 4

| pages = 32–36

| year = 1991

| month = May

| URL = [http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=may91sharma]}} http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=may91sharma</ref> During the crisis Nixon was vocal in abusing the [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Indira Gandhi]] as an "old [[witch]]" in private conversations with Henry Kissinger, who is also recorded as making derogatory comments against Indians.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4633263.stm Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira] — [[BBC News]].</ref> Ultimately Nixon's foreign policy initiatives in this matter largely failed as his attempt at a show of strength to impress China was at the cost of dismembering their mutual ally, Pakistan, who felt that once again United States had fallen short as an ally in failing to prevent [[Bangladesh]]i independence.<ref> [[Shirin R. Tahir-Kheli]], The United States and Pakistan: the Evolution of an Influence Relationship, pp.49</ref>

====Other wars and crises====

Nixon encouraged [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s military overthrow of the elected [[Salvador Allende|socialist government of Chile]] in 1973.

[[Israel]], a powerful American ally in the [[Middle East]], was supported by the Nixon administration during the [[Yom Kippur War]]. When an [[Arab]] coalition led by [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] — allies to the Soviets — attacked in October 1973 Israel suffered initial losses and pressed European powers for help, but the Europeans responded with inaction. Not so with Nixon, who, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy, initiated an air lift of American arms. By the time the U.S. and the Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. A long term effect was the movement of Egypt away from the Soviets toward the U.S. But the victory for its ally and the support provided to them by the U.S. came at the cost of the [[1973 oil crisis]]. Some historians have argued that throughout the war, Nixon's handling of the 1973 oil crisis demonstrated that neither he nor Kissinger could truly grasp the importance of economic factors.<ref>[http://www.claremont.org/writings/980901owens.html?FORMAT=print Policy and Principle: Reconsidering the Realism of Nixon's Foreign Policy]</ref>

On [[October 10]], [[1973]], Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned amidst charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering. Nixon chose Representative Gerald Ford to replace Agnew.

===Domestic policies===

Although often criticized (or applauded) as a conservative by his contemporaries, Nixon's domestic policies often appear centrist, or even liberal, to later observers. As President, Nixon imposed [[price controls|wage and price controls]], indexed [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] for [[inflation]], and created [[Supplemental Security Income|Supplemental Security Income (SSI)]]. The number of pages added to the [[Federal Register]] each year doubled under Nixon. He eradicated the last remnants of the [[gold standard]]. Nixon created the [[Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)]] and [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)]], promoted the [[Legacy of parks]] program and implemented the [[Philadelphia Plan]], the first significant federal [[affirmative action]] program, and dramatically improved salaries for U.S. federal employees worldwide. As a party leader, Nixon helped build the [[History of United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] (GOP), but he ran his 1972 campaign separately from the party, which perhaps helped the GOP escape some of the damage from Watergate. The Nixon White House was the first to organize a daily press event and daily message for the media, a practice that all subsequent staffs have performed.

Nixon is credited with creating the modern day [[Imperial Presidency]], in which the presidency retains a high level of control over government policy and decisions. In the early [[1970s]], Nixon [[impoundment|impounded]] billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the [[Office of Management and Budget]]. These encroachments on the power of Congress led to the passage of the [[Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974]].

On [[January 2]], [[1974]], Nixon signed a bill that lowered the [[National Maximum Speed Law|maximum U.S. speed limit]] to 55 miles per hour (90 [[kilometers per hour|km/h]]) in order to conserve [[gasoline]] during the [[1973 energy crisis]]. This law remained in effect until 1995, though states were allowed to raise the limit to 65 miles per hour in rural areas around 1987.

Committed to wide-ranging bureaucratic reforms, in a last-minute bid to save his presidency, Nixon signed a significant reform of the federal budgeting process and granted wide authority to Congress in shaping the final budget.

====School integration====

The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South, after the region had stalled in compliance with the 1954 [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]'s [[Brown_v._Board_of_Education|Brown ruling]]. Strategically, Nixon sought a middle way between the [[Racial segregation|segregationist]] [[George C. Wallace]] and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats. His plan has since been known as the [[Southern strategy]]. Nixon concentrated on the principle that the law must be [[Race-blind|color-blind]]. "I am convinced that while legal segregation is totally wrong, forced [[Racial integration|integration]] of housing or education is just as wrong."<ref>Kotlowski (2001) p. 8</ref> Though Nixon thought of appealing to southern whites by slowing school desegregation, he decided to enforce the law after the Supreme Court, in ''Alexander v. Holmes County'' (1969), prohibited further delays. Nixon's Cabinet committee on school desegregation, under the leadership of Labor Secretary [[George P. Schultz]], quietly set up local biracial committees to assure smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding. By fall of 1970, two million southern black children enrolled in newly created unitary fully integrated school districts. "In this sense, Nixon was the greatest school desegregator in American history," historian Dean Kotlowski concluded.<ref>Kotlowski (2001) p. 37</ref> In the North, meanwhile, the Brown decision did not apply directly, but in city after city federal judges started ordering busing programs to integrate schools, a policy Nixon opposed.

[[Image:Mobutu Nixon.gif|thumb|250px|[[Mobutu Sese Seko]] and Richard Nixon at [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1973.]]

====Nixon and the [[NASA|U.S. space program]]====

On [[July 20]], [[1969]], Nixon addressed [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] live via radio during their historic [[Apollo 11| Apollo 11 moonwalk]]. Nixon also made humanity's longest distance phone call to Neil Armstrong on the moon. (All U.S. [[Project Apollo]] moon landings, and the attempted moon landing of [[Apollo 13]], took place during Nixon's first term.) On [[January 5]], [[1972]], Nixon approved the development of the [[Space Shuttle program]], a decision that profoundly influenced U.S. efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter.

====Landslide re-election====

{{main|United States presidential election, 1972}}

In [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]], Nixon was re-elected in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history, defeating Senator [[George McGovern]] and garnering over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in [[Massachusetts]] and the [[District of Columbia]].

===Major initiatives===

* [[Sino-American relations|Normalizing of diplomatic relations]] with the People's Republic of China and partially abandoning the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] as part of [[Realpolitik]], a foreign policy eschewing moral considerations. In the short term Nixon was successful in playing the "China card" against the Soviet Union and its client state North Vietnam.

* [[Détente]], or the peaceful pause in the Cold War; détente ended in 1979, replaced by another phase of the Cold War.

* Establishment of the [[Environmental Protection Agency]].

* Establishment of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]].

* Establishment of the [[National Railroad Passenger Corporation]].

* Establishment of the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].

* Establishment of the [[Supplemental Security Income]] program.

* Establishment of the [[Minority Business Development Agency|Office of Minority Business Enterprise]]

* Post Office Department abolished as a cabinet department and reorganized as a government owned corporation, the [[United States Postal Service|U.S Postal Service]].

* Proposal in 1971 to create four new government departments superseding the current structure: departments organized for the goal of efficient and effective public service as opposed the thematic bases of Commerce, Labor, Transportation, Agriculture, et al. Departments like State, Treasury, Defense and Justice would remain under this proposal.<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3360 The American Presidency Project archives]</ref>

* [[SALT I]], or [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]], led to the signing of the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]].

* "Vietnamization": the training and arming of South Vietnamese forces to allow the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam.

* Suspension of the [[Gold standard|convertibility of the U.S. dollar into gold]], a central point of the [[Bretton Woods system]], allowing its value to [[Floating currency|float]] in world markets.

* [[Space Shuttle]] program started.

* Endorsed an enlightened self-determination policy for Native Americans that changed the direction of policy as continued from the [[New Deal]] through the [[Great Society]].

On [[April 3]], [[1974]], Nixon announced he would pay $432,787.13 in back taxes plus interest after a Congressional committee reported that he had inadvertently underpaid his 1969 and 1972 taxes.

Given the near certainty of both his impeachment (due to the Watergate scandal) by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned on [[August 9]] [[1974]].

===Administration and Cabinet===

The Nixon Administration comprised an impressive array of talent both in the cabinet and in the White House staff. Among the many people who came to Washington to serve in the administration were one future President ([[George H. W. Bush]]); a future [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] ([[Dick Cheney]]); six future secretaries of state (Henry Kissinger, [[Alexander Haig]], [[George Shultz]], [[James Baker]], [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] and [[Colin Powell]]); five future secretaries of defense ([[James Schlesinger]], [[Donald Rumsfeld]], [[Casper Weinberger]], [[Frank Carlucci]] and Cheney again); a future chairman of the joint chiefs of staff (Powell again), two future secretaries of the treasury ([[William Simon]] and Baker again); a future secretary of energy (Schlesinger again); and three future chiefs of staff (Rumsfeld, Cheney and Baker again). Indeed a member of the Nixon Administration has held a cabinet post or been a senior advisor within the subsequent six presidential administrations. That so many key figures of the [[Gerald Ford|Ford]], [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]], George H. W. Bush (41) and [[George W. Bush|Bush (43)]] Administrations first entered government service in the Nixon White House is arguably the most profound and long-lasting legacy of Richard Nixon.

{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"

!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|

|-

|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''

|-

!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|

|-

|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Richard Nixon'''||align="left"|1969–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Spiro Agnew]]'''||align="left"|1969–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Gerald Ford]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[William P. Rogers]]'''||align="left"|1969–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Henry Kissinger]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[David M. Kennedy]]'''||align="left"|1969–1971

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John Connally]]'''||align="left"|1971–1972

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[George Shultz]]'''||align="left"|1972–1974

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William Simon]]'''||align="left"|1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Melvin R. Laird]]'''||align="left"|1969–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Elliot Richardson]]'''||align="left"|1973–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James Schlesinger]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[John N. Mitchell]]'''||align="left"|1969–1972

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Richard Kleindienst]]'''||align="left"|1972–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Elliot Richardson]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William B. Saxbe]]'''||align="left"|1974

|-

|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Winton M. Blount]]'''||align="left"|1969–1971 ¹

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Walter Joseph Hickel]]'''||align="left"|1969–1971

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Rogers Morton]]'''||align="left"|1971–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Clifford M. Hardin]]'''||align="left"|1969–1971

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Earl Butz]]'''||align="left"|1971–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Maurice Stans]]'''||align="left"|1969–1972

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Peter Peterson]]'''||align="left"|1972–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Frederick B. Dent]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[George Shultz]]'''||align="left"|1969–1970

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James D. Hodgson]]'''||align="left"|1970–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Peter J. Brennan]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert Finch]]'''||align="left"|1969–1970

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Elliot Richardson]]'''||align="left"|1970–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Caspar Weinberger]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||align="left"|'''[[George Romney]]'''||align="left"|1969–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James Thomas Lynn]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||align="left"|'''[[John A. Volpe]]'''||align="left"|1969–1973

|-

|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Claude Brinegar]]'''||align="left"|1973–1974

|-

|align="left" colspan="3"|^1. <span class="references-small">Postmaster General removed from the Cabinet on July 1, 1971.<br>Winton M. Blount was continued as Postmaster General until December 31, 1971.</span>

|}

<br clear="both">

===Administration notables===

====Chiefs of Staff====

* [[H. R. Haldeman]] — Chief of Staff (1969–1973)

* [[Alexander Haig]] — Chief of Staff (1973–1974)

====Undersecretaries====

* [[Frank Carlucci]] — undersecretary of Health, Education and Welfare

* [[Dick Cheney]] — special assistant to the Director of the OEO, White House staff assistant, assistant director of the Cost of Living Council, and Deputy Assistant to the President.

====Assistants====

* [[Lamar Alexander]] — Counselor to the President

* [[Alexander Butterfield]] — Deputy Assistant to the President

* [[Dwight Chapin]] — Special Assistant to the President (1968–71) and then Deputy Assistant (1971–73)

* [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] — Assistant to National Security Advisor

* [[John Ehrlichman]] — Assistant to the President for Domestic Affairs

* [[Jeb Stuart Magruder]] — Special Assistant to the President

* [[Brent Scowcroft]] — Military Assistant and Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs

* John Whitaker — Principal Advisor on the Environment

* [[Harry S. Dent]] — Special Counsel to the President and Chief Political Advisor

====White House Counsel====

* [[John Dean]] — White House Counsel (1969–1973)

* [[Charles Colson]] — White House Special Counsel

* [[Leonard Garment]] — White House Counsel (1973–74)

====Communications Office====

* [[Ken W. Clawson]] — Director of White House Communications

* [[Herbert G. Klein]] — Communications Director for the Executive Branch

====Press Secretary====

* [[Ron Ziegler]] — White House Press Secretary (1969 — 1974), Assistant to the President (1974)

====Speech writers====

* Aram Bakshian, Jr — speech writer

* [[Pat Buchanan|Patrick Buchanan]] — speech writer

* [[David Gergen]] — speech writer

* Lee Heubner — special assistant to the President and associate director, White House writing and research staff

* Jim Keogh — speech writer

* [[Ken Khachigian]] — speech writer

* [[John McLaughlin (host)|John McLaughlin]] — speech writer

* [[Raymond Price (speechwriter)|Ray Price]] — speech writer [first and second inaugural addresses]

* [[William Safire]] — speech writer

* [[Ben Stein]] — speech writer

====Others====

* [[Robert Bork]] — Solicitor General

* [[Richard Darman]] — Director of the Office of Management and Budget

* [[Carla Hills]] — Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

* [[E. Howard Hunt]] — "[[White House Plumbers|Plumber]]"

* [[G. Gordon Liddy]] — "Plumber"

* [[Ann Dore McLaughlin]] — Under-Secretary to the Department of the Interior

* [[Henry Paulson, Jr.]] — assistant to John Ehrlichman

* [[Kevin Phillips (political commentator)|Kevin Phillips]] — Campaign strategist

* [[Colin Powell]] — [[White House Fellow]]

* [[William Ruckelshaus]] — Deputy Attorney General

===Supreme Court appointments===

Nixon appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

*'''[[Warren E. Burger]]''' ([[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]]) — 1969

*'''[[Harry Andrew Blackmun]]''' — 1970

*'''[[Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr.]]''' — 1972

*'''[[William Rehnquist]]''' — 1972

Nixon also made the following unsuccessful Supreme Court nominations:

* [[G. Harrold Carswell]] — rejected by the [[United States Senate]]

* [[Clement Haynesworth]] — rejected by the United States Senate

* [[Hershel Friday]] — passed over in favor of Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. after the [[American Bar Association]] found Friday "unqualified"

* [[Mildred Lillie]] — passed over in favor of William Rehnquist after the American Bar Association found Lillie "unqualified"

===Watergate===

{{main|Watergate scandal}}

[[Image:NixonResignationLetter.gif|thumb|right|Nixon's letter of resignation.]]

[[Image:Nixon-depart.png|thumb|right|Nixon departing the White House on [[August 9]], [[1974]].]]

The term Watergate has come to encompass a large array of illegal and secret activities undertaken by Nixon or his aides during his administration. Some of these began as early as 1969, when Nixon and Kissinger tapped the phones of numerous journalists and administration officials in an effort to stop leaks. Other major or well-known episodes of wrongdoing included the 1971 burglary of Dr. [[Lewis Fielding]] in search of the psychiatric records of [[Daniel Ellsberg]], who leaked the [[Pentagon Papers]] to the press; Nixon's order to have the FBI investigate CBS News reporter [[Daniel Schorr]] after he reported critically on the administration; and talk by [[G. Gordon Liddy]] about having the newspaper columnist [[Jack Anderson]] assassinated.

But these episodes did not come to light until several of Nixon's men were caught breaking into [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] headquarters at the [[Watergate complex|Watergate Hotel]] in [[Washington, DC]] in June 1972. In October 1972, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported that the [[FBI]] had determined Nixon's aides had spied on and sabotaged numerous Democratic presidential candidates as a part of the operations that led to the infamous Watergate scandal. During the campaign five burglars were arrested on [[June 17]], [[1972]] in the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate office complex. They were subsequently linked to the [[White House]]. This became one of a series of major scandals involving the [[Committee to Re-Elect the President]] (known as CRP, but referred to by his opponents as CREEP), including the White House [[Nixon's Enemies List|enemies list]] and assorted "[[dirty tricks]]." The ensuing Watergate scandal exposed the corruption, illegality and deceit displayed by some of those within the Nixon Administration.

Nixon himself downplayed the scandal as mere politics, but when his aides resigned in disgrace, Nixon's role in ordering an illegal cover-up came to light in the press, courts, and congressional investigations. Nixon evaded taxes, accepted illicit [[campaign contribution]]s, ordered secret bombings, and harassed opponents with [[executive agencies]], [[telephone tapping|wiretap]]s, and break-ins. Unlike the tape recordings by earlier Presidents, his secret recordings of [[White House]] conversations were revealed and [[subpoena]]ed and showed details of his complicity in the cover-up. Nixon was named by the grand jury investigating Watergate as "an unindicted co-conspirator" in the Watergate scandal.

He lost support from some in his own party as well as much popular support after what became known as the [[Saturday Night Massacre]] of [[October 20]], [[1973]], in which he ordered [[Archibald Cox]], the [[special prosecutor]] in the Watergate case, to be fired, as well as firing several of his own subordinates who objected to this move. The [[U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary|House Judiciary Committee]] controlled by Democrats opened formal and public impeachment hearings against Nixon on [[May 9]], [[1974]]. Despite his efforts, one of the secret recordings, known as the [http://www.watergate.info/tapes/72-06-23_smoking-gun.shtml "smoking gun" tape], was released on [[August 5]], [[1974]], and revealed that Nixon authorized [[hush money]] to Watergate burglar E. Howard Hunt, and also revealed that Nixon ordered the CIA to tell the FBI to stop investigating certain topics because of "the Bay of Pigs thing." Such an order was later withdrawn or never carried out. In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his probable conviction by the [[United States Senate|Senate]], he resigned on [[August 9]], [[1974]], after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. {{Audio|Nixon_Resign.ogg|listen}} He never admitted criminal wrongdoing, although he later conceded errors of judgment.

On [[September 8]], [[1974]], a blanket pardon from President Ford, who served as Nixon's second Vice President, effectively ended any possibility of indictment. The pardon was highly controversial and Nixon's critics claimed that the blanket pardon was [[quid pro quo]] for his resignation. No evidence of this "[[corrupt bargain]]" has ever been proven, and many modern historians dismiss any claims of overt collusion between the two men concerning the pardon. The pardon of Richard Nixon hurt Ford politically, and it was one of the many reasons cited for Ford's defeat in the election of 1976. The Democratic win in the 1974 mid-term elections provided a governing majority that added an extra two decades to their control of the House of Representatives.

==Later years and death==

[[Image:Nixon94.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Nixon in Russia, March 1994, shortly before his death.]]

In 1976, Nixon was disbarred by the State of New York,<ref>"[http://www.history.com/exhibits/impeach/whthous1.html Richard M. Nixon: Before and After Watergate]", The History Channel</ref> and soon resigned his other law licenses.

In his later years Nixon worked hard to rehabilitate his public image, and he enjoyed considerably more success than was anticipated at the time of his resignation. He gained great respect as an elder statesman in the area of foreign affairs, being consulted by both Democratic and Republican successors to the presidency. He made many foreign visits in his post-presidential years, including his final one, to [[Russia]] in March 1994 just one month before his death.

Further tape releases, however, removed any doubt of Nixon's involvement both in the Watergate cover-up and also the illegal campaign finances and intrusive government surveillance that were at the heart of the scandal.

Nixon wrote many books after his departure from politics, including his memoirs.

[[Image:Pres38-42.jpg|thumb|300px|left|U.S. Presidents [[Gerald Ford|Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]], [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]], [[George H. W. Bush|Bush]], and [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] at Nixon's funeral in 1994. Nixon was the first President to die since [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], who died during the Nixon Administration in 1973.]]

On Monday, [[April 18]], [[1994]], at 5:45 PM EDT, Nixon suffered a severe [[stroke]] while preparing to eat dinner in his [[Park Ridge, New Jersey]] home; his last words were yelling out to a housekeeper for help. It was later determined that a blood clot that had formed in his upper heart as a result of his heart condition broke off and traveled to his brain. He was rushed by ambulance to [[New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center]] in [[Manhattan]]. For a day, he was alert, but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Doctors initially said his stroke was minor, but the damage to the brain caused it to swell inside the skull, called [[cerebral edema]], which resulted in his condition worsening over the next few days. Nixon's living will stipulated that he was not to be placed on a [[respirator]] to sustain his life. On Thursday, [[April 21]], Nixon slipped into a deep [[coma]], and on Friday, [[April 22]], [[1994]], died at 9:08 PM, aged 81. He was buried beside his wife [[Pat Nixon]] (also 81 when she died ten months earlier, on [[June 22]], [[1993]], of lung cancer) on the grounds of the [[Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace]] in Yorba Linda.[[Image:Graves--Richard_&_Pat.jpg|thumb|Graves of President Nixon and his wife, Pat Nixon]]

President [[Bill Clinton]], former secretary of state [[Henry Kissinger]], Senate Minority Leader [[Bob Dole]], California Governor [[Pete Wilson]] and the [[Reverend]] [[Billy Graham]] spoke at the [[April 27]] funeral, the first for an American President since that of Lyndon B. Johnson on [[January 25]], [[1973]], which, coincidentally, was presided over by Nixon during his presidency. Also in attendance were former Presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies. Nixon was survived by his two daughters and four grandchildren.

The [[Nixon Library]] contains only Nixon's pre- and post-presidential papers, because his presidential papers have been retained as government evidence. Nixon's attempts to protect his papers and gain tax advantages from them had been one of the important themes of the Watergate affair. Because of [[Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace#Nixon record controversies|disputes over the papers]], the library was privately funded and did not, like the other [[presidential library|presidential libraries]], receive support from the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]. In January 2004, Congress passed legislation allowing the Nixon Library to fall under the NARA, and March 2005 saw the start of the integration of the Nixon Library and the NARA.

==Legacy==

[[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|Presidential scholars]], both liberal and conservative, generally agree that Nixon presents a special problem when seeking to evaluate and determine his presidential ranking because his foreign policy and domestic policy successes stand in dramatic contradiction to the corruption of his top aides. Political scientist Walter Dean Burnham noted the "dichotomous or schizoid profiles. On some very important dimensions both Wilson and L.B. Johnson were outright failures in my view; while on others they rank very high indeed. Similarly with Nixon." Historian Alan Brinkley said: "There are presidents who could be considered both failures and great or near great (for example, Wilson, Johnson, Nixon)." James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic President, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"<ref>* Skidmore, Max J. "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt" ''White House Studies''. Volume: 1. Issue: 4. 2001. pp 495+.</ref>

==Media==

{{multi-listen start}}

{{multi-listen item |

filename=Nixon Resignation.ogg |

title=Complete Nixon Resignation Speech |

description=Televised speech from the Oval Office on [[8 August]], [[1974]], in entirety. (5.5 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |

format=[[Vorbis]]}}

{{multi-listen item |

filename=Nixon Resign.ogg |

title=Nixon Resignation Excerpt |

description=Excerpt of televised speech from the Oval Office on [[8 August]], [[1974]]. (80 [[Kilobyte|KB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |

format=[[Vorbis]]}}

{{multi-listen end}}

==Public perception==

[[Image:elvis-nixon.jpg|thumb|200px|Nixon meets [[Elvis Presley]] in December 1970]]

Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his personality, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists such as [[Herblock]] and comedians had fun exaggerating Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed as a sullen loner, with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow. He was also characterized as the epitome of a "square" and the personification of unpleasant adult authority.

Nixon tried to shed these perceptions by staging [[photo-op]]s with young people and even cameo appearances on popular TV shows such as ''[[Laugh-In]]'' and ''[[Hee Haw]]'' (before he was President). He also frequently brandished the two-finger [[V sign]] (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act that became one of his best-known trademarks. Due to his uptight image, many Americans were shocked to hear that the President had a much gruffer, aggressive side, revealed by the sheer amount of swearing and vicious comments seen on the transcripts of the president's White House tapes. This did not help the public perception and fed the comedians even more. Nixon's sense of being persecuted by his "enemies," his grandiose belief in his own moral and political excellence, and his commitment to use ruthless power at all costs led some experts to describe him as having a [[narcissism|narcissistic]] and [[paranoia|paranoid]] personality.<ref>[http://www.ralphmag.org/nixon.html Nixon: A Psychobiography] — Vamik D. Volkan, Norman Itzkowitz, and Andrew W. Dod, book review by Michael A. Ingall, accessed [[April 4]], [[2006]]</ref> During the Watergate scandal, Nixon's [[approval rating]] had fallen to 39%.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://thinkprogress.org/2005/08/22/bush-nixon/ | title =Bush: Less Popular Than Nixon During Watergate| accessdate = 2007-03-27| publisher =ThinkProgress }}</ref>

==Pop-culture references to Nixon==

{{toomuchtrivia}}

*[[Frost/Nixon]] is a play by [[Peter Morgan (screenwriter)|Peter Morgan]] that debuted in [[London]]'s [[West End theatre|West End]] in 2006.

*The [[Philip Roth]] novel ''[[Our Gang (novel)|Our Gang]]'' (1971) [[satire|satirizes]] the Nixon administration. In the book, the character depicting Nixon is named "Trick E. Dixon".

*The book and movie ''[[All the President's Men]]'' tell Woodward and Bernstein's story of the Watergate affair.

*Best-selling historian-author [[Stephen Ambrose]] wrote a three-volume biography (''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962'', ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972'', ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990'') considered the definitive work among many Nixon biographies. The detailed accounts were favorably regarded by both liberal and conservative reviewers.

*Rock musician and composer [[Frank Zappa]] wrote a song during the Watergate scandal entitled "Dickie's Such an Asshole", detailing several key events and including many memorable quotes from Nixon. The song can be found on [[You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3]] and on [[Broadway the Hard Way]], with the lyrics in the latter version updated to reflect then-current goings-on in the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]].

*Conservative author [[Victor Lasky]] published a book in 1977 called ''It Didn't Start With Watergate''. The book points out that past presidents may have used [[wiretaps]] and engaged in other activities that Nixon was accused of, but were never pursued by the press or the subject of impeachment hearings.

*[[Chuck Colson]] gives an insider account of the Watergate affair in ''[[Born Again]]''.

*[[H.R. Haldeman]] also provides an insider's perspective in the books ''The Ends of Power'' and ''The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House''.

*G. Gordon Liddy gives his version of the Watergate scandal in his autobiography ''[[Will (book)|Will]]''.

*[[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72]]'' discusses Nixon at length. After Nixon's death in 1994, Thompson famously described him in ''Rolling Stone'' as a man who "could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time" and said "his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He] was an evil man — evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the [[Devil]] can understand it."<ref>Thompson, Hunter S., [[June 15]], [[1994]] [http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/latestnews/index.php?id=1507 ''He Was A Crook''], Rolling Stone</ref>

* [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] writer and critic [[Gerald Vizenor]] uses Nixon as a major character in his novel ''Hotline Healers''. Vizenor claims that the 18 minutes of lost recordings contained an offer of the Vice Presidency to a Native American [[culture hero]]. Vizenor's novel plays with the contradictions of a President who quite possibly did more for Native American sovereignty than any other.<ref>Review of Hotline Healers by Siobhan Senier in the Review of Contemporary Fiction [http://dalkeyarchive.com/review/1165/hotline-healers-by-gerald-vizenor-reviewed-by-siobhan-senier]</ref>

*Nixon's downfall is reputed to be the inspiration for [[Bob Seger]]'s [[1975]] song ''[[Beautiful Loser]]'' off the album of the same title. Seger has neither confirmed nor denied this.

*''[[Nixon in China (opera)|Nixon in China]]'' is an [[opera]] dealing with Nixon's visit there.

*The movie ''[[Nixon (movie)|Nixon]]'' directed by [[Oliver Stone]] as well as ''[[Richard (film)|Richard]]'' ([[Lorees Yerby]], [[Harry Hutwitz]], 1972) and ''[[Millhouse]]'' ([[Emile de Antonio]], 1971).

*The comedy film ''[[Dick (film)|Dick]]'' tells the tale of the Watergate scandal by saying that [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]] was two teenage girls. They choose the name because their older brother saw [[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]] at the theater. They get in the [[White House]] since they are presidential dogwalkers.

*The 2004 movie ''[[The Assassination of Richard Nixon]]'' starring [[Sean Penn]] as a salesman who becomes disillusioned by the [[American dream]] and eventually decides to crash a plane into the White House in protest, killing the President. While not appearing as a character, Nixon (through television interviews and clips) is used to represent the American establishment and its use of [[capitalism]] to control the country.

*From 1976 to 1979, Nixon was portrayed on [[NBC|NBC's]] [[Saturday Night Live]] by [[Dan Aykroyd]]. Aykroyd would later give a nod to his Nixon impersonation in the film ''[[My Fellow Americans]]'', where he plays a President whose conspiracy is exposed, and he gives a speech announcing his resignation from office.

*In ''[[That 70's Show]]'' (season 1, episode 3), the group decides to pull a wacky stunt when then President Gerald Ford visits [[Point Place, Wisconsin]] by [[streaking]] during Ford's speech. Eric wears a Nixon mask to conceal his identity. When the guys get cold feet, because Eric sees Red is freezing before facing Ford in person, Eric suddenly streaks the speech to get the attention away from Red's stammering. Following that, Red asks Gerald Ford how in the world he could have pardoned Nixon.

*Richard Nixon appeared as a character — a disembodied head in a jar — in [[Matt Groening|Matt Groening's]] cartoon series ''[[Futurama]]'', including in the first episode. Subsequently, Nixon goes on to be elected [[President of Earth]]. Many other people are heads in jars on ''Futurama'', but Nixon's has had one of the bigger roles across the series.

*[[The Simpsons]] character [[Milhouse Van Houten]] was named, in part, after Richard Milhous Nixon. Nixon appeared as a character in a [[Treehouse of Horror IV|Halloween]] episode as a minion of the devil, while he was still alive.

*The [[Manic Street Preachers]] offered a rare sympathetic look at Nixon during their song ''[[The Love of Richard Nixon]]''.

*[[Neil Young]]'s song ''Campaigner'' contains the line "Even Richard Nixon has got soul".

*The late folk singer [[Phil Ochs]] changed his earlier song "Here's to the State of Mississippi", to "Here's to the State of Richard Nixon" in which the last line of every verse is "Here's to the land you torn out the heart of, Richard Nixon (Mississippi) find yourself another country to be part of". It is then met with large cheers.

* The start of [[James Taylor]]'s song '[[Line 'em up]]' refers to the final scenes on the day that Nixon leaves the White House.

*In [[Alan Moore]]'s [[graphic novel]] ''[[Watchmen]]'', President Nixon sends the superhuman [[Dr. Manhattan]] to win the Vietnam War, which he does in just three months. In the afterglow of Dr. Manhattan's triumph, the [[22nd Amendment]] is repealed, and Nixon is reelected in 1976, 1980 and 1984 (and is still serving at the time of the story, in 1985).

*In ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' (1975), Nixon's resignation speech can be heard playing over a car radio, and seen briefly on the cover of a newspaper.

*[[Orson Scott Card]] wrote the short story ''A Cross-Country Trip to Kill Richard Nixon'', about a disillusioned young man who blames all the country's ills on the former President.

*In ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'', Captain Spock chooses his friend Captain James T. Kirk to be the main negotiator with the [[Klingon]] delegation after a mining accident severely damages their atmosphere, causing the normally bellicose Klingons to call an end to long-standing hostilities against the [[United Federation of Planets]]. When Kirk, whose son was killed by Klingons, asks Spock "Why me?", Spock replies, "[[Nixon in China (phrase)|There is an old Vulcan proverb. 'Only Nixon could go to China']]", alluding to the fact that Kirk was generally feared as a cunning adversary by his regularly fearless enemy Klingons and only he (Kirk) had the credibility to negotiate a peace treaty with the Klingons.

*[[David Bowie]] asks "Do you remember your President Nixon?" in his song [[Young Americans]].

*[[Elton John]] and [[Bernie Taupin]] wrote a song entitled "[[Postcards from Richard Nixon]]", which appears on John's album "[[The Captain and The Kid]]", the sequel to "[[Captain Fantastic & The Brown Dirt Cowboy]]".

*[[Billy Joel|Billy Joel's]] seminal 1989 hit song [[We Didn't Start the Fire]] features Richard Nixon twice.

*Nixon's likeness has occasionally popped up in ''[[Saturday TV Funhouse]]'' animated shorts on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', including as one of the "''X-Presidents''".

*Richard Nixon was the first president to appear in the [[sitcom]] [[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]] on [[September 16]], [[1968]] (when he was still only a presidential candidate).

*The ''[[Histeria!]]'' episode "20th Century Presidents" featured a sketch in which Nixon feels the tapes can prove his innocence in the Watergate scandal, but the kids, during a tour through the White House, frustrate him by messing around in the Oval Office, eventually leading to [[Lucky Bob]] recording over Nixon's tapes. Furious with their interference, Nixon is led to resign (as he did in real life). The episode also featured a sketch advertising a fictional toy called "Squeeze Me Nixon", which parodied both [[Tickle Me Elmo]] and the fact that the [[teddy bear]] was named after Theodore Roosevelt.

*In [[All in the Family]] [[Archie Bunker]] would always refer to him as Richard E. Nixon instead of Richard M. Nixon.

==Miscellaneous information==

{{toomuchtrivia}}

* It has been alleged that Richard Nixon was an alcoholic<ref>Davidson, Connor, Swartz, "Mental Illness In U.S. Presidents Between 1776 and 1974", ''[[Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease]]'', January 2006, pp. 47–51</ref> who, in 1968, received a supply of the anti-convulsant [[Dilantin]] from his friend [[Jack Dreyfus]].<ref>[[Richard Davenport-Hines]], ''The Pursuit of Oblivion'', 2001, pp. 420–421</ref> Nixon supposedly took this drug without a prescription for several years. However, two Nixon aides have disputed these claims, leaving a number of questions about Nixon's purported drug use. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C07E7D61730F932A0575BC0A9669C8B63] By contrast, in 1979, close friend and advisor the Reverend Billy Graham remarked about the former President: "He took all those sleeping pills, and through history, drugs and demons have gone together."<ref>[[Anthony Summers]], ''The Arrogance of Power'', 2000, pp. 317–318 and 449</ref>

* Nixon was the president who selected Associate Justice [[Harry Blackmun]] who wrote the [[Roe v. Wade]] decision.

* The first Kennedy-Nixon debate took place on [[April 21]], [[1947]], when Democratic Congressman [[Frank Buchanan]] selected [[freshman]] congressmen Nixon and John F. Kennedy to debate the [[Taft-Hartley Act]] at a public meeting.

* The shoulder Nixon weeps on after the "Checkers Speech" is U.S. Senator [[William F. Knowland]] of California: Knowland gave the Vice Presidential oath to Nixon in 1953 and 1957. Nixon saw Knowland and California Governor [[Goodwin J. Knight]] as a threat to his political future. He convinced Knowland of the "Big Switch" in 1958. The double defeat of Knowland and Knight cleared the powerful California Republicans from the path of Nixon's political future.

* On [[June 14]], [[1959]], Vice President Nixon and his family inaugurated the [[Disneyland Monorail System]], the first daily operating monorail in the western hemisphere.

* At the time of John F. Kennedy's assassination, Nixon was attending a [[Pepsi]] convention in Dallas. ''Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander'', the law firm of which he was senior partner, was in charge of managing the Pepsi account.

* On [[December 22]] [[1968]], [[Julie Nixon]] (Richard's daughter) and [[David Eisenhower]] (Dwight's grandson) were married by [[Norman Vincent Peale]] at the [[Marble Collegiate Church]] in Manhattan.

* Nixon was an accomplished pianist and played violin as a youth. He once played a composition he wrote on a March 1963 episode of [[The Tonight Show]].

* Nixon was the second U.S. President to visit the Soviet Union (the first one was Franklin D. Roosevelt at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1945).

* Nixon is one of only two men to have run on five [[National tickets]] for a major party (the other one is Roosevelt again) for Vice President in 1952 and 1956 and for the presidency in 1960, 1968, and 1972. He was nominated as a resident of two different states: between his 1960 and 1968 presidential campaigns, he moved from California to [[New York]].

* Nixon was granted a [[heraldry|coat of arms]] by the short-lived [[American College of Heraldry and Arms]].

* Nixon was an avid [[bowling|bowler]] and allegedly once bowled a [[300-point game|perfect game]].

* Nixon was a knowledgeable sports fan, with a particular interest in football and baseball. During his presidency, he even had the odd habit of calling the losing team after the Super Bowl to offer his condolences and support.

* Nixon took a particular interest in the [[NFL]]'s 1971 season. During the playoffs, he contacted [[George Allen (football)|George Allen]] to suggest he tell his [[Washington Redskins]] team that Nixon designed a play for them. He did not actually design the play. Once the Redskins were eliminated, he began to root for the [[Miami Dolphins]]. He called Dolphins coach [[Don Shula]] on [[January 3]], [[1972]], to suggest the team use a quick slant pass in the [[Super Bowl]].

* Nixon was the first President to visit all 50 states.

* Nixon played golf frequently.

* Nixon's last public appearance was in April of 1994 at a [[Conestoga High School]] performance of ''[[Into the Woods]]''. His granddaughter Jennie Eisenhower, also the great-granddaughter of Dwight D. Eisenhower, played the role of [[Little Red Riding Hood]].<ref>[http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=10647757&BRD=1676&PAG=461&dept_id=43790&rfi=6 Choosing theater over politics] — Ruth Rovner, ''Main Line Times'', [[December 11]], [[2003]]</ref>

* The last picture taken of Nixon was on [[April 16]], [[1994]] at the wedding of family friend Marie Abplanalp just two days before his stroke and six days before his death.

* In the final four days of Nixon's life after suffering his ultimately fatal stroke he was at the same hospital (New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center) as [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis]], who was suffering from cancer and died less than a month after Nixon.

* Nixon applied for the [[Special Agent]] position in the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]].

* Gonzo journalist and counter-culture figure Hunter S. Thompson considered Nixon to be his greatest foe, and made a habit of bashing him in his writings.

* Throughout his life Richard Nixon developed a passion for rare antique clocks. Nixon collected numerous examples from the Viennese School headed by Schuppan and Klonitz, which date from the [[1660s]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

* Nixon's top five favorite presidents were Dwight D. Eisenhower, Herbert Hoover, Woodrow Wilson, Abraham Lincoln and Theodore Roosevelt. Ronald Reagan was number 6.

* Richard Nixon went target shooting as a favorite hobby.

* Nixon is credited with coining the term "media steroids" to refer to the media buildup a presidential candidate will often receive after performing well enough in a major political party's primaries and caucuses to become its presumed nominee.

* He met [[Elvis Presley]] in 1970 and [[Johnny Cash]] in 1972.

* Nixon is the only President to fly commercially while in office (source: [[Executive One]] article).

* Nixon's favorite dinner was a chicken [[casserole]] dish. His favorite breakfast included cottage cheese ketchup and/or black pepper. [http://nixon.archives.gov/learn/trivia.html]

* Nixon was the 37th President to serve and the 36th President to be born. Ronald Reagan, born in 1911, was the 35th born and the 40th to serve. Gerald Ford, also born in 1913, was the 37th President in birth order and the 38th to serve.

* Nixon was also the 36th President in the order of death. Lyndon B. Johnson was the 35th to die back in 1973. Reagan was the 37th to die in 2004, and Ford the 38th in 2006. Nixon was one of the few presidents to be the same numerically in terms of serving, birth and death. With [[Grover Cleveland]] having served two different presidencies, no currently living former President or current President can be the same numerically in all three categories.

* Nixon was a distant cousin of [[Leka, Crown Prince of Albania]]. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/07/22/db2201.xml&sSheet=/portal/2004/07/22/ixportal.html]

* Three of his predecessors died during his term in office: Dwight D. Eisenhower on [[March 28]], [[1969]], [[Harry S. Truman]] on [[December 26]], [[1972]] and Lyndon B. Johnson on [[January 22]], [[1973]]. From Johnson's death, until Nixon's resignation on [[August 9]], [[1974]], he was the only living current or former U.S. President.

* Nixon became close friends with legendary [[Ohio State]] coach [[Woody Hayes]]. Nixon gave the eulogy at Hayes' funeral in [[1987]]. Hayes was both a staunch [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], and a very conservative individual. During the eulogy at Hayes' funeral, Nixon gave the story of when he first met Hayes at a party: "I wanted to talk about football, he wanted to talk about foreign policy. You know Woody — we talked about foreign policy!"

* Nixon was a National Debate Tournament champion in policy debate.

* Nixon had a [[Yorkshire Terrier]] named Pasha.{{citation needed|date=March 2007}}

* Actors who have played Nixon include [[Dan Hedaya]] in ''[[Dick (film)|Dick]]'' ([[1999]]), [[Rip Torn]] in ''[[Blind Ambition (TV miniseries)|Blind Ambition]]'' ([[1979]]) and [[Bob Gunton]] in ''[[Elvis Meets Nixon]]'' ([[1997]]). [[Anthony Hopkins]] received an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nomination for playing the title role in ''[[Nixon (film)|Nixon]]'' ([[1995]]).

* In the [[1940s]], Nixon was involved with a failed business that tried to manufacture frozen orange juice.

==See also==

{{main|:Category:Richard Nixon}}

* [[U.S. presidential election, 1952]]

* [[U.S. presidential election, 1956]]

* [[U.S. presidential election, 1960]]

* [[U.S. presidential election, 1968]]

* [[U.S. presidential election, 1972]]

* [[History of the United States (1964–1980)|History of the United States (1964–1980)]]

* [[Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace]] in Yorba Linda, California

* [[Richard Nixon mask]]

==Sources==

===Primary sources===

* Foreign Relations of the United States: Nixon-Ford Administrations [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/]

====By Richard Nixon====

* — ''The Challenges We Face: Edited and Compiled from the Speeches and Papers of Richard M. Nixon'' (1960) ISBN 0-7581-8739-4

* — ''Six Crises'', Doubleday (1962) ISBN 0-385-00125-8

* — ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'' Simon & Schuster (Reprint, 1978) ISBN 0-671-70741-8

* — ''The Real War''. Sidgwich Jackson (1980) ISBN 0-283-98650-6. Written as a ''cri de coeur'' against what RN saw as serious threats to U.S. security from Soviet expansionism in the late [[1970s]].

* — ''Leaders''. Random House (1982) ISBN 0-446-51249-4. A character study of various leaders that RN came to know during his career.

* — ''Real Peace''. Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd (1984) ISBN 0-283-99076-7

* — ''No More Vietnams'' Arbor House Publishing (1987) ISBN 0-87795-668-5

* — ''1999: Victory Without War'' Simon & Schuster (1988) ISBN 0-671-62712-0.

* — ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal'' Simon & Schuster (1990) ISBN 0-671-72318-9. A more personal memoir than ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'', shows RN's reflections on life, politics and personal philosophy.

* — ''Seize The Moment: America's Challenge In A One-Superpower World'' Simon & Schuster (1992) ISBN 0-671-74343-0

* — ''Beyond Peace''. Random House (1994) ISBN 0-679-43323-6

====By other authors====

* Ehrlichman, John D. ''Witness to Power. The Nixon Years'' (1982)

* Haldeman, H. R. ('Bob') ''The Haldeman Diaries. Inside the Nixon White House'' (1994), abridged version; complete diaries were published on CD-ROM by SONY

* Kissinger, Henry ''White House Years'' Little Brown & Co. (1979)

* — ''Years of Upheaval'' (1982)

* Price, Raymond ''With Nixon'' (1977)

* Safire, William ''Before the Fall. An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House'' (1975)

* Stans, Maurice H.''One of the President's Men: Twenty Years with Eisenhower and Nixon'' (1995)

===Secondary sources===

====Biographies====

* Aitken, Jonathan. ''Nixon: A Life'' (1993). Favorable.

* [[Stephen Ambrose|Ambrose, Stephen E.]] ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990'' (1991). The most detailed scholarly biographies (hostile).

* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972'' (1989).

* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962'' (1987).

* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003). Important study of how Nixon was perceived by media and scholars.

* Hoff, Joan. ''Nixon Reconsidered'' (1994). Quite favorable.

* Morgan, Iwan. ''On Nixon'' (2002). Favourable British view.

* Morris, Roger. ''Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician'' (1990).

* Parmet, Herbert S. ''Richard Nixon and His America'' (1990).

* Reeves, Richard. ''President Nixon: Alone in the White House'' (2002).

* Wicker, Tom. ''One of Us: Richard Nixon and the American Dream'' (1991).

====Political studies====

* Bochin, Hal W. ''Richard Nixon: Rhetorical Strategist'' Greenwood Press 1990

* Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. ''Richard M. Nixon: Politician, President, Administrator'' (1991), essays by scholars

* Genovese, Michael A. ''The Nixon Presidency: Power and Politics in Turbulent Times'' (1990)

* Greene, John Robert ''The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1992)

* Gellman, Irwin ''The Contender: Richard Nixon: The Congress Years, 1946 to 1952'' (1999)

* Mason, Robert. ''Richard Nixon and the Quest for a New Majority'' (2004). 289 pp.

* Matusow, Allen J. ''Nixon's Economy: Booms, Busts, Dollars and Votes.'' U. Press of Kansas, 1998. 323 pp.

* Marvillas, Anthony Rama. "Nixon in Nixonland" ''Southern California Quarterly'' 2002 84(2): 169–181. {{ISSN|0038-3929}} Examines the Nixonlanders, loyal supporters of Nixon throughout his political career, and how well Nixon fit their perception of his political views. Mostly Protestants and prosperous small business owners, the Nixonlanders opposed the New Deal's domestic programs and the Democrats' foreign policy. They believed in individualism, self-reliance, and thrift and stood fast against the Soviet Union and communism. These old guard Republicans believed Nixon shared these views, but in reality Nixon was far more pragmatic, distrusting wealthy Republicans and open to change. He considered himself a moderate Republican as defined by his mentor, Dwight Eisenhower, and thus was an "extremely imprecise fit" to the Nixonlander definition.

* Reichley, A. James ''Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1981)

* Small, Melvin ''The Presidency of Richard Nixon'' (2003)

* Summers, Anthony ''The Arrogance of Power The Secret World of Richard Nixon'' (2000)

* White, Theodore ''The Making of the President 1968 : A narrative History of American politics in Action'' (1969)

* White, Theodore ''The Making of the President, 1972'' (1973)

====Foreign policy====

* Bundy, William. ''A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency.'' 1998. 647 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=22196935440749 online review]

* Daum, Andreas W.; Gardner, Lloyd C.; Mausbach, Wilfred, eds. ''America, the Vietnam War, and the World : Comparative and International Perspectives'' (Publications of the German Historical Institute) (2003)

* Gaddis, John Lewis ''Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy'' 1982.

* Goh, Evelyn. "Nixon, Kissinger, and the 'Soviet Card' in the U.S. Opening to China, 1971–1974." ''Diplomatic History'' 2005 29(3): 475-502. {{ISSN|0145-2096}} Fulltext in Ingenta and Ebsco; Kissinger's use of the "Soviet card" in relations with China between 1971 and 1974 offers diplomatic historians an interesting, if not yet conclusive, perspective on the rise and fall of détente and the problems of "triangular diplomacy." Kissinger sought to play up the Soviet threat to the Chinese as a way of promoting closer relations with the PRC. While at times he suggested a U.S.-PRC alliance, declassified sources indicate that his suggestions were more hyperbole than actual U.S. policy. He was really using the Soviet threat as a means to a closer relationship with China, but one that was still subordinated to improved U.S.–Soviet relations. Unfortunately for Kissinger and the Nixon administration, the triangular diplomacy failed because of Chinese suspicions and the Watergate crisis.

* Kimball, Jeffrey P. ''Nixon's Vietnam War'' (2002)

* Levantrosser, William F. ed. ''Cold War Patriot and Statesman, Richard M. Nixon'' (1993), essays by scholars and senior officials.

* Shawcross, William. ''Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia'' (1979), Simon and Schuster. Strong critique of Cambodia policy. Kissinger responds directly to Shawcross' claims in appendix to ''Years of Upheaval''.

* Thornton, Richard C. ''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping America's Foreign Policy'' (1989)

* Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf. "Taiwan Expendable? Nixon and Kissinger Go to China" ''Journal of American History'' 2005 92(1): 109–135. {{ISSN|0021-8723}} Fulltext in History Cooperative and Ebsco. Analyzes U.S. policy toward China and finds that Nixon and Kissinger pursued a deeply flawed and ultimately harmful path toward establishing relations with Communist China. Nixon and Kissinger operated in secrecy in order to hide the "collateral damage" of their China policy, particularly the damage it did to the former U.S. client state of Taiwan.

* Warner, Geoffrey, “Nixon, Kissinger, and the Breakup of Pakistan, 1971,” ''International Affairs'' (London), 81 (Oct. 2005), 1097–1118.

====Domestic policy====

* Burke, Vincent J. ''Nixon's Good Deed: Welfare Reform'' (1974)

* Hood, J. Larry "The Nixon Administration and the Revised Philadelphia Plan for Affirmative Action: A Study in Expanding Presidential Power and Divided Government" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 23 (Winter 1993): 145–67

* Flippen, J. Brooks. ''Nixon and the Environment'' (2000).

* Kotlowski, Dean J. ''Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy'' (2001).

* Kotlowski, Dean J. ; "Richard Nixon and the Origins of Affirmative Action" ''The Historian''. Volume: 60. Issue: 3. 1998. pp. 523 ff.

*Kotlowski, Dean J. "Deeds Versus Words: Richard Nixon and Civil Rights Policy." ''New England Journal of History'' 1999–2000 56(2–3): 122–144. Abstract: Political considerations and his own personal views gave President Nixon a mixed record in the area of civil rights, which included such advances as the implementation of affirmative action, school desegregation, and other types of economic support promoting racial equality, but opposed busing, ignored women, and made compromises to placate Southern conservatives.

* McAndrews, Lawrence J.; "The Politics of Principle: Richard Nixon and School Desegregation" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 83 #3, 1998 pp 187+

* O'Reilly, Kenneth ''Nixon's Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washington to Clinton'' (1995)

* Matusow, Allen J. ''Nixon's Economy: Booms, Busts, Dollars, and Votes'' (1998)

* Schell, Jonathan "The Time of Illusion" Vintage (1976)

* Sussman, Glen and Daynes, Byron W. "Spanning the Century: Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Bill Clinton, and the Environment." ''White House Studies'' 2004 4(3): 337–354. {{ISSN|1535-4768}}

===Watergate===

* Bernstein, Carl; Woodward, Bob ''All the President's Men'' (1974)

* Friedman, Leon and Levantrosser, William F. eds. ''Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon'' (1992), essays by scholars

* Kutler, Stanley I. ''The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon.'' (1990).

* Olson, Keith W. ''Watergate: The Presidential Scandal That Shook America.'' (2003). 220 pp.

* Schudson, Michael ''Watergate in American Memory: How We Remember, Forget, and Reconstruct the Past'' (1993)

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{wikisource author}}

{{wikiquote}}

{{Commons}}

* {{gutenberg author|id=Richard_Milhous_Nixon|name=Richard Nixon}}

* [http://wiredforbooks.org/richardnixon/ 1984 audio interview with Richard Nixon by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]

* [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0506/05/lkl.01.html 1992 transcript of Richard Nixon interview with Larry King]

* [http://www.archives.gov/nixon Nixon Presidential Materials at National Archives]

* [http://www.nixonfoundation.org Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace, Yorba Linda, California]

* [http://www.nixoncenter.org The Nixon Center, Washington, D.C.]

* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org whitehousetapes.org: The Nixon Tapes available online]

* [http://texashistory.unt.edu/search.tkl?type=subject&q=Nixon,%20Richard&q2=KWD Richard Nixon photographs] hosted by the [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History]

* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Richard_Nixon.php Political Donations Made by Richard Nixon]

* [http://www.yorbalindahistory.org/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?e=d-000-00---0tescol--00-0-0--0prompt-10---4------0-1l--1-en-50---20-home---00031-001-1-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=tescol&cl=CL1&d=HASH01b5a1dadf45a1eb86a42095 yorbalindahistory.org] Developed by the Yorba Linda Public Library (includes newspaper articles about Nixon from the ''Yorba Linda Star'')

* [http://www.nixonfoundation.org/index.php?src=gendocs&link=FunFacts&category=Home Nixon Fun Facts] via Nixon Foundation

* [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1189/is_3_274/ai_85032622| Account of the day Nixon had his fatal stroke in April 1994]

===Biographies===

* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/rn37.html White House biography]

* {{imdb name|id=0633271|name=Richard Nixon}}

* {{CongBio|N000116}}

===Watergate===

* [http://watergate.info/judiciary/APPI.PDF Judiciary Committee Hearings Appendix I: Presidential Statements on the Watergate Break-in and Its Investigation]

* [http://watergate.info/impeachment/impeachment-articles.shtml Articles of Impeachment]

* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/watergate.html The Watergate Tapes]

===Speeches===

* [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/nixon-checkers.htm Checkers speech] ([[September 23]], [[1952]])

* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/nixon1.htm First Inaugural Address] ([[January 20]], [[1969]])

* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/nixon2.htm Second Inaugural Address] ([[January 20]], [[1973]])

* [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html Resignation speech] ([[August 8]], [[1974]])

* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=NixonR Audio recordings of Nixon's speeches]

* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ Public Papers of the Presidents]

===Campaign videos===

*[http://livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us/election/index.php?nav_action=election&nav_subaction=overview&campaign_id=170 The Living Room Candidate] — 1972 Nixon vs. McGovern

*[http://livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us/election/index.php?nav_action=election&nav_subaction=overview&campaign_id=166 The Living Room Candidate] — 1956 Eisenhower vs. Stevenson

===Eulogies===

*[http://www.watergate.info/nixon/94-04-27_funeral-wilson.shtml Remarks by Governor Pete Wilson of California at Richard Nixon's funeral [[April 27]], [[1994]]]

*[http://teaching.arts.usyd.edu.au/history/hsty3080/StudentWebSites/Nixon%20Obits/source9 Eulogy by Hunter S. Thompson (Not actually delivered at funeral)]

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